Taylor School of Scientific Management. The Taylor system is based on the position that for the effective organization of the work of an enterprise it is necessary to create a management system that would ensure the maximum growth in labor productivity with

School scientific management is a management theory that analyzes and systematizes workflows. The main goal of which is to improve economic efficiency, especially labor productivity. It was one of the first attempts to apply science to the development of production processes and management. One of the first founders of the school of scientific management was Frederick Taylor, so this approach to the theory of management studies is also known as Taylorism. Among the founders of the school of scientific management were Frank and Lily Gilbert, Henry Gantt. F. Taylor called his system "management through tasks." The term "scientific management" was coined by Louis Brandweis in 1910.

Theory scientific management Frederica Taylor has developed methods to improve the efficiency of the workflow. Based on a systematic study of people, tasks, and work behavior, Taylor's theory broke down the work process into its smallest units, or subtasks, to determine the most efficient method that could be applied to a particular job.

F. Taylor method

Taylor's method was to check the execution various tasks to determine the optimal amount of work that can be completed in a given period of time. F. Taylor's management theory states that organizations should determine the best way to do work, train employees in the basic methods of doing work in advance (instead of the employee independently looking for ways to complete the tasks assigned to him), and create a fair system of rewards for improving performance. With a background in mechanical engineering, Taylor was very interested in efficiency. Building a career in steel companies in the United States, he conducted experiments in the workplace to determine optimal levels performance. In one experiment, he experimented with a shovel until he had a design that would allow workers to dig for several hours continuously. With masons he studied various movements, which are committed by workers, and developed effective method lay a brick. He also applied the scientific method to learn the best way to accomplish any task in the workplace. Thus, F. Taylor discovered that by calculating the time required to complete various elements task, it is possible to develop a “best” way to accomplish this task.

These "time and motion" studies also led Taylor to conclude that some people can work more efficiently than others. These are the people that leaders should strive to hire. Selecting the right people for the job was another important part of work efficiency.

The value of the theory of F. Taylor

The principles of Taylor's theory of scientific management became widespread, and as a result, collaboration between workers and managers eventually evolved into teamwork. While Taylorism in its purest sense is hardly used today, the scientific management school has made a significant contribution to the development of management practice. F. Taylor introduced systematic selection and training procedures, a way to study performance, and also encouraged the idea of ​​systematic organizational design.

Taylor's theory brought numerous improvements to organizational management during that historical period. The application of the theory of scientific management allowed:

1. Significantly improve performance;
2. Increase employee motivation;
3. Improve the quality control system;
4. Improve personnel policy;
5. Enhance collaboration between management and employees with consistent application of Taylor's management theory.

The F. Taylor School of Scientific Management emphasizes the rationalization and standardization of work through the division of labor, the study of time and movement, the measurement of work and piecework wages.

The theory of scientific management is important because its approach to management can be applied to almost every branch of industrial business around the world. The influence of scientific management theory is also being felt in general business practices such as planning, process design, quality control, cost accounting, and ergonomics.

Counts Frederick Taylor. Initially, Taylor himself called his system "management by tasks." The concept of "scientific management" was first used in 1910 by Louis Brandweiss.

Frederick Taylor believed that management as a specific function consists of a set of principles that can be applied to all types of social activity.

Fundamentals of Frederick Taylor.

1. Scientific study of each separate species labor activity.
2. Selection, training and education of workers and managers based on scientific criteria.
3. Cooperation between management and workers.
4. Equal and fair distribution of responsibilities.

Taylor claims that in charge of management involves selecting people who can meet the job requirements, and then preparing and training these people to work in a particular direction. Preparation is the defining moment for increase of efficiency of work.

Taylor believes that the specialization of labor is equally important at both the managerial and executive levels. He believes that planning should be carried out in the planning department by officials who are comprehensively trained and can perform all planning functions.

Frederick Taylor created differential payment system, according to which workers received wages in accordance with their production, i.e., he attached the main importance to the system of piecework wage rates. This means that workers who produce more than the daily standard quota should receive a higher piece rate than those who do not produce the norm. The main motivating factor of working people is the opportunity to earn money by increasing labor productivity.

The role of differential payment.

1. The system of differentiated piece rates should stimulate greater productivity of workers, since this raises the piece rate of wages.
2. The use of Taylor's ideas provides a significant increase in labor productivity.

Taylor and his followers analyzed the relationship between the physical nature of work and the psychological nature of workers to establish job definitions. And, therefore, it could not solve the problem of division of the organization into departments, ranges of control and assignments of authority.

Taylor's main idea was that management should become a system based on certain scientific principles; should be carried out by specially developed methods and measures. It is necessary to normalize and standardize not only the technique of production, but also labor, its organization and management. In his concept, Taylor pays considerable attention to the "human factor".

Scientific management, according to Taylor, focused on the work performed at the lowest level of the organization.

Taylorism interprets man as a factor of production and presents the worker as a mechanical executor of the "scientifically sound instructions" prescribed to him in order to achieve the goals of the organization.

Course work

subject: Control theory

on the topic: F. Taylor's Scientific School of Management

Management as a historical process has developed since the moment when it became necessary to regulate the joint activities of groups of people. History knows many examples of rational management not only of individual collectives, but also of entire states and empires. At the same time, the level of management, its quality was the defining beginning in the successful development of entire peoples, however, no reliable data on the development of management theory have reached us, and the boom of theoretical thought began in the beginning. XX century. It is related to the fact that in 1911 the engineer Taylor published his research in the book Principles of Scientific Management. This year is traditionally considered the beginning of the recognition of management science and an independent field of study. There are basically 5 directions: the school of scientific management, the school of administrative management, the school from the standpoint of human relations and human psychology, the school from the standpoint of human behavior in production, quantitative approach. True, in some sources of literature the relationship between schools is very smoothed, the classical school is called administrative, and the administrative school is scientific.

