Reducing electricity losses in electrical networks. Actual losses: total

In the last issue of the journal, we published an article by Yuri Zhelezko, devoted to the regulation of technological losses of electricity in low and medium voltage networks. The author outlined his methodology for determining the standard. Today we present a different view on the same topic by Valery Eduardovich Vorotnitsky.

An analysis of foreign experience shows that the growth of electricity losses in networks is an objective process for countries with a crisis economy and a reformed energy sector, a sign of existing gaps between the solvency of consumers and electricity tariffs, an indicator of insufficient investment in network infrastructure and an electricity metering system, the absence of full-scale automated information systems on the collection and transmission of data on the useful supply of electricity, the structure of electricity flows by voltage levels, energy balances in electrical networks.
In countries where the listed factors take place, electricity losses in electrical networks are usually high and tend to increase. The dynamics of losses in domestic electrical networks over the past 10-12 years shows that Russia is no exception in this sense.
The cost of losses is part of the costs of transmission and distribution of electricity through electric networks. The greater the losses, the higher these costs and, accordingly, the electricity tariffs for end consumers. It is known that part of the losses is the technological consumption of electricity necessary to overcome the resistance of the network and deliver electricity generated at power plants to consumers. This technologically necessary consumption of electricity must be paid by the consumer. He, in essence, is the standard of losses.
Losses caused by non-optimal operating modes of the electrical network, errors in the electricity metering system, shortcomings in energy sales activities are direct losses for energy supply organizations and, of course, should be reduced. That is why the Federal Energy Commission of Russia, as the main government agency executive branch, designed to restrain the growth of electricity tariffs, establishes the standards for electricity losses in electrical networks and methods for their calculation. Around these methods, there are currently quite heated discussions, both scientific and purely practical. There are, in particular, proposals on the methodology for accounting for some additional components of the loss standard.
The purpose of this article is to present one of the approaches to loss rationing, which was announced by the author in November 2002 at the International Scientific and Technical Seminar "Rationing, Analysis and Reduction of Electricity Losses in Electric Networks - 2002" and received support both at the seminar itself and and in some publications of experts on energy losses, in particular in.

Loss rate structure
The loss standard is based on technical losses of electricity in electrical networks, due to physical processes transmission and distribution of electricity, determined by calculation and including "variables" and semi-permanent losses, as well as the normative consumption of electricity for substations' own needs.
In accordance with Articles 247, 252, 253 and 254 of Chapter 25 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, the standard for electricity losses in electrical networks can be defined as an economically justified and documented technological consumption of electricity during its transportation, provided that this consumption was made to carry out activities aimed at receiving income.
According to clause 58 and table clause 1.3 of the Decree of the FEC of the Russian Federation N 37-E / 1 of 05/14/2003, the loss standard should include:

• no-load losses in transformers, batteries of static capacitors and static compensators, shunt reactors, synchronous compensators (SC) and generators operating in the SC mode;
• corona losses in lines;
• electricity consumption for own needs of substations;
• other justified and documented conditionally permanent losses;
• load variable losses in electrical networks;
• losses due to errors in electricity meters.

What losses do we have?
To date, enough a large number of methods for calculating technical losses of electricity. These methods are the result of many years of work by a large army of specialists who, over the years, have devoted themselves to refining the calculations of losses in networks. A large number of candidate and doctoral dissertations on this topic have been defended, and the issue still remains relevant and has not been fully studied. This is due to the fact that there is no complete and reliable information about the loads of electrical networks of all voltage levels. Moreover, the lower the rated voltage of the network, the less complete and reliable information about the loads is available.
The differences in the methods proposed by individual experts mainly consist in attempts to either fill in the missing information or improve its accuracy through generalization, the use of statistical data for similar past periods, etc. The beginning of the unification of methods for calculating technical losses and the establishment of loss standards coincides approximately with the beginning of the active introduction of computer technology into the practice of calculating the modes of electric networks in the mid-60s of the XX century.
The first loss standards were established in the Temporary Standards for the Operation of Urban and Rural Electric Networks, approved by order of the Ministry of Public Utilities of the RSFSR N 334 dated 11/30/1964.
Over the past thirty years, a number of industry guidelines have been issued on methods for calculating electricity losses in electrical networks of all voltage levels. Thus, in 1976, the Temporary Instruction for the Calculation and Analysis of Electricity Losses in Electric Grids of Power Systems, developed by Uraltechenergo, was put into effect, in 1987 - Instruction for the Calculation and Analysis of Process Flow electrical energy for transmission through electric networks of power systems and power associations, developed by VNIIE and Uraltechenergo, and in 2001 - Methodological recommendations for determining the loss of electrical energy in urban electrical networks with a voltage of 10 (6) - 0.4 kV, developed by Roskommunenergo and CJSC ASU Mosobleelectro.
The listed normative documents have played a positive role. In accordance with these documents, a fairly large number of computer programs have been developed. The programs are based on almost the same methods for calculating losses. The differences between the programs are mainly in their service capabilities, in the number of loss components taken into account, in the volume and number of tasks to be solved.
Most power systems and communal electrical networks, using one or another calculation program, can now relatively accurately calculate variable and semi-permanent losses of electricity in electrical networks of 6-750 kV. The calculation of losses in 0.38 kV networks is still a significant difficulty due to the large volumes of these networks and the small amount of information or its absence about the loads of these networks and their parameters (diagrams, wire brands, etc.). The results of calculations for these programs almost everywhere show that the total technical losses in 0.38-750 kV networks do not exceed 10-12% of electricity supply to the network. At the same time, the higher the voltage level of the network, the lower the relative losses of electricity in it, obviously. The level of 10-12% is considered the maximum possible for electricity losses in the electrical networks of most countries with developed economies. The optimal losses are in the range of 4-6%. These figures are confirmed by the pre-crisis level of losses in the electric networks of the energy systems of the former USSR in the mid-late 80s of the last century.
What should power systems do in this case, in which the actual losses have reached values ​​of 20-25%? As a rule, in such power systems, a significant share of the total productive supply (up to 40%) is made up of domestic and small-scale consumers. There are two main paths here. The first path is difficult, but correct - development, coordination with regional energy commissions, approval and practical implementation programs to reduce technical and commercial losses of electricity. Ensuring that these programs first slow down growth and then reduce grid losses.
The second, easier way is to search for objective reasons for the growth of losses, justification and lobbying in the REC increased to the level of the actual standard of losses. The foregoing is illustrated by a table on the norms of losses in the networks of some power systems according to the data of JSC Engineering Center UES of the branch Firm ORGRES.
These two paths fully correspond to the well-known expression: "The one who wants to work is looking for ways to do the work, the one who does not want or cannot, is looking for reasons why the work cannot be done."
Obviously, the first way is beneficial to absolutely everyone: energy supply organizations, consumers, local administrations. The REC and Gosenergonadzor are also interested in this, since, by reducing losses in the networks, energy supply organizations increase the profitability of their work, and consumers, by reducing the cost of services for the transmission and distribution of electricity, receive a corresponding reduction in electricity tariffs. At the same time, it is clear that the practical implementation of this path requires significant organizational, technical, physical and financial efforts. Our calculations show that in order to reduce losses in networks by 1 million kWh per year, about 1 million rubles should be spent. for the implementation of relevant measures. The second way is a dead end, since the more losses are included in the tariff, the higher the electricity tariff for the end consumer will be, the more incentives this consumer will have to steal electricity and the more likely the losses will increase and the next increase in the standard, etc. .
The task, as you know, is exactly the opposite for everyone - to stop the growth of losses and achieve their reduction. At the same time, as energy surveys of power systems show, there are reserves for reducing losses both in networks with a loss level of 20-25%, and in networks with losses of 6-8%. In order to do this practically, you need:

