Teaching theory and main types. The essence of Bandura's theory

The term learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavioral potential as a result of practice or experience. This definition contains three key elements:

1) the change that has taken place is usually distinguished by stability and duration;

2) the change is not the behavior itself, but the potential for its implementation (the subject can learn something that does not change his behavior for a long time or never affects him at all);

3) learning requires the acquisition of some experience (so, it does not just happen as a result of maturation and growth).

Starting from the work of Pavlov and Thorndike, the early representatives of the "learning theory" that dominated the psychological science of the United States of America for almost the entire first half of the 20th century, directed their research

Chapter 2 Approaches to understanding human development 77

on instrumental behavior. They investigated those types of it that entailed consequences. For example, the behavior of a rat moving through a maze to find a way out and get food has been studied. This measured such quantities as the amount of time required for the rat to achieve the goal during each of the repeated attempts. Similar to Thorndike's study, the procedure consisted of placing a rat at the beginning of a maze and then assessing its progress toward the exit. The main analyzed parameter was the number of attempts required for the rat to finally be able to go through the entire maze without making mistakes (such as falling into dead-end corridors).

Representatives of the theory of learning have somewhat departed from strict behaviorism. They used concepts such as learning, motivation, driving forces, impulses, mental inhibition, which denoted invisible behavior. According to the eminent learning theorist Clark Hull (1884-1952), these concepts are scientific insofar as they can be defined in terms of observable operations (see Hull, 1943). For example, an operational definition of the presence of hunger or "need for satiety" can be advanced from the number of hours of food deprivation experienced by the rat before the experiment, or from the decrease in body weight of the rat from normal. In turn, learning can be operationally defined in terms of a progressive decline from try to try in the amount of time it takes a rat to reach the exit from a maze (or a cat to get out of a problem box). Now theorists could ask such research questions as: "Does learning occur faster if the motive for satisfying food needs is strengthened"? It turns out it happens, but only until a certain moment. After this moment, the rat simply does not have the strength to go through the maze.

Learning researchers have been inventing formulas for learning and behavior by averaging behavior a large number individual subjects and gradually deduced the general "laws" of learning. One of them is classic learning curve, extending to many types of human behavior, which is shown in Fig. 2.1. Thus, learning a skill, such as playing the musical instrument, is characterized by a rapid improvement in skill on early stages, but then the pace of improvement slows down more and more. Suppose a child is learning to play the guitar. At first, he quickly develops the flexibility and obedience of his fingers, the skills of picking strings and setting chords; but if he is destined to become a virtuoso, it will require many years of practice. The learning curve is quite well suited to illustrate the emergence of many complex human skills, despite the fact that it was created from observations of rat maze improvement over time.

Some other patterns identified by representatives of the classical theory of learning also apply to human behavior. However, there is a large number of those that are not subject to such a transfer. The search for principles of learning universal for all animal species has largely been abandoned in favor of species-specific principles. In later chapters we will see examples of "exceptions" characteristic of human behavior.

78 Part I. Beginning

Rice. 2.1. The classic learning curve. The learning process for anyone

complex skill goes very quickly on initial stages, then

gradually slows down and becomes more painstaking.

The last century in the countries of the Western world has become a real century of psychology, it was during this period that many of the modern psychological schools. Theory social learning was created in the same historical period. today it remains very popular in the countries of the Western world, but here, in Russia, not everyone still has detailed information about it.

Let us consider in this article the main provisions of this theory and the history of its development.

What is this theory about?

According to this concept, a child, being born, learns the values, norms of behavior and traditions of the society in which he lives. This mechanism can be used as a holistic teaching of children not only behavioral skills, but also certain knowledge, as well as skills, values ​​and skills.

The scientists who developed this theory paid special attention to learning by imitation. Moreover, on the one hand, they relied on behaviorism as a classical theory explaining the causes human behavior, and, on the other hand, on psychoanalysis created by Z. Freud.

In general, this concept is a work that, having appeared on the pages of thick academic journals, has become very much in demand by the American society. She was carried away as politicians who dreamed of knowing the laws of human behavior and governing through them. big amount people, and representatives of other professions: from the military and police to housewives.

Socialization as the central concept of the concept

The theory of social learning has largely contributed to the fact that the concept of socialization, which meant the child's assimilation of the norms and values ​​of the society in which he lives, has become very popular in psychological and pedagogical science. In social psychology, the concept of socialization has become central. At the same time, Western scientists divided spontaneous socialization (uncontrolled by adults, during which a child learns from peers information that his parents do not always try to tell him, for example, about the characteristics of sexual relations between people) and centralized socialization (by which scientists understood directly upbringing).