The purpose of this work is to consider scientific school management of F. Taylor, as the founder of the scientific management system. I think for this it is necessary to reveal the biography of the scientist. Born March 20, 1856, Germantown, Pennsylvania - March 21, 1915, Philadelphia - American engineer, inventor, founder of the scientific organization of labor. Born into a lawyer's family with deep cultural traditions; traveling around Europe, he was educated in France and Germany, then at the F. Exter Academy, New Hampshire, in 1874 he graduated from Harvard Law College, but due to deterioration of his eyesight, he could not continue his education and got a job as a press worker in industrial workshops hydraulic factory in Philadelphia, in 1878, thanks to his perseverance (at that time there was a peak of economic depression), he got a job as a laborer at the Midvale steel mill, was a patternmaker and mechanic. And from 1882 to 1883 - the head of mechanical workshops. At the same time, while studying in the evenings, I received technical education(Degree of Mechanical Engineer, Stevens Institute of Technology, 1883). In 1884, Taylor became chief engineer, this year for the first time he used the system of differential pay for labor productivity. He issued patents for about 100 of his inventions and rationalizations. From 1890 to 1893, Taylor, general manager of the Manufacture Investment Company, Philadelphia, owner of paper presses in Maine and Wisconsin, set up his own management consulting business, the first in management history. From 1898 to 1901 he was a consultant to the Bethlehem Steel Company, pc. Pennsylvania. In 1906, Taylor became president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and in 1911 established the Society for the Promotion of Scientific Management (later it became known as the Taylor Society).

Research. Since 1895, Taylor began his world-famous research on the organization of work. His first experiments, set on the famous worker Schmidt, were aimed at solving the question of how much iron ore or coal a person can lift on shovels of various sizes so as not to lose working capacity for a long time (as a result of rigorous measurements, the optimal weight was determined = 21 pounds), while he came to the very important conclusion that it is necessary to set not only the time for performing work, but also the time for rest. His system of scientific organization of labor included a number of basic provisions: the scientific foundations of production, the scientific selection of personnel, education and training, and the organization of interaction between managers and workers. He introduced specific requirements for the scientific study of the elements of the production process: the division of a holistic process into minimal parts, the observation and recording of all these elements and the conditions in which they are performed, the exact measurement of these elements in time and in terms of effort. For this, one of the first, began to use the timing of executive work actions. His idea of ​​dividing work into the simplest operations led to the creation of the assembly line, which played such a significant role in the growth of US economic power in the first half of the 20th century.

1.1 Prerequisites for the emergence of scientific management

Management, managerial work, its transformation into a special type of activity, different from direct production, is connected with the cooperation of labor. Labor cooperation in a primitive form already existed in the primitive communal system: as a simple combination of the efforts of numerous workers. But researchers in the history of management emphasize that certain signs of management appear already in ancient societies - Sumer, Egypt, Akkad - the highest caste of priests is being transformed into religious functionaries, and in fact, managers. This was facilitated by a change in religious principles - instead of human sacrifices, they began to present symbolic sacrifices in the form of offerings of money, livestock, oil, handicrafts. As a result, a new type appears among the priests business people, who, in addition to observing ritual honors, were in charge of collecting taxes, managed the state treasury, and were in charge of property affairs. They kept business documentation, accounting calculations, carried out supply, control, planning and other functions that today determine the content of the management process. By-products of such management activities were the emergence of writing, since it was impossible to remember the entire amount of business information, and the need for calculations. Thus, at the very beginning, management was formed as an instrument of commercial and religious activities, turning over time into social institution and professional occupation.

Another leap in the development of management is associated with the name of the Babylonian ruler Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC). For effective management extensive possessions, he was the first to develop the so-called code of Hammurabi, which contained 285 laws of state administration, regulated the whole variety of social relations and served as a guide for administrators of the entire empire. Another innovation was that Hammurabi developed an original leadership style, constantly maintaining the image of himself as a guardian and protector of the people. So, for the first time during the reign of Hammurabi, a purely secular manner of government appears, a formal system of organizing and regulating people's relations arises, and, finally, the first sprouts of a leadership style are born.

Much later, King Nebuchadnezzar 11 (605-562 BC), the designer of the Tower of Babel and Hanging Gardens, introduced a system of production control at textile factories and granaries, using in particular colored labels to determine the timing of receipt and storage of yarn.

A significant number of managerial innovations have taken place in Ancient Rome. The most famous among them are the system of territorial administration of Diocletian (243-316 BC) and the administrative organization of the Roman catholic church which has remained unchanged to this day.

The Great Industrial Revolution of the 17th century had a much more significant impact on the theory and practice of management than all previous revolutions. As industry outgrew the boundaries of manufacture and matured modern system share capital, the owners of capital increasingly moved away from doing business. The owner-manager was replaced by hundreds and thousands of shareholders. A new, diversified (dispersed) form of ownership has emerged. Instead of a single owner, there were many shareholders, i.e. joint (and share) owners of one capital. Instead of a single owner-manager, several hired managers appeared, recruited from all, and not just the privileged classes. At the same time, administration was understood as the formulation of the general goals and policies of the company, and management in the original and narrow technical sense was understood as control over their implementation.