1. carry out a sufficiently deep calculation and analysis of losses, their structure and dynamics;
2. determine reasonable levels of standard losses;
3. develop, coordinate, approve, provide financial, material, human resources and implement measures to reduce losses.

Reasonable loss standard
The excess of actual losses in networks over technical losses by two times or more force, as mentioned above, both the developers of loss rationing methods and the power systems themselves to look for additional components of the loss standard.
According to the general opinion, such a component, which, in addition to technical losses, can be taken into account in the standard, is a component due to errors in electricity meters. This was reflected in the Decree of the FEC of the Russian Federation dated May 14, 03 N37-E / 1. However, it does not say what errors are involved. There are at least three of them:

1. permissible error of the measuring complex (MC), in the general case, consisting of a current transformer, a voltage transformer and a meter under normal conditions of their operation;
2. systematic error of the MC (both negative and positive), due to non-standardized operating conditions for the use of the MC;
3. systematic negative error of old induction meters that have worked out their resource, and meters with overdue verification dates.

Taking into account the above definition of the loss standard, which follows from the requirements of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, and based on the Decree of the FEC of the Russian Federation N 37-E / 1 of May 14, 2003, by the standard of power losses in electrical networks, we mean the algebraic sum of technical losses of electricity (DWt), standard consumption of electricity for own needs of substations and the modulus of the value of the permissible imbalance of electricity in the electrical network (ATI), determined in accordance with by the formula:
D W norms \u003d D W t + | NB D |,
Eight years of experience in the use of power plants and networks in operation confirmed the stimulating orientation of the main methodological provisions Model Instruction to improve the reliability of electricity metering systems. At the same time, the permissible imbalance of electricity in and in the above formula is considered in the practice of operation of power plants and networks not as a zero mathematical expectation, but as a value that should not exceed the actual imbalance. We believe that the electrical network in this case is no exception. A legitimate way to determine the systematic errors of IC is instrumental examinations in accordance with duly certified measurement methods. Attempts to average IC errors for the country as a whole, and even without taking into account very significant factors, can lead to obvious errors. In particular, the adoption of a "typical value of cosj = 0.85" may lead to overestimation or underestimation of negative systematic errors. It is known that at night in electrical networks 6-10 kV cosj often drops to 0.4-0.6 due to their low load and the prevailing nature of the reactive no-load current of distribution transformers. At low cosj, the negative systematic error of transformers associated with their current underload can be compensated by a positive angular error. Thus, the “new methodology” for calculating the allowable underestimation of electricity at least requires clarification, and in essence, it can harm the work on reducing losses in networks, since it artificially increases the loss standard.
In our opinion, the underestimation of electricity associated with non-standard operating conditions for the use of IC, with the physical wear and tear of induction meters, cannot be acceptable and be considered as a standard. In this case, all consumers will pay for this “standard” and the situation, as noted above, will only get worse, since the owners of accounting systems will not be interested in improving it. But since the existing electricity metering system in Russia does not meet modern requirements and there is an underestimation of electricity, the task of reducing it should be solved differently.
The under-accounting of electricity in monetary terms, adjusted taking into account various influencing factors, should be the basis for including the costs of improving electricity metering in the investment component of the electricity tariff. In this case, simultaneously with the assessment of the damage to the energy supply organization from the imperfection of the electricity metering system (negative systematic errors), the REC should submit a detailed substantiated program to reduce losses in networks by reducing the underestimation of electricity.
At the same time, consumers do not just pay for the inflated "technologically justified consumption of electricity", but, as it were, credit the work of energy supply organizations to bring the electricity metering system to regulatory requirements.

Measures to comply with the standard
For power systems, in the networks of which the actual losses of electricity are 20-25%, the discussion about what errors of electricity meters will be included in the standard, permissible or systematic, is scholastic in nature. Whether 0.5 or 2.5% is added to the estimated technical losses of 8-12% does not make the problem less acute. All the same, the difference between the standard and the fact of losses will be from 10 to 12%, which in monetary terms can amount to tens and hundreds of millions of rubles of direct losses per month.
To reduce these losses and bring the actual losses to the standard level, a long-term loss reduction program agreed with the REC is necessary, since it is practically impossible to reduce the actual losses by 2 times in one or two years. 90-95% of this reduction will need to be provided by reducing the commercial component of losses. The structure of commercial losses and measures to reduce them are discussed in.
A strategic way to reduce commercial losses is the introduction of AMR not only at power facilities and for energy-intensive consumers, but also for residential consumers, the improvement of energy sales activities and the electricity metering system as a whole. It is very important to take into account the "human factor" in reducing losses. The experience of advanced power systems shows that investments in staff training, equipping them with appropriate devices for detecting theft of electricity, vehicles, computing and modern means connections pay off by reducing losses, usually faster than investing in meters or installing compensating devices in networks.
very great danger to effective work to reduce losses represents the separation of the electric grid and energy sales businesses in the context of energy restructuring. The planned and in some places already ongoing spin-off of independent power distribution companies (NSCs) from AO-Energos may disrupt long-term ties between energy retailers and electric grid enterprises, if at the same time mutual responsibility for losses between future distribution grid companies (DGCs) and NSCs is not ensured. Assigning all responsibility for technical and commercial losses to DGCs without allocating appropriate material, financial and human resources to this can dramatically increase the losses of DGCs and lead to an even greater increase in losses in networks. But this is a topic for another article.

Literature

1. Bokhmat I.S., Vorotnitsky V.E., Tatarinov E.P. Reduction of commercial losses of electricity in electric power systems // Electric stations. –1998. - N 9. - P.53-59.
2. Decree of the Federal Energy Commission of the Russian Federation of March 17, 2000 N 14/10 "On approval of the standards for the technological consumption of electrical energy (power) for its transmission, adopted for the purposes of calculating and regulating tariffs for electrical energy (the amount of payment for services for its transmission)" // Economics and electricity finance. - 2000. - N 8. - P.132-143.
3. Guidelines for the calculation of regulated tariffs and prices for electrical (thermal) energy in the retail (consumer) market. Approved Decree of the FEC of the Russian Federation of July 31, 02 N 49-E / 8.
4. Decree of the FEC of the Russian Federation of May 14, 2003 N 37-E / 1 “On the introduction of amendments and additions to the Guidelines for the calculation of regulated tariffs and prices for electrical (thermal) energy in the retail (consumer) market, approved by the Decree of the FEC of the Russian Federation of July 31, 2002 N 49-E/8".
5. Zhelezko Yu. Rationing of technological losses of electricity in networks. New calculation methodology // News of electrical engineering. - 2003. - N 5 (23). - S. 23-27.
6. Vorotnitsky V.E. Measurement, regulation and reduction of electricity losses in electrical networks. Problems and solutions // Collection of information materials of the international scientific and technical seminar "Rationing, analysis and reduction of electricity losses in electrical networks - 2002". – M.: Publishing House of NC ENAS, 2002.
7. Broerskaya N.A., Steinbukh G.L. On the normalization of electricity losses in electrical networks // Elektricheskie stantsii. - 2003. - N 4.
8. And 34-70-030-87. Instructions for the calculation and analysis of the technological consumption of electrical energy for transmission through electrical networks of power systems and power associations. - M.: SPO "Soyuztekhenergo", 1987.
9. Instructions for the regulation of electricity consumption for own needs of substations 35-500 kV. - M.: SPO Soyuztekhenergo, 1981.
10. RD 34.09.101-94. Standard instruction for electricity metering during its production, transmission and distribution. - M: SPO ORGRES, 1995.
11. Vorotnitsky V., Apryatkin V. Commercial power losses in electrical networks. Structure and measures to reduce // News of Electrical Engineering. - 2002. - N 4 (16).

The concept of loss in power grids means the difference between the transferred energy from the energy source and the accounted consumed electricity of the consumer himself. There are many reasons for the loss of electricity: poor insulation of conductors, very large loads, theft of unaccounted electricity. Our article will tell you about the types and causes of power losses, what methods can be taken to prevent this.

Distance from energy source to consumers

How to determine losses in power networks, as well as compensate for material damage, will help the legislative act that regulates the accounting and payment of all types of losses. Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of December 27, 2004 N 861 (as amended on February 4, 2017) "On approval of the Rules for non-discriminatory access to electric power transmission services and the provision of these services ..." p. VI.

The loss of electricity most often occurs when electricity is transmitted over long distances, one of the reasons is the voltage consumed by the consumer himself, i.e. 220V or 380V. In order to conduct electricity of this voltage from power plants directly, you will need wires with a large cross-sectional diameter, such wires are very difficult to hang on power lines due to their weight. Laying such wires in the ground will also be costly. To avoid this, high-voltage power lines are used. For calculations, the following formula is used: P \u003d I * U, where P is the current power, I is the current, U is the voltage in the circuit.

If you increase the voltage during the transmission of electricity, then the current will decrease, and wires with a large diameter will not be needed. But at the same time, losses are formed in transformers and they need to be paid. When transmitting energy with such a voltage, large losses occur due to the wear of the conductor surfaces, because. the resistance increases. The same losses are weather(humidity), the leakage then occurs on the insulators and on the crown.

When the electricity arrives at the end point, the consumers must convert the electricity into a voltage of 6-10 kV. From there it is distributed via cables to different points consumption, after which it is again necessary to convert the voltage to 0.4kV. And this is again a loss. Electricity is supplied to residential premises with a voltage of 220V or 380V. It should be borne in mind that transformers have their own efficiency, they work under a certain load. If the power of electrical consumers is more or less than the declared one, then the losses will grow in any case.

Another factor in power loss is an incorrectly selected transformer. Each transformer has a declared power rating and if more is consumed, then it produces either less voltage or may even break down. Since the voltage in such cases decreases, electrical appliances increase electricity consumption.

Losses in domestic conditions

After receiving the required voltage of 220V or 380V, the consumer bears the loss of electricity. Losses at home occur for the following reasons:

1. Exceeding declared electricity consumption
2. Capacitive load type
3. Inductive load type
4. Interference in the operation of appliances (switches, plugs, sockets, etc.)
5. Use of old electrical equipment and lighting items.

How to reduce energy losses in houses and apartments? First, check that the size of the cables and wires is sufficient for the load to be transferred. Usually, a cable is used for lighting lines, for outlet lines - a cable with a cross section of 2.5 sq. mm, and for especially "gluttonous" electrical appliances - 4 sq. mm. If nothing can be done, then energy will be wasted on heating the wires, which means that their insulation may be damaged, and the chance of fire increases.

Second, bad contact. Knife switches, starters and switches help to avoid the loss of electricity if they are made of materials that are resistant to oxidation and metal corrosion. The slightest trace of oxide increases the resistance. For good contact, one pole must fit snugly against the other.

The third is the reactive load. Reactive load is carried by all electrical appliances, except for incandescent lamps, old electric stoves. The resulting magnetic induction leads to resistance to the passage of current through induction. At the same time, this electromagnetic induction helps the current to pass over time and adds part of the energy to the network, which forms eddy currents. Such currents give incorrect data to electricity meters, and also reduce the quality of the supplied energy. With capacitive loading, eddy currents also distort the data, which can be dealt with using special reactive energy compensators.

The fourth point is the use of incandescent lamps for lighting. Most of the energy goes to heating the filaments, the environment, and only 3.5% is spent on lighting. Modern LED lamp have been widely used, their efficiency is much higher, for LEDs it reaches 20%. Life time modern lamps at times different from incandescent lamps, which can last only a thousand hours.

All of the above methods to reduce the load on electrical wiring in residential premises help to reduce losses in the power grid. All methods are detailed to help residential customers who are unaware of possible losses. At the same time, professionals work at power plants and substations, who also study and solve problems with power losses.

Chapter 2 The problem of reducing commercial losses of electricity in electric networks

Losses of electricity in electrical networks are conventionally divided into technical and commercial.

TO technical include losses of electricity due to physical processes occurring during the transmission of electricity through electric networks and expressed in the conversion of part of the electricity into heat in the elements of the network. Technical losses cannot be measured. Their values ​​are obtained by calculation on the basis of the known laws of electrical engineering. The amount of technical losses in power supply systems is included in the tariff cost of electricity. Electricity cannot be transported without technical losses - they can only be reduced with the help of appropriate technical and regime measures.

In power systems, there are specific standards for technical losses of electrical energy in electrical networks, determined on the basis of the Decree of the Federal Energy Commission (FEC) of the Russian Federation dated March 17, 2000 No. 14/10 “On approval of the standards for the technological consumption of electrical energy (power) for its transmission (losses ) adopted for the calculation and regulation of tariffs for electric energy (the amount of payment for services for its transmission)”.