The growth in production volume, the acceleration of capital turnover, the expansion of banking operations, the influence of modern scientific and technological revolution extremely complicates management. It could no longer be the sphere of application of one common sense, but required special knowledge, skills and abilities of experts. The language of conjecture and intuition acquires a clear calculation basis - everything is translated into formulas and money.

Each production process is singled out as an independent function and sphere of activity of management. The number of functions is growing, and the problem of their coordination and connection on a new basis is becoming more acute. To unite them, a staff of specialists (department, subdivision) is assigned to each function, and general coordination functions are given to management.

It is important to note the following regularity here. Initially, the owner and manager are presented in one person. Management is then separated from capital and production. Instead of one capitalist-manager, two communities arise: shareholders and hired managers. The next stage of development: there are many managers and each one monitors a specific function. After that, a single specialist manager is again split up, and a community of specialists appears instead. Now the manager coordinates the work of specialists, using special coordination tools for this, in particular, the decision-making system, the goals of the company's policy, etc.

Management originated in the private sector as business management, but rose to its feet as a scientific and social force not in medium and small firms, although free enterprise is very developed there, but in large corporations. The annual incomes of some corporations often exceed the budgets of many states. The well-being of both the state and the private sector increasingly depended on the quality of governance. Management attracts the best forces of the nation. Even people of average ability, having passed hard way manager, become prominent personalities. If in the middle of the 19th century the main battles were between labor and capital, then in the 20th century the confrontation became managerial. It is not the capitalist who is now opposed to the worker, but the leader to the subordinate. If in the pre-capitalist period of the development of society, the function of management was not yet isolated from direct productive activity and was reduced mainly to the function of supervision and compulsion to work, now the development of capitalism leads to an increase in the role of the functions of management of production, which is becoming more and more complicated, differentiated, and becomes independent. specific area of ​​activity. A large cadre of specialists is emerging, specially trained in business schools and vocational training systems. There is an institution of professional managers-managers who become the main figure in private and public enterprises.

The founder of the school of scientific management is Frederick Taylor. Taylor originally referred to his system as "task management." The concept of "scientific management" was first used in 1910 by Louis Brandweiss.

Frederick Taylor believed that management as a special function consists of principles that can be applied to social activities.

The basic principles of Frederick Taylor:

1. Scientific study of each individual type of labor activity.

2. Selection, training and education of workers and managers based on scientific criteria.

3. Uniform and fair distribution of responsibilities.

4. Interaction of administration with workers. Taylor believed that it was the responsibility of a manager to select people who could meet the job requirements, and then train and train those people to work in a particular direction.

He developed differential payment system, according to which workers received wages in accordance with their output. The system of differentiated piece rates should stimulate greater productivity of workers, since this raises the piece rate of wages.

Taylor's main idea was that management should become a system based on certain scientific principles, should be carried out by specially developed methods and activities.

Management practice has been going on for many millennia. Any ancient state assumed a harmonious system of government. Development management theory passed gradually. Separate parts of this theory can be found in the Bible, the Koran, the works of famous philosophers, as well as in the works of military science theorists of modern times.

Modern holistic management theory- a relatively young science and has only about a hundred years. Its development took place along with the change in management practice in the 20th century.

At the end XIX– early 20th century the most common management model was autocratic model: management was based on the power of the owner or manager, the authority of the leader. There was a strong personal dependence of each worker on his immediate superior, diligence was most valued, and this whole system as a whole was based on Taylorism.

In the middle of the XX century. began to dominate economic system, based on economic coercion, on material incentives, on motivation. The economic system is characterized by the initiative of the most active workers. The evolution from the autocratic model to the economic one took place primarily in firms characterized by high performance.

By the mid 60s In the practice of management in developed countries, a situation has developed in which neither autocratic nor economic management models could lead the organization to success. The use of any of these two management models could lead the organization to defeat in the competitive struggle.

In the 90s these management models are largely a thing of the past. Established in a competitive environment new management model. The main characteristics of this model are a combination of economic and moral incentives, collectivism and commitment to one's work, one's own team and the organization as a whole. Each employee participates in the activities of the organization, not only fulfilling the range of his duties, but also participates in the search and development of new types of services, new methods of work, new social technologies. Everyone participates in the activities of the organization, submitting proposals for improving working methods, improving the quality of services, and developing the organization. This model was formed at the end of the 20th century. in successful organizations of the countries of the West and the East.

Peculiarity: management of any organization, as a rule, carries elements of all three models. But it is possible to single out the model to which this organization gravitates to a greater extent. However, gradually the new model becomes dominant in management practice.

New management model- a necessary element of behavior in conditions modern market. The new management model has become more consistent with the rapid and unpredictable changes in the surrounding world. It allows you to quickly adapt to constantly changing conditions.

59. Business culture: types of implementation in the organization

Business culture is designed to reflect the company's attitude towards legality, personality, product quality, finances and production obligations, openness and reliability of business information. This should be embodied in a set of rules, traditions, rituals and symbols that are constantly supplemented and improved. The success of an enterprise in market conditions largely depends on its reputation as a business partner. The reputation, the "good name" of the company has a very definite material expression. The reputation of an enterprise is determined by its reliability as a partner, the quality of its products and a number of other factors covered by the concept corporate culture. The trust of partners, employees, and the population creates a normal market environment conducive to successful work enterprises.
Considering organizations as communities with a common understanding of their goals, meaning and place, values ​​and behavior, gave rise to the concept of business culture. The organization forms its own image, which is based on a strategy for the quality of products and services, rules of conduct and moral principles of employees, reputation in business world etc. This is a system of ideas and approaches generally accepted in the organization to business, forms of relations and achievement of performance results that distinguish this organization from others.
Of course, it should be borne in mind that business culture is influenced by national culture. Often, it is the features and characteristics of the national culture that provide the key to understanding the characteristics of certain elements of business culture that distinguish the activities of certain companies. Consider the elements of business culture.