Enlarged standards for such losses are developed according to voltage levels and are divided into conditionally constant and variable.

Conditionally permanent losses of electricity are determined depending on the passport data of the electrical network equipment and the duration of work during the billing period. Semi-permanent losses in physical terms are taken into account when calculating the tariff rates for payment for services for the transmission of electrical energy for consumers connected to networks of the corresponding level (range) of voltage.

Variable electrical energy losses are determined in absolute units and as a percentage of the supply of electrical energy to the network of the corresponding voltage level and are taken into account when calculating the amount of payment for services for the transmission of electrical energy for consumers connected to networks of the corresponding level (range) of voltage.

For example, the specific standard for losses of electrical energy in the electric power industry organizations of JSC Samaraenergo is 6.0 thousand kWh per year / km of electrical networks with a voltage level of 0.4 kV, at medium voltage - 6.43 and at high voltage 4, 05 thousand kWh per year/km of electrical networks.

TO commercial include power losses due to:

electricity theft;

non-compliance of meter readings with consumers' payment for electricity and other reasons in the field of organizing electricity consumption control (for example, unreliable accounting due to malfunction of metering devices, incorrect connection of measuring VTs and CTs, unauthorized connection of current collectors or their connection in addition to meters, etc.);

errors in the charges for the supplied electricity due to inaccurate or unreliable information about the consumer, due to the calculation of metering devices not on the border of the balance sheet, etc .;

non-payment of electricity by consumers who are on "self-payment".

The presence of an unacceptably large number of non-payers has already become a common occurrence for energy sales organizations.

The growth of commercial losses leads to an increase in electricity tariffs.

Reduction of commercial losses of electricity in electrical networks is one of the significant potentials for energy saving and increase bandwidth power grids.

One of the most significant components of commercial losses is the theft of electricity, which has become rampant in recent years.

Nai more theft and the largest volumes of stolen electricity take place in the domestic sector. The reasons for this are, on the one hand, the constant growth of electricity tariffs with a simultaneous increase in the volume of its consumption and a decrease in the solvency of the population, and on the other hand, the relative availability and ease of implementation of one or another method of stealing electricity, the imperfection of the designs of metering devices, primary and secondary circuits their switching, unsatisfactory technical condition measuring CTs and VTs, the absence of a specific legal framework for holding accountable electricity thieves, prohibitively high (in many cases unaffordable for low-energy-intensive organizations) fees for connecting to power grids, etc.

For a number of objective reasons, it is not possible to contain the growth of electricity prices in the near future. Due to the peculiarities of the structure of the domestic electric power industry, consumers cannot influence the cost of electricity either in the wholesale or retail markets. However, due to the decline in volumes industrial production increased (in percentage terms) the share of electricity consumption in the domestic and small motor sectors.

A significant increase in electricity consumption in the domestic sector is caused by significant overloads in the supply district mains and transformer substations, which, in turn, contributes to the emergence (threat of occurrence) of emergency situations in electrical installations and is fraught with undesirable consequences (fires, electrical injuries, underproduction and defective products, etc.).

When electricity is stolen, part of the power is not taken into account, which leads to an excess of the maximum allowable load and, as a result, to network overloads and disconnection of consumers by automatic protective devices.

Many enterprises and organizations, especially in the field of small and medium-sized businesses, also cannot cope with the increase in tariffs and become non-payers, and some of them take the path of stealing electricity.

For example, the cost of electricity stolen from one of the bakeries in the Far East is about 1.4 million rubles. with the monthly electricity consumption of the entire region (in monetary terms) 7.5 million rubles, i.e. approximately one fifth of the total consumption of the local energy company. In another Siberian city, three small non-paying enterprises were discovered at once, which brought losses to the local energy system in the amount of more than 1.5 million rubles. In Nizhny Novgorod, one of the paid parking lots for unauthorized connection to the power grid was disconnected four times, and the total amount of losses from the theft of electricity in Nizhny Novgorod, according to the director of Energosbyt OAO Nizhnovenergo, amounts to millions of rubles (according to the information of the Regional News Agency "Kremlin" dated 07.04 .2005).

Thus, there are massive non-payments to energy supply organizations in both the municipal and industrial sectors.

At the same time, the management of energy supplying organizations believes (in its own way, rightly) that electricity tariffs, for example, in the domestic sector, are underestimated (preferential). In this regard, there are no doubts about the further growth of electricity tariffs, which will cause a corresponding increase in the volume of its theft.

This situation is not consistent with the main objectives of the Law of the Russian Federation "On the state regulation of tariffs for electricity and thermal energy in Russian Federation”, adopted by the State Duma of the Russian Federation on March 10, 1995, which states that one of the main goals of state regulation of tariffs is “protection of the economic interests of consumers from monopoly tariff increases”.

Currently, another significant factor has arisen that encourages consumers of electrical energy to arbitrarily connect to electrical networks without obtaining permission to connect power and, therefore, without drawing up an agreement technological connection to electric networks and energy supply contracts: a significant increase in the amount of payment for power connection.

In accordance with the Federal Law "On the Electric Power Industry" (Article 26), technological connection to electric networks is charged once. The amount of the said fee is set federal body executive power. At the same time, the inclusion of electric power transmission services in the fee is not allowed.

According to the Rules for the technological connection of power receiving devices (power plants), legal and individuals to electric networks, approved by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of December 27, 2004 No. 861, in order to obtain permission to connect power, consumers of electricity must conclude an agreement with power supply organizations for technological connection to electric networks and, in accordance with this agreement, make a one-time payment for connecting power to electric networks .

The amount of payment for connecting power to the power grids of power supply organizations is regulated by the order of the Federal Tariff Service (FTS) of the Russian Federation of February 15, 2005 No. 22-e / 5 “On Approval Guidelines on determining the amount of payment for technological connection to electric networks. IN Lately he rose sharply.

The highest payment for connection to power grids (due to the relatively higher cost of building power units, cable communications and the lack of free land, as well as due to the fact that in Moscow by 2006 all the reserves of generating sources were already exhausted) takes place in Moscow, where 1 kW of connected power is paid in the amount of 53,216 rubles. (in view of VAT).

For comparison: in OAO Mosenergo, the amount of payment for power connection on the basis of the Decree of the Government of Moscow dated May 12, 1992 No. 261 long time was 143 rubles. 96 kop. (including VAT) per 1 kW of connected power.

Obviously, not every consumer of electricity is able to pay such a huge amount, and one can only guess how many of them will be forced to connect to the power grid without permission from the energy supply organization to connect power and without concluding a technological connection agreement and an energy supply agreement with it.

In the context of the ongoing shortage of generating capacity and the growing problems in connection with this in the system of energy supply organizations, we can expect further growth in fees for connection to electric networks. This is all the more likely that the payment for technological connection is set by state regulatory authorities and, like all tariffs, will be reviewed annually.