The role of business culture in a company is multifaceted due to the versatility of the most studied phenomenon - culture. The main aspects of the importance of business culture include:
1) interdependence and dialectical relationship of business culture and the level of technology;
2) a strong business culture should be considered as a strategic resource of the organization, which determines its competitive position in the market, and also as the basis for the organization's exit from the crisis;
3) business culture is able to become a conductor of many not only intra-organizational changes, but also market transformations at the level of society.
Organizations will achieve stability and performance if the culture of the organization is appropriate for the technology being applied. Regular formalized (routine) technological processes ensure the stability and efficiency of the organization when the culture of the organization focuses on centralization in decision-making and restrains (limits) individual initiative. Irregular (non-routine) technologies are effective when they are "infused" with an organizational culture that encourages individual initiative and loosens control. A strong culture determines the sequence of behavior of workers. Employees clearly know what behavior they should follow. Predictability, orderliness and sequence of activities in the organization are formed with the help of high formalization. A strong culture achieves the same result without any documentation. Moreover, a strong culture can be more effective than any formal structural control. The stronger the culture of an organization, the less attention should be given to the development of formal rules and regulations to govern employee behavior. This task will be solved at the subconscious level of the employee who accepts the culture of the organization.

60. Objective prerequisites and patterns of the emergence of scientific management.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, major shifts took place in the nature of production. First of all, its scale and concentration have sharply increased. Giant enterprises appeared, employing thousands and sometimes tens of thousands of workers and engineers; expensive equipment was used; the most complex technological processes based on the latest achievements of scientific and technical thought. For their service, already educated and literate people were required, consciously and interested in their work and its results.

Under these conditions, it became necessary to radically change the model of production management, the use of other organizational structures, subordination schemes, strict adherence to technology, accuracy in completing tasks, justifications, incentives, etc.

The previous management system, which was based mainly on empirical data, could no longer provide all this: there was no necessary knowledge about the patterns of organization of production processes, the optimal sequence of operations and modes of equipment operation, technical and other standards, personal capabilities of people, and the workers themselves were not well trained and trained. As a result, the introduction of any innovations did not bring the desired effect, and the huge technical and economic potential of enterprises remained not fully realized.

The necessary prerequisites for updating the organization of production by that time already existed in the form of the experience of industrial management accumulated in the 19th century, and achievements in such branches of knowledge as economics, sociology and psychology. They made it possible to create the concept of scientific management, which is an integral set of ideas, principles, provisions, in accordance with which management should be carried out. The impetus for its formation was mass experiments at industrial enterprises.

Within their framework, the factors influencing the level of labor productivity were identified, incentive systems for its payment were tested, and optimal operating modes of equipment were identified. All this was subordinated to the task of preventing losses associated with the irrational use of expensive equipment, raw materials and materials, the share of costs for which grew from year to year.

An example is the experience of loading coal. His weight, taken with a shovel, usually ranged from 16 to 38 pounds; experiments have shown that the maximum output per day is achieved using a 21 to 22 pound shovel, and 15 types of shovel have been proposed. As a result, after 3.5 years, where 400-600 workers previously worked, 140 remained.

The pioneer of such experiments was an American engineer Frederick Winslow Taylor(1856-1915), born in the family of a lawyer. He began his career as an apprentice modeler, then worked as a machinist. Having received in absentia higher education, Taylor at the age of 35 became a well-known management consultant. Having risen for 8 years to the position of chief engineer of a steel company in Bethlehem, he conducted in 1898 - 1901, the first series of his experiments.

The essence of the experiments was to study the process of trimming cast-iron cups, which was carried out by the most dexterous workers. Dividing the operations into separate elements, Taylor determined the duration of each of them using a stopwatch and, as a result, deduced the average norms, which subsequently applied to all workers. As a result, labor productivity increased by 3.5-4 times, and wage- by 60%. Moreover, this was achieved not due to the intensification of labor, as is often believed, but primarily due to its rationalization.

Taylor's second experiment, conducted at the same company, was to determine best ways placing blanks on machine tools and metal cutting speeds.

Taylor conducted several tens of thousands of experiments and identified 12 independent variables that affect the final result. To facilitate this work, he even had to invent a special counting ruler.

Since Taylor's experiments ultimately led to a reduction in the need for labor, they understandably angered the workers, and they even considered killing him. At first, big businessmen also spoke out against Taylorism. Therefore, in 1912, the House of Representatives of the US Congress created a special commission to study the Taylor system.

All this made him rather soon reconsider his excessively technocratic views and come to the conclusion that the well-being of entrepreneurs is impossible without the well-being of workers, and vice versa.

Taylor set out his views in the books: "Management of the Enterprise" (1903) and "Principles of Scientific Management" (1911). These views concerned four main problems: labor rationing; the roles of managers; rewards and incentives; selection and training of personnel.

Based on a careful study of the cost of time, movements, efforts, Taylor proved the ability to develop optimal methods for the implementation of production and labor operations, time standards, as well as the need for strict adherence to standards.

Previously, workers were fully responsible for the results of production. However, Taylor considered them lazy, incapable of independently understanding the complex organization of production, rationally organizing their work, acting purposefully only on the basis of elementary incentives, primarily money.

SCHOOL OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT F.Taylor
The emergence of modern management science dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. and is associated with the names of F.U. Taylor, Frank and Lily Gilbreth and Henry Gantt. An important merit of this school was the position that it is possible to manage "scientifically", relying on economic, technical and social experiment, as well as on the scientific analysis of the phenomena and facts of the management process and their generalization. This research method was first applied to a single enterprise by the American engineer F.W. Taylor, who should be considered the founder of scientific production management. The term "scientific management" was first proposed in 1910 by L. Bridays. Since Taylor's death, the name has gained general acceptance in relation to his concept.
The ideas of F. Taylor were developed by his followers, among whom, first of all, Henry Gantt, his closest student, should be mentioned. Gantt made a significant contribution to the development of leadership theory.
Frank Gilbreth and his wife Lillian Gilbreth dealt with the rationalization of the work of workers and the study of opportunities to increase output through increased labor productivity.
G. Emerson made a significant contribution to the development of the Taylor system. Emerson explored the principles of labor activity in relation to any production, regardless of the type of its activity.
Henry Ford continued Taylor's ideas in the field of industrial organization. Taylor's system was dominated by manual labor.
Ford replaced manual labor with machines; took a further step in the development of the Taylor system.
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR
Frederick Taylor, the creator of scientific management, was a man completely engrossed in the idea of ​​control, obsessed with the constant need to control every aspect of his life. Both his work and household chores and leisure were regulated by detailed programs and schedules, which he strictly followed.
These character traits were evident in Taylor from an early age. Growing up in a well-to-do family that lived by strict Puritan rules (hard work, discipline, and the ability to manage his emotions), Frederick quickly learned to tightly regulate his life and himself. Childhood friends described the meticulous ("scientific") approach he brought to their games. Even as a child, Taylor insisted that everything was subject to clear rules. Prior to the baseball game, he often insisted on the need for precise measurements of the court, even if most of the sunny morning was spent making sure that all sizes up to an inch fit the requirements. The game of croquet was also the object of careful analysis: Taylor analyzed the angles of the blows, calculated the force of the blow, the advantages and disadvantages of weak and strong blows.
It was common for him to observe his actions, measure the time spent on various movements, and count his steps. During his walks in the country, young Fred was constantly experimenting to determine how to cover the maximum distance with the minimum loss of energy, or what was the easiest way to jump over a fence, or what should be the ideal length of a walking stick. As a young man, before going to the dance, he made lists of attractive and unattractive girls so that he could devote equal time to each.
Perseverance, perseverance and a rational approach have borne fruit not only in the science of management. Taylor also achieved great success in sports: he was the US tennis champion in doubles.
Taylor graduated from the Institute (Stevens Institute of Technology), received fundamental training in engineering and mathematical sciences, at the same time he was intensively engaged in theoretical sciences and experiments, made many inventions in the field of industrial organization, some of them at the world level. Despite the brilliant prospects that opened before him, thanks to the origin and social status of the family, Taylor began his life as a simple worker, became a foreman, then for 8 years he rose to the position of chief engineer of a steel company in Bethlehem, where he spent in 1898-1901 gg. first series of experiments.
It is difficult to overestimate Taylor's contribution to the science of management. Peter Drucker said that all modern management stands, as if on a rock, on the ideas that were laid down by Taylor.
The inscription on Taylor's grave is simple and concise: "The Father of Scientific Management."
Taylor is considered the founder of modern management, the "Father of Scientific Management".
Prior to Taylor, productivity was driven by the carrot principle. So Taylor came up with the idea of ​​organizing work, which involves the development of numerous rules, laws and formulas, which replace the personal judgments of the individual worker and which can be usefully applied only after the statistical calculation of measurement and so on, their actions have been made. Thus, at the beginning of the century, the role of the manager in deciding what to do to the performer, how to do it, to what extent, grew immeasurably and the regulation of the work of the performer took extreme measures.
“Good organization with poor equipment will give top scores than excellent equipment with poor organization” (F. W. Taylor).
F. Taylor dismembered the entire work of the performer into its component parts. In his classic work, first published in 1911, he systematized all the achievements at that time in the field of organizing the production process. Individual achievements were timed, and the working day was scheduled in seconds.
Thus, F.U. Taylor in practice, in a number of cases, found that amount of work, correspondingly performing which the worker can most rationally give his labor power for a long time. He proposed a scientific system of knowledge about the laws of rational organization of labor, constituent elements which is the mathematical method of calculating the cost, the differential wage system, the method of studying time and movements, the method of rationalizing labor practices, instruction cards, etc., which later became part of the so-called scientific management mechanism. Unlike many management theorists, Taylor was not a scientist - a researcher or a professor. business schools, and practitioner.
Taylor first became interested not in human efficiency, but in the efficiency of the organization, which marked the beginning of the development of the school of scientific management. Thanks to the development of this concept, management is recognized as an independent field of scientific research. In his works "Management of the Factory" (1903) and "Principles of Scientific Management" (1911), F. Taylor developed methods for the scientific organization of labor. He came to these methods by conducting a series of experiments.
The essence of these experiments was to study with the help of a stopwatch the process of cutting iron ingots, which was carried out by the most dexterous workers. Dividing operations into separate elements, Taylor determined the duration of each of them and, as a result, derived average rates, which were subsequently extended to all workers. As a result, labor productivity increased by 3.5-4 times, and wages by 60%. Moreover, this was achieved not through the intensification of labor, as is often believed now, but primarily through its rationalization.
F. Taylor attached great importance to the standardization of tools, taking into account the characteristics of various specific types of work. Thus, the study of coal loading showed that average weight shoveled coal ranged from 16 to 38 pounds. He found by experiment that a good worker could load more in a day if he used a shovel that could hold 21 to 22 pounds. Further, it turned out that when loading various types of materials with shovels, it is advisable to use about 15 types of shovels. All this led to the fact that after 3.5 years 140 people completed the work, which previously required from 400 to 600 people.
Taylor's The Scientific Organization of Labor (1924) compares the old and the new "scientific" labor system. He compares the work of the load on the carts of cast iron, which goes into further processing.