The power connection fee is used by the power supply organization as a de facto last source of financing.

Energy supply organizations have another significant reason that limits the ability to connect consumers to power grids: the availability of technical feasibility of technological connection.

Technical Capability Criteria established by the Rules for the technological connection of power receiving devices (power installations) of legal entities and individuals, approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 861 of December 27, 2004

There are two criteria for the availability of technical feasibility of technological connection:

location of the power receiving device, in respect of which an application for technological connection has been submitted, within the territorial boundaries of the service of the relevant grid organization;

no restrictions on the connected power in the network node to which technological connection is to be made.

In order to verify the validity of the establishment by the electric grid company of the fact of the lack of technical feasibility, the consumer has the right to apply to Rostekhnadzor to obtain an opinion on the presence (absence) of the technical feasibility of technological connection.

The continuous growth of electricity tariffs leads to a decrease in the effectiveness of energy saving measures, an increase in the number of non-payers and mass theft of electricity. While RAO "UES of Russia" argues and substantiates the expediency of introducing the highest possible tariffs for electricity, for this reason it itself suffers considerable losses due to commercial losses in electrical networks, including due to theft of electricity.

There is also a downside to the problem: the increase in the theft of electricity, in turn, affects the increase in tariffs.

At the same time, methods of stealing electricity are constantly being improved. As they are identified, new, more sophisticated and hidden ways appear, often not amenable to detection and prevention.

The problem of reducing commercial losses became so important that it was under the control of the Government of the Russian Federation, which, in the above-mentioned Decree No. 861 dated December 27, 2004, instructed the Ministry of Industry and Energy of the Russian Federation to develop and approve a methodology for determining the normative and actual losses of electrical energy in electric networks. Loss standards must be established by the authorized federal executive body in accordance with the specified methodology.

OJSC Roskommunenergo and CJSC ASU Mosoblelectro, with the participation of the Russian Association "Communal Energy", developed Methodological recommendations for determining the loss of electrical energy in urban electrical networks with a voltage of 10 (6) - 0.4 kV, agreed by the State Energy Supervision Authority on 09.11.2000.

According to these methodological recommendations calculations of losses and optimization of the modes of electrical networks should be carried out using appropriate software systems. A special section is devoted to measures to reduce electricity losses.

In the Strategy Concept of RAO "UES of Russia" for 2003-2008. "5+5" states that the main measures to reduce commercial losses are:

timely revision work;

control checks of end users;

improvement of the system of commercial and technological accounting on the basis of automated control systems, accounting and management of power consumption (ASKUE) and automated systems of technological control of power consumption (ASTUE);

automation and introduction of information technologies.

The principles of using metering tools include the need to determine commercial losses of electricity, as well as compiling and monitoring the balance of power and electricity for individual nodes of electrical networks.

The problem of reducing commercial losses of electricity is actively dealt with by specialists in this field. It should be noted the work of Doctor of Technical Sciences. V. Vorotnitsky (JSC VNIIE). For example, in a joint study with V. Apryatkin (JSC "Electric Networks", Klin), the damage from commercial losses in electrical networks was determined. Absolute value of commercial electricity losses from 1994 to 2001 increased from 78.1 to 103.55 billion kWh, and the relative losses of electricity increased from 10.09 to 13.1%, and in some regions they reached 15-20%, and in some distribution networks - 30-50% (according to the information and reference publication "News of Electrical Engineering". 2002. No. 4).

Based on the results of these studies, the above main components of commercial losses were identified. At the same time, the share of electricity theft in commercial losses is quite high.

Large-scale theft of electricity takes place in almost every region of the country. Let's give some examples.

For 6 months of 2004, the power supply company "Dalenergo" (Primorsky Territory) revealed more than 700 facts of theft of electric energy by legal entities in the amount of 11 million 736 rubles.

According to the Independent Political Bulletin, the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation revealed the theft of electricity on Sakhalin for 443 million rubles; at the same time, the current losses of electricity are up to 30%.

The Ryazanovsky fish-breeding plant in the Khasansky district was disconnected from the power supply due to the fact that the management of the plant refused to pay 883 thousand rubles. unmetered electricity consumed (the enterprise arbitrarily connected in addition to electricity meters).

According to the newspaper "Volga", in the city of Astrakhan, the losses of power engineers in the 1st quarter of 2005 alone amounted to 16 million rubles. During the federal campaign "Honest Kilowatt" raid teams revealed 700 cases of electricity theft by residents of the region.

According to the information and reference publication Novosti Elektrotekhniki (2002. No. 4), losses from theft of electricity in networks with voltage up to 1000 V in the system of JSC Lenenergo amount to about 400 million kWh per year.

According to the information of the Press Center of OAO Chitaenergo, in the first 6 months of 2004 alone, 869 instances of electricity theft amounting to more than 2.5 million rubles were recorded in Chita;

According to the Press Service of OAO Krasnoyarskenergo, in 2004 the damage to the energy company from electricity theft amounted to about 4 million rubles.

According to the information server "BANKO-FAX", in 2004 due to theft of electricity in the power grids of OJSC "Altayenergo" the energy company suffered a loss of 125 million kWh to the amount of almost 155 million rubles.

A detailed enumeration of episodes of electricity theft is beyond the scope of this book; a huge number of such examples can be found in various open sources.

Favorable conditions for theft of electricity are created by the following factors:

lack of proper state control over the commercial sale of electricity;

constant growth of electricity tariffs;

the availability and simplicity of the technical execution of methods for stealing electricity (installation of switching devices in front of electricity meters, the possibility of deliberately underestimating the calculated losses of active power when installing commercial meters on the low voltage side of subscriber transformers, the availability of primary and secondary switching circuits of metering devices, etc.);

lack of an effective legal framework for bringing electric power thieves to disciplinary, administrative and criminal liability.

As a result, two problems have sharply worsened for power supply organizations: non-payment for consumed electricity and its theft.

If, to solve the first problem, sales and grid organizations take vigorous measures (see Appendix 1), using the relevant legal regulations, including departmental ones (for example, the “Regulation on the basics of organizing energy sales work with energy consumers”, approved by RAO "UES of Russia" 02/14/2000), then there is no such regulatory documentation for electricity thieves and, accordingly, proper measures to identify the facts of theft and bring the thieves to justice are not taken.

The eligibility of bringing the perpetrators of electricity theft to administrative or criminal liability in accordance with the procedure established by law is determined by the fact that electricity has become a commodity (product) of a specific owner, for the theft of which specific penalties are provided.

Until now, it remains unclear and not fully resolved the question of which of the bodies - the State Energy Supervision Authority (Rostekhnadzor) or energy supply organizations - should monitor the presence of electricity theft, identify theft, draw up relevant legal documents and send them to the court. This ambiguity is exacerbated by the fact that in general terms the problem of rational use and accounting of electricity is reflected in the guidance materials of both controlling structures.