Table

Taylor emphasized the duty of management to create the appropriate conditions: the worker “should be encouraged in every possible way to design improvements, both in the field of working methods and tools. Whenever a worker proposes any new improvement, the correct policy of the administration dictates to her the need for a thorough analysis of the new method and, if necessary, a series of experiments to establish the exact comparative merits of the new project and the old standard ”(Taylor F.W. Scientific organization of labor. )
Widespread fame came to Taylor in 1912 after his speech at the hearings of the special committee of the US House of Representatives on the study of shop management systems. Taylor's system gained clearer outlines in his work "Cycle Management" and was further developed in the book "Principles of Scientific Management". Subsequently, Taylor himself widely used this, the concept that: "management is a true science, based on precisely defined laws, rules and principles."
Taylorism is based on 4 scientific principles.
1. A detailed scientific study of individual actions and experimentation with the aim of establishing laws and formulas for the most effective work "with strict rules for every movement", each person and the improvement and standardization of all tools and working conditions.
2. Careful selection of workers "on the basis of established characteristics", their training "to first-class workers" and "the elimination of all people who refuse or are unable to learn scientific methods."
3. Implementation by the administration of cooperation with the workers, "rapprochement between workers and science ... on the basis of constant and vigilant assistance, management and payment of daily increases for quick work and accurate fulfillment of tasks." Taylor talked about the need for this, for example, in the field of standardization, the use of new tools.
4. "Almost equal distribution of labor and responsibility between workers and management." According to Taylor, the administration takes on those functions "for which it is better adapted than the workers." Special agents of the administration during the whole working day work with the workers, help them, eliminate obstacles in their work, and encourage the workers.
Taylor came to the important conclusion that the main reason for low productivity lies in the imperfect system of incentives for workers. He developed a system of material incentives. He presented the award not only as a monetary reward, but also advised entrepreneurs to make concessions and encourage them.
“Encouragement is what is given in excess: promotion, bonus, improvement of working conditions, personal respect ... The administration should regularly inform the worker about his progress ... The worker should continue to be fully trusted for the improvement he has discovered and pay a monetary bonus as a reward for his ingenuity ”(Taylor F.W. Scientific organization of labor.)
Taylor developed scientific management in three main directions.
1. This is labor rationing.
2. Systematic selection and training of personnel.
3. Monetary incentives as a reward for the end result.
All of them were aimed at reducing the number of errors in the implementation of standard operations and mobilizing the potential of the employee to perform the tasks facing him.
It should be noted that before Taylor, the workers were fully responsible for the results of production. His proposal to impose on managers the duty to study the labor process and develop scientific recommendations for its improvement, to teach workers, to improve their skills, in fact, meant an intellectual revolution.
“The biggest problem in the transition to a new system [of management] is the need for a complete revolution in the moral order” (Taylor F.W. Scientific organization of labor).
Taylor considered workers to be lazy, incapable of independently understanding the complex organization of production, rationally organizing their work (this function was assigned to the administrative elite), did not consider them as individuals, but saw in them irrational beings capable of purposefully acting only on the basis of elementary incentives, primarily of money.
At the same time, he considered concessions to workers from managers, maintaining friendly relations with them as a reward, and therefore recommended opening canteens, kindergartens, and various evening courses at enterprises as a means "to create more skillful and intelligent workers."
Taylor wrote: “Scientific management cannot exist unless there is a complete revolution in the psychology of the workers, in their sense of duty both to themselves and to their masters, and a similar revolution, in turn, in the psychology of the masters. attitude, both to themselves and to their workers ”(Taylor on Taylorism. - L.-M .: Management Technique. - 1931).
Following his advice, one of the predominantly female factories adopted a pedigreed cat, with which the workers had the opportunity to play during their breaks, which improved their emotions, cheered up, and ultimately contributed to increased productivity. Such actions were supposed to evoke "good feelings towards the owners" among the workers.

School of Human Relations. E. Mayo

The school of human relations is based on the achievements of psychology and sociology. In the science of management, there has been a shift in efforts: from performing technical tasks to relationships between people, i.e. within the framework of this doctrine, it was proposed to focus attention no longer on the task as such, but on the employee (“the person is the main object of attention”).

Scientists studying human behavior in the labor process were no less interested in increasing labor productivity than any of the "classical" managers. By focusing on the worker, they believed that this way they could better stimulate his work. It was believed that people are living machines, and management should be based on concern for the individual worker. In this regard, R. Owen acted as a true reformer, who believed that the company spends a lot of time caring for machine tools and machines (lubrication, repairs, etc.) and cares little about people. According to R. Owen, it is quite reasonable to spend the same time on “care” for workers (a living machine) and then “repair” of people will not be required.

The emergence of the school of human relations is directly related to the name of the German psychologist G. Münsterberg (1863 - 1916), who created the world's first school of industrial psychologists. In his book Psychology and Industrial Efficiency, he formulated the basic principles according to which people should be selected for leadership positions. He created a great variety of tests, with the help of which he studied the abilities and inclinations of the subjects for various professions, positions, the compatibility of workers with each other, problems of fatigue, etc.

A great contribution to the development of the theory and practice of human relations was made by E. Mayo (1880 - 1949), who argued that a group of workers is a social system that has its own relations of control. By influencing such a system in a certain way, it is possible, as E. Mayo believed, to improve the results of labor. Studying the influence of various factors (conditions and organization of work, wages, interpersonal relationships and leadership style) on labor productivity, E. Mayo concluded that the human factor plays a special role. He managed to create a social management philosophy (a system of human relations). The human relations movement became a counterbalance to scientific management, as the emphasis in the direction of human relations was on people, and in the scientific management movement, concern for production. The idea is that simply showing concern for people has a very large impact on productivity. It is about increasing the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources. The “Hotsorn effect” discovered by E. Mayo indicates that labor productivity and product quality depend not so much on working conditions as on social and psychological factors.

Among other scientists of this direction, one can single out M. Follet, who analyzed different management styles and developed a theory of leadership. M. Follet put forward the idea of ​​harmony between labor and capital, which can be achieved with the right motivation and taking into account the interests of all stakeholders. The merit of M. Follet is also the fact that she tried to combine three schools of management into a single whole: scientific management, administrative and the school of human relations. It was Follet who defined management as "the fulfillment of the goals of the enterprise by influencing other persons."

A great contribution to the development of the school of human relations was made in the 40s - 60s of the 20th century, when several theories of motivation were developed by behavioral scientists (from English, behavior - behavior). One of them is A. Maslow's hierarchical theory of needs. He proposed the following classification of personality needs: physiological; existence security; social (belonging to a team, communication, attention to oneself, caring for others, etc.); prestigious (authority, official status, feeling dignity, self-respect); self-expression, full use of their capabilities, achievement of goals and personal growth.

No less popular is the teaching of D. McGregor (1960). His theory (X-in and Y-in) is based on the following characteristics of workers:

Theory X-b- the average individual is stupid, tends to evade work, so he must be constantly forced, urged, controlled and directed. A person of this category prefers to be led, seeks to avoid responsibility, worries only about his own safety;

Y-in theory- people are not passive by nature. They became so as a result of work in the organization. For this category of workers, the costs of physical and mental labor are as natural and necessary as games on vacation. Such a person not only accepts responsibility, but also strives for it. He does not need control from the outside, as he is able to control himself.

A modified version of the teachings of D. McGregor is presented by R. Blake in the form of a GRID management grid.

Thus, the school of human relations (behavioral sciences) tried to comprehensively analyze the problem of human relations in the labor process and eliminate the conflict between wage labor and capital, creating the prerequisites for cooperation and cooperation between them.

Andri Fayol's Theory of Administration.