So, for Rostekhnadzor, this problem is reflected in the following documents:

Regulations on the State Energy Supervision in the Russian Federation, approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of August 12, 1998 No. 938, which, in particular, states that “the main task of the State Energy Supervision Authority is to monitor ... the rational and efficient use of electricity”;

Rules for the technical operation of consumer electrical installations (PTEEP), Ch. 2.11 "Means of control, measurement and accounting";

PUE, Ch. 1.5 "Electricity metering";

Intersectoral rules on labor protection (safety rules) for the operation of electrical installations (MPBEE), Ch. 8 "Relay protection and electric automation devices, measuring instruments and electricity meters, secondary circuits";

a number of departmental documents, for example, information letter of the State Energy Supervision Authority dated August 21, 2000 No. 32–11–05/11 “On the participation of the State Energy Supervision Authority in the work of RAO “UES of Russia” to improve electricity metering for domestic and small-scale consumers”, etc.

Energy sales and power grid companies in this area are guided by the Decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation (in particular, Decrees No. 861 dated December 27, 2004 and No. 530 dated August 31, 2006), contracts for technological connection to power grids and power supply contracts, as well as a number of other documents ( for example, specifications for the installation of metering devices).

In addition, both of these controlling structures participate in general commissions for auditing, checking the serviceability and operation of accounting tools, for example, when drawing up an act on calibration electric meters, an act on the audit and labeling of electrical energy metering devices (see Appendix 2), an act on the preparation of an electricity balance, etc.

The situation is further complicated by the fact that the energy supply contract is concluded between the consumer of electrical energy (subscriber) and the energy retail company, and instructions and recommendations for its execution are given by a third party - Rostekhnadzor.

The approval of the power supply project in terms of electricity metering is entrusted to the energy supply organization, and in full - to Rostekhnadzor.

On the one hand, by the decision of the Government of the Russian Federation of January 23, 2001 No. 83-r, the implementation of the state policy in the field of energy conservation is entrusted to the State Energy Supervision (Rostekhnadzor), and on the other hand, in the function of the inspectors of Rostekhnadzor (for example, when carrying out planned activities for implementation of state control of consumers of electrical energy, when inspecting newly commissioned and reconstructed electrical installations for their admission to operation, etc.), measures to identify and prevent theft of electricity are not included.

Such ambiguity and not quite specific formulation of the problem, the absence in all of the above normative documents even the specific term “theft of electricity” and, in addition, the self-service system itself, when taking readings from metering devices and calculating consumers with energy sales organizations, creates a fertile ground for its theft and creates impunity.

begs disappointing conclusion that only market mechanisms in the electric power industry by themselves, in the absence of state control, will not allow ensuring effective solution energy saving problems.

Against the backdrop of the inaction of energy supply organizations in the fight against electricity thieves, the activities of the management and specialists of Rostekhnadzor are of great importance and create prerequisites for successfully solving the problem of electricity theft.

It is easy to see that the amount of damage from theft of electricity only in the distribution system of AO-energos is extremely high.

In the order of RAO "UES of Russia" dated 08/07/2000 "On the creation modern systems Accounting and Control of Electricity Consumption” indicates that there are approximately 21 million low-ampere single-phase meters on the balance sheet of AO-energos, mainly for household electricity consumers.

If we assume a deliberately underestimated figure of electricity theft at the level of 1%, then it turns out that 210 thousand single-phase meters are in the mode of accounting for stolen electricity. If for an ordinary two-room apartment consumption is approximately 150 kWh per month per meter, then as a result, the amount of stolen electricity will be equal to 31.5 million kWh or, in monetary terms (with a single-rate tariff for household consumers, an average of 2 rubles per 1 kWh ), - 63 million rubles. per month. On an annualized basis, this value will be at least about 760 million rubles. The reality of such huge damage is confirmed by checks on the facts of detection of theft of electricity, as well as by the data given in the above-mentioned order of RAO "UES of Russia", which states that AO-energos lose an average of 12-15% of payments for this group of consumers.

The actual damage for AO-Energos is much higher than the estimate received, since the given estimated and deliberately underestimated calculation did not include, for example, theft of electricity from industrial and domestic consumers in three-phase networks.

Financial losses of AO-energos due to the lack and (or) imperfection of electricity metering tools annually amount to more than 15 billion rubles. And this is despite the volume of investments in the formation of the necessary accounting system of about 34 billion rubles.

One more unfavorable factor should be taken into account: in case of unauthorized unauthorized connection of the load to the electrical networks, the voltage level decreases, and other indicators of the quality of electricity may deteriorate. This leads to additional damage associated with a decrease in equipment productivity, deterioration in product quality, its marriage, and in some cases - with failures of some devices that are sensitive to deviations in power quality indicators from standard values.

In addition, theft of electricity distorts the statistics of energy saving and leads to an increase in the imbalance between generated and supplied electricity. Currently, an increasing number of energy supply organizations are faced with the problem of significant imbalances that exceed acceptable values.

Calculation, analysis and comparison of allowable imbalances with actual ones contribute to a real quantitative assessment of commercial losses in electric networks and allow monitoring the reliability of electricity metering in all parts of the power supply system. All components of the balance, except for losses of electricity in power transformers, must be measured by meters for settlement and technical accounting.

In accordance with the Standard Instruction for electricity metering during its production, transmission and distribution, the value actual imbalance NBf in electrical networks should be determined by the formula

where Wp is the supply of electricity to the busbars of the substation;

Wo - electricity supply;

Ws.n.– electricity consumption for own needs;

Wc.s.- electricity consumption for the economic needs of the substation;

Wp.n. – electricity consumption for production needs;

Wtr is the loss of electricity in the power transformers of the substation.

An increase in the Wo component in formula (1) due to the theft of supplied electricity leads to an additional and unaccounted increase in the actual imbalance, and in these cases, the reported data on energy saving turn out to be underestimated corresponding to the unaccounted share of commercial losses.

Determining the actual imbalance of electricity for district power networks, power grid enterprises or for AO-energos as a whole is possible if technical losses are calculated in networks of all voltage classes, including networks with a voltage of 0.38 kV.

In accordance with the requirements of this Model Instruction, the value of the actual imbalance should not exceed the value of the allowable imbalance NBd (NBf? NBd), which is determined by the following formula

where m- the total number of metering points that record the receipt of the largest flows of electricity and the return of electricity to especially large consumers (in relation to the corresponding structural unit);

?pi– measurement complex error i– th electricity metering points;

doi is the share of electricity accounted for i-th metering point;

?p 3 - error of the measuring complex (type representative) of a three-phase consumer (with a power of less than 750 kV-A);

?pl- error of the measuring complex (type representative) of a single-phase consumer;

n3 - the number of metering points for three-phase consumers (except for those included in the number m), for which the total relative electricity transmission is d3 ;

n1 - the number of metering points for single-phase consumers (except for those included in the number m), for which the total relative electricity transmission is d1 .