The emergence of the administrative school is associated mainly with the name of Henri Fayol (1825-1925). According to American management historians, Fayol is the most significant figure in management science in the first half of the 20th century.
Henri Fayol (1841-1925) was a mining engineer by training. Being a Frenchman by origin, he worked all his life in the French mining and metallurgical syndicate, first as an engineer, and then (from the age of thirty) in the main department. From 1886 to 1918 he was the managing director of the syndicate.
Summarizing his long-term observations, Fayol created the "theory of administration". Fayol achieved fame for his ideas. His first article on this theory was published in 1900, and the book "The main features of industrial administration - foresight, organization, command, coordination, control" in 1916. This work is Fayol's main contribution to the science of management.
The goal of the administrative school was to create universal principles of management, following which, but according to the beliefs of the founders of the school, the organization will undoubtedly achieve success.
Management principles are the basic rules that determine the construction and operation of the management system; the most important requirements, the observance of which ensures the effectiveness of management. According to Faiol, principles are a beacon to help you navigate.
Considering the organization as a specific type of activity and as an equally peculiar administrative system, and coordinating his ideas with Taylor's principles regarding the stimulation of each employee, Fayol formulated the following 14 principles of management in relation to the activities of top management:
1. Division of labor, i.e. specialization necessary for the efficient use of labor, in relation to all types of work, both managerial and executive.
2. Power and responsibility. According to Faiol, power and responsibility are interconnected, the latter being a consequence of the former. He believes that power combines official (based on the position held) personal (containing an alloy of mental development, experience, moral level, skills according to the type of former service, etc.) factors.
3. Discipline. Understanding discipline as respect for an agreement designed to ensure obedience, diligence, energy and outward manifestation of respect, Fayol emphasizes that in order to maintain discipline, it is necessary to have good leaders at all levels.
Of all the means of influencing subordinates in order to strengthen discipline, Fayol considered the personal example of the boss to be one of the most effective. In his opinion, if the boss sets an example of accuracy, no one dares to appear late. If he is active, courageous, devoted, they imitate him, and if he knows how to conduct business, he will be able to make employees love the work.
But a bad example is also contagious and, starting from the top, it sometimes gives the most disastrous consequences for everyone.
4. Unity of command. Unity of command, according to Faiol, has the advantage over collegiality that it ensures unity of point of view, unity of action and unity of command. Therefore, it tends to prevail.
5. Unity of leadership. Activities that pursue the same goal should have one leader and be guided by a single plan. Dual leadership can arise, according to Faiol, only as a result of unjustified mixing of functions and imperfect delimitation of them between departments, which is not only unnecessary, but also extremely harmful. In none of the cases, in his opinion, is there an adaptation of the social organism to the dualism of management;
6. Subordination of private interests to the general ones. The interests of an employee or a group of employees should not be placed above the interests of the enterprise; the interests of the state should be above the interests of a citizen or a group of citizens... It would seem that such a rule does not need to be reminded. But ignorance, ambition, selfishness, laziness and all sorts of human weaknesses and passions push people to neglect common interests for the sake of
private.
7. Reward. Work incentive methods should be fair and deliver the greatest possible satisfaction to employees and employers.
8. Centralization. Without resorting to the term "centralization of power", Fayol speaks of the degree of concentration or dispersal of power. Specific circumstances will determine which option will "give the best overall result".
9. The scalar chain, i.e., according to Faiol's definition, the "chain of chiefs" from the highest to the lowest rank, which should not be abandoned, but which should be shortened!, If too careful following it can be harmful.
10. Order, i.e. "everything (each) has its place, and weight (each) in its (his or her) place."
11. Justice. Loyalty and devotion of the staff should be ensured by the respectful and fair attitude of the administration towards subordinates.
12. Stability of the workplace for staff. Fayol believed that excessive staff turnover is both a cause and a consequence of poor management, and pointed out the dangers and costs associated with this.
13. Initiative, i.e., but the definition of Faiol, deliberation and implementation of the plan. Because it "gives great satisfaction to every thinking person”, Fayol urges administrators to “give up personal vanity” so that subordinates have the opportunity to show personal initiative.
14. Corporate spirit, i.e. the principle “in unity is strength.” Giving a list of these principles, Fayol pointed out that he tried to give an exhaustive presentation of them, but tried to describe only those that he had to apply most often, since even a slight codification of the principles is necessary in any business ..)
Considering the principles he proposed to be universal, Fayol nevertheless pointed out that their application should be flexible and take into account the situation in which management is carried out. Om noted that the system of principles can never be completed, on the contrary, it always remains open for additions, changes, transformations based on new experience, its analysis, comprehension, and generalization. Therefore, the number of control principles is unlimited.
Note that some of the above principles are addressed to the human factor. Fayol showed that management, intended mainly for the intensification of production processes, is based on knowledge of psychology and that taking into account the human factor in management is extremely important.
Many management principles still have practical value. For example, a Japanese company. Mitsusitaelectric is guided by the following seven management principles:
objectivity, justice, cohesion, accomplishment, modesty, harmony, appreciation - which echo the principles developed by Fayol.
In the future, many researchers were engaged in the studied and theoretical description of the principles of managerial activity, but all of them were only followers of Fayol, who developed, supplemented and concretized his teaching.
Business activity groups.
Fayol believes that: "Any activity that leads entrepreneurs in industry to success can be divided into the following groups:
- Technical activities (production, processing, application).
- Commercial activity (purchase, sale, exchange).
- Financial activities(search and optimal use of capital).
- Ensuring security (protection of property and people).
- Reporting activities (inventory, balance sheet, expenses, statistics).
- Management activities (planning, organizing, disposing,
coordination, control).
In business, whether simple or complex, large or small, these six groups of activities or their essential functions are always present. These six groups of activities will be present in all areas of business, but to varying degrees. management personnel and significantly less (or absent) in the activities of personnel directly involved in production, or junior management personnel. managerial activity universal for any organization.
What is management?
However, a banal question is posed: what is management (management)? Is governance something that could be singled out and exist
on its own, or is it just a word, a label that has no essence? Fayol's answer was unique for the time. The core of his contribution to management theory was his definition of management, which includes five elements:
- Foresight and planning: "studying the future and sketching a plan of action."
- Organization: "building the structure of entrepreneurship, both materially and in terms of people."
- Management: "maintaining activity among the staff."
- Coordination: "to work together, closely connected, join forces and
acting harmoniously.
- Supervision: "seeing that everything happens in accordance with
established rules and orders made.
According to Fayol, management means looking ahead, which makes the process of foresight and planning central to entrepreneurial activity. The manager must "assess the future and anticipate it." To function effectively, an organization needs a plan that has the characteristics of "unity, continuity, flexibility, and precision."
To organize means "to build the structure of entrepreneurship, both materially and in terms of people." The task of management is to create a structure that will enable the organization to carry out its activities as efficiently as possible. The structure must ensure the timely development and implementation of plans, the unity of orders and instructions, a clear definition of responsibility, an accurate decision, supported by an effective system of selection and training of managers.
The third element of Fayol's system logically follows the first two. An organization must begin with a plan, defining its goals. An organizational structure should then be built to achieve these goals. Through orders that keep the staff active, the organization must be involved in the movement. With the ability to give orders, the manager gets the best possible performance from subordinates. Orders refer to the relationship between a manager and subordinates within the framework of the immediate task. However, organizations have a diverse range of tasks to perform, so it becomes necessary to coordinate efforts. Here it is very important that the efforts of one department are interconnected with the efforts of other departments, and the tendency of further progress towards the implementation of the goals of the organization remains. This can only be achieved by constantly circulating information. And finally, control is the logical final element, which checks how well the other four elements are performed: "to see that everything happens in accordance with the established rules and given orders." It should also provide for a system of adequate actions in case of deviation of activities from the required standards. The best way to ensure such control is to separate all functions related to verification from the functions of production and other departments whose work needs to be checked.

Empirical School of Management.

In the process of further development of managerial thought, there was a turn to the practice of management. A new direction of management appeared - the empirical school, which was a reflection of the struggle of previous trends. According to the adherents of this school, the main task of management theorists is to obtain, process and analyze practical data and issue recommendations to managers on this basis. This approach has found many adherents among prominent managers, company owners, scientists and people directly involved in management practice.
There are two main directions of the empirical school: research
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