In the absence of a methodology for assessing the economic damage from theft of electricity, which cannot be developed due to the lack of representative (complete and reliable) statistical data on the facts of its theft, there is no reliable basis even for an approximate assessment of the real damage from the theft of electricity. And only a qualitative analysis of even a significant number of cases of electricity theft (which is still unknown and is unlikely to be known for sure in the future) is, of course, not enough to solve this problem.

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Losses in power networks are considered the difference between the transmitted electricity from the producer to the accounted consumed electricity by the consumer. Losses occur on power lines, in power transformers, due to eddy currents when consuming devices with a reactive load, as well as due to poor insulation of conductors and theft of unaccounted electricity. In this article, we will try to talk in detail about what are the losses of electricity in electrical networks, and also consider measures to reduce them.

Distance from the power plant to the supplying organizations

Accounting and payment for all types of losses is regulated by the legislative act: “Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of December 27, 2004 N 861 (as amended on February 22, 2016) “On Approval of the Rules for Non-Discriminatory Access to Electricity Transmission Services and the Provision of These Services ...” paragraph VI. The procedure for determining losses in electrical networks and paying for these losses. If you want to deal with who should pay for part of the lost energy, we recommend that you study this act.

When electricity is transmitted over long distances from the producer to the supplier to the consumer, part of the energy is lost for many reasons, one of which is the voltage consumed by ordinary consumers (it is 220 or 380 V). If such a voltage is transported directly from the generators of power plants, then it is necessary to lay electrical networks with a wire diameter that will provide all the necessary current with the specified parameters. The wires will be very thick. It will not be possible to hang them on power lines, due to the large weight, laying in the ground will also be expensive.

You can learn more about that in our article!

To eliminate this factor, distribution networks use high voltage lines power lines. The simple calculation formula is: P=I*U. Power is equal to the product of current and voltage.

Power consumption, W	Voltage, V	Current, A
100 000	220	454,55
100 000	10 000	10

By increasing the voltage during the transmission of electricity in electrical networks, you can significantly reduce the current, which will make it possible to get by with wires with a much smaller diameter. The pitfall of this conversion is that there are losses in transformers that someone has to pay for. When transmitting electricity with such a voltage, it is also significantly lost from poor contact of conductors, which increase their resistance over time. Losses increase with increasing air humidity - the leakage current on the insulators and on the corona increases. Losses in cable lines also increase with a decrease in wire insulation parameters.

The supplier transferred energy to the supplying organization. That, in turn, should bring the parameters to the desired indicators: convert the resulting product into a voltage of 6-10 kV, dilute cable lines point by point, and then again convert to a voltage of 0.4 kV. Again, there are losses for the transformation during the operation of transformers 6-10 kV and 0.4 kV. Electricity is delivered to the household consumer in the required voltage - 380 V or 220 V. Any transformer has its own efficiency and is designed for a certain load. If the power consumption is more or less rated power, losses in electrical networks increase regardless of the desire of the supplier.

The next pitfall is the discrepancy between the power of the transformer that converts 6-10 kV to 220V. If consumers take more energy than the nameplate power of the transformer, it either fails or cannot provide the necessary parameters at the output. As a result of a decrease in the mains voltage, electrical appliances operate in violation of the passport regime and, as a result, increase consumption.

Measures to reduce technical losses of electricity in power supply systems are discussed in detail in the video:

Home conditions

The consumer received his 220/380 V on the meter. Now the electrical energy lost after the meter falls on the end consumer.

It is made up of:

1. Losses in case of exceeding the calculated consumption parameters.
2. Poor contact in switching devices (knife switches, starters, switches, lamp holders, plugs, sockets).
3. Capacitive nature of the load.
4. Inductive nature of the load.
5. Use of outdated lighting systems, refrigerators and other old equipment.

Consider measures to reduce electricity losses in houses and apartments.

P.1 - there is only one fight against this type of loss: the use of conductors corresponding to the load. In existing networks, it is necessary to monitor the compliance of wire parameters and power consumption. If it is impossible to correct these parameters and bring them back to normal, one should put up with the fact that energy is lost to heat the wires, as a result of which the parameters of their insulation change and the likelihood of a fire in the room increases. About that, we talked about in the corresponding article.

P.2 - poor contact: in knife switches - this is the use of modern designs with good non-oxidizing contacts. Any oxide increases resistance. In starters - the same way. Switches - the on-off system must use a metal that can withstand moisture well, elevated temperatures. The contact must be ensured by a good pressing of one pole to the other.

P.3, P.4 - reactive load. All electrical appliances that do not belong to incandescent lamps, old-style electric stoves have a reactive component of electricity consumption. Any inductance, when a voltage is applied to it, resists the passage of current through it due to the resulting magnetic induction. After a while, electromagnetic induction, which prevented the passage of current, helps its passage and adds to the network part of the energy that is harmful to the general networks. There are so-called eddy currents that distort the true readings of electricity meters and make negative changes in the parameters of the supplied electricity. The same happens with a capacitive load. The resulting eddy currents spoil the parameters of the electricity supplied to the consumer. Struggle - the use of special reactive energy compensators, depending on the load parameters.

P.5. Use of outdated lighting systems (incandescent bulbs). Their efficiency has a maximum value - 3-5%, and maybe less. The remaining 95% goes to heating the filament and, as a result, to heating the environment and to radiation that is not perceived by the human eye. Therefore, to improve this species lighting became inappropriate. Other types of lighting have appeared - fluorescent lamps, which have become widely used recently. The efficiency of fluorescent lamps reaches 7%, and LED up to 20%. The use of the latter will save energy right now and during operation due to a long service life - up to 50,000 hours (an incandescent lamp - 1,000 hours).

Separately, I would like to note that it is possible to reduce the loss of electrical energy in the house with the help of. In addition, as we have already said, electricity is lost when it is stolen. If you notice that, you must immediately take appropriate measures. Where to call for help, we told in the corresponding article, which we referred to!

The above methods of reducing power consumption reduce the load on the wiring in the house and, as a result, reduce losses in the power grid. As you already understood, the methods of struggle are most widely disclosed for residential consumers because not every owner of an apartment or house is aware of possible losses of electricity, and supplying organizations in their state keep workers specially trained on this topic who are able to deal with such problems.

Introduction

Literature review

1.2 Load power losses

1.3 No-load losses

1.4 Climate losses of electricity

2. Methods for calculating electricity losses

2.1 Methods for calculating electricity losses for various networks

2.2 Methods for calculating electricity losses in distribution networks 0.38-6-10 kV

3. Programs for calculating electricity losses in distribution networks

3.1 The need to calculate the technical losses of electricity

3.2 Application of software for calculating electricity losses in distribution networks 0.38 - 6 - 10 kV

4. Regulation of electricity losses

4.1 The concept of the loss standard. Methods for setting standards in practice

4.2 Loss specifications

4.3 The procedure for calculating the standards for electricity losses in distribution networks 0.38 - 6 - 10 kV

5. An example of calculating electricity losses in distribution networks 10 kV

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Electrical energy is the only type of product that does not use other resources to move it from the places of production to the places of consumption. For this, part of the transmitted electricity itself is consumed, so its losses are inevitable, the task is to determine their economically justified level. Reducing electricity losses in electrical networks to this level is one of the important areas of energy saving.

During the entire period from 1991 to 2003, the total losses in the energy systems of Russia grew both in absolute terms and as a percentage of electricity supplied to the grid.

The growth of energy losses in electrical networks is determined by the action of quite objective laws in the development of the entire energy sector as a whole. The main ones are: the trend towards the concentration of electricity generation at large power plants; continuous growth of loads of electric networks, associated with a natural increase in loads of consumers and a lag in the growth rate of network throughput from the growth rate of electricity consumption and generating capacities.

In connection with the development of market relations in the country, the importance of the problem of electricity losses has increased significantly. The development of methods for calculating, analyzing power losses and choosing economically feasible measures to reduce them has been carried out at VNIIE for more than 30 years. To calculate all components of electricity losses in the networks of all voltage classes of AO-energos and in the equipment of networks and substations and their regulatory characteristics, a software package has been developed that has a certificate of conformity approved by the CDU of the UES of Russia, the Glavgosenergonadzor of Russia and the Department of Electric Grids of RAO "UES of Russia".

Due to the complexity of calculating losses and the presence of significant errors, special attention has recently been paid to the development of methods for normalizing power losses.

The methodology for determining loss standards has not yet been established. Even the principles of rationing have not been defined. Opinions on the approach to rationing range widely - from the desire to have an established fixed standard in the form of a percentage of losses to control over "normal" losses with the help of ongoing calculations according to network diagrams using appropriate software.

According to the received norms of electricity losses, tariffs for electricity are set. Tariff regulation is entrusted to the state regulatory bodies FEK and REC (federal and regional energy commissions). Energy supply organizations must justify the level of electricity losses that they consider appropriate to include in the tariff, and energy commissions should analyze these justifications and accept or correct them.

This paper considers the problem of calculation, analysis and regulation of electricity losses from modern positions; the theoretical provisions of the calculations are presented, a description of the software that implements these provisions is given, and the experience of practical calculations is presented.

Literature review

The problem of calculating electricity losses has been worrying power engineers for a very long time. In this regard, very few books on this topic are currently being published, because little has changed in principle device networks. But at the same time, a fairly large number of articles are published, where old data are clarified and new solutions are proposed for problems related to the calculation, regulation and reduction of electricity losses.

One of the latest books published on this topic is Zhelezko Yu.S. "Calculation, analysis and regulation of electricity losses in electrical networks" . It most fully presents the structure of electricity losses, loss analysis methods and the choice of measures to reduce them. The methods of normalization of losses are substantiated. The software that implements the loss calculation methods is described in detail.

Earlier, the same author published the book "Selection of Measures to Reduce Electricity Losses in Electric Networks: A Guide for Practical Calculations". Here, the greatest attention was paid to methods for calculating electricity losses in various networks and the use of one or another method depending on the type of network, as well as measures to reduce electricity losses, was justified.

In the book Budzko I.A. and Levina M.S. "Power supply of agricultural enterprises and settlements" the authors examined in detail the problems of power supply in general, focusing on distribution networks that feed agricultural enterprises and settlements. The book also provides recommendations on organizing control over electricity consumption and improving accounting systems.

Authors Vorotnitsky V.E., Zhelezko Yu.S. and Kazantsev V.N. in the book "Electricity losses in electrical networks of power systems" considered in detail general issues related to reducing electricity losses in networks: methods for calculating and predicting losses in networks, analyzing the structure of losses and calculating their technical and economic efficiency, planning losses and measures to reduce them.

In the article by Vorotnitsky V.E., Zaslonov S.V. and Kalinkini M.A. "The program for calculating the technical losses of power and electricity in distribution networks 6 - 10 kV" describes in detail the program for calculating the technical losses of electricity RTP 3.1 Its main advantage is ease of use and easy-to-analyze conclusion of the final results, which significantly reduces personnel labor costs for calculation.

Article Zhelezko Yu.S. "Principles of regulation of electricity losses in electrical networks and calculation software" is devoted to the actual problem of regulation of electricity losses. The author focuses on the purposeful reduction of losses to an economically justified level, which is not ensured by the existing practice of rationing. The article also makes a proposal to use the normative characteristics of losses developed on the basis of detailed circuit calculations of networks of all voltage classes. In this case, the calculation can be made using the software.

The purpose of another article by the same author entitled "Estimation of electricity losses due to instrumental measurement errors" is not to clarify the methodology for determining the errors of specific measuring instruments based on checking their parameters. The author in the article assessed the resulting errors in the system for accounting for the receipt and release of electricity from the network of an energy supply organization, which includes hundreds and thousands of devices. Special attention paid to the systematic error, which at present is an essential component of the loss structure.

In the article Galanova V.P., Galanova V.V. "Effect of the quality of electricity on the level of its losses in the networks" paid attention to the actual problem of the quality of electricity, which has a significant impact on the loss of electricity in the networks.

Article by Vorotnitsky V.E., Zagorsky Ya.T. and Apryatkin V.N. "Calculation, rationing and reduction of electricity losses in urban electrical networks" is devoted to clarifying existing methods for calculating electricity losses, rationing losses in modern conditions, as well as new methods for reducing losses.

The article by Ovchinnikov A. "Electricity losses in distribution networks 0.38 - 6 (10) kV" focuses on obtaining reliable information about the operation parameters of network elements, and above all about the load of power transformers. This information, according to the author, will help to significantly reduce the loss of electricity in networks of 0.38 - 6 - 10 kV.

1. Structure of electricity losses in electrical networks. Technical losses of electricity

1.1 Structure of electricity losses in electrical networks

During the transmission of electrical energy, losses occur in each element of the electrical network. To study the loss components in various elements network and assess the need for a particular measure aimed at reducing losses, an analysis of the structure of electricity losses is performed.

Actual (reported) electricity losses Δ W Rep is defined as the difference between the electricity supplied to the network and the electricity released from the network to consumers. These losses include components of a different nature: losses in network elements that are purely physical in nature, the consumption of electricity for the operation of equipment installed at substations and ensuring the transmission of electricity, errors in recording electricity by metering devices and, finally, theft of electricity, non-payment or incomplete payment meter readings, etc.