Such an understanding of education, as a specially organized one, did not find understanding in the environment of domestic pedagogy, therefore this provision is still being disputed in Russian pedagogical science.

The theory of social learning claims that socialization is a concept equal to the phenomenon of education, however, in other psychological and pedagogical schools of the West, socialization has received other qualitative interpretations. For example, in behaviorism it is interpreted as directly social learning itself, in Gestalt psychology - as a consequence between people, in humanistic psychology as a result of self-actualization.

Who developed this theory?

The theory of social learning, the main ideas of which were voiced by scientists at the beginning of the last century, was created in the American and Canadian works of authors such as A. Bandura, B. Skinner, R. Sears.

However, even these psychologists, being like-minded, considered the main provisions of the theory they created in different ways.

Bandura studied this theory from the point of view of an experimental approach. Through numerous experiments, the author revealed a direct relationship between examples of different behavior and children's imitation of it.

Sears consistently argued that a child during his life goes through three phases of imitation of adults, the first of which is unconscious, and the second two are conscious.

Skinner created the theory of the so-called reinforcement. He believed that the assimilation of a new model of behavior in a child occurs precisely due to such reinforcement.

Thus, it is impossible to answer the question of which of the scientists developed the theory of social learning, unequivocally. This was done in the work of a whole group of American and Canadian scientists. Later this theory became popular in European countries.

Experiments by A. Bandura

For example, A. Bandura believed that the goal of the educator is the need to form a new model of behavior in the child. At the same time, in achieving this goal, it is impossible to use only traditional forms educational influences such as persuasion, rewards or punishments. A fundamentally different system of behavior of the educator himself is needed. Children, observing the behavior of a person significant to them, will unconsciously adopt his feelings and thoughts, and then the entire holistic line of behavior.

In support of his theory, Bandura conducted the following experiment: he gathered several groups of children and showed them films with different content. Children who watched films with an aggressive plot (aggression at the end of the film was rewarded) copied violent behavior in their manipulations with toys after watching the movie. Children who watched films with the same content, but in which aggression was punished, also demonstrated pronounced hostility, but in smaller volumes. Children who watched movies without violent content did not show it in their games after watching the movie.

In this way, experimental studies, conducted by A. Bandura, proved the main provisions of the theory of social learning. These studies have found a direct link between the viewing of various films and the behavior of children. Bandura's propositions were soon recognized as true propositions throughout scientific world.

The essence of Bandura's theory

The author of the theory of social learning - Bandura - believed that a person's personality should be considered in the interaction of his environment and the cognitive sphere. In his opinion, it is situational factors and predisposition factors that determine human behavior. The scientist believed that people themselves can consciously change a lot in their behavior, but for this their personal understanding of the essence of the events and desire is very important.

It was this scientist who came up with the idea that people are both the product of their own behavior and the creators of their own social environment and, accordingly, its behavior.

Unlike Skinner, Bandura did not point out that everything depends on the external reinforcement of a person's behavior. After all, people can not just copy someone's behavior by watching him, but read about such manifestations in books or see them in films and so on.

According to A. Bandura, the central concept in the theory of social learning is precisely learning, conscious or unconscious, which is adopted by every person born on earth from his immediate environment.

At the same time, the scientist pointed out that people's behavior is regulated mainly by the fact that they understand the consequences of their actions. Even a criminal going to rob a bank understands that the consequence of his actions can be a long prison term, but he goes to this business, hoping that he will avoid punishment and receive a big win, which is expressed in a certain amount Money. Thus mental processes human personality give people, unlike animals, the ability to anticipate their actions.

Works of psychologist R. Sears

The theory of social learning has found its embodiment in the works of psychologist R. Sears. The scientist proposed the concept of dyadic analysis personal development. The psychologist said that the child's personality is formed as a result of dyadic relationships. These are the relationships between a mother and her child, a daughter and a mother, a son and a father, a teacher and a student, etc.

At the same time, the scientist believed that the child in his development goes through three stages of imitation:

Rudimentary imitation (occurs in early age at an unconscious level)

Primary imitation (the beginning of the process of socialization within the family);

Secondary motivational imitation (starts from the moment the child enters school).

The most important of these phases, the scientist considered the second, which was associated with family education.

Forms of dependent behavior of the child (according to Sears)

The theory of social learning (briefly called the theory of learning) in the works of Sears suggested the identification of several forms of dependent behavior of children. Their formation depended on the relationship between the child and adults (his parents) in the first years of the baby's life.

Let's consider them in more detail.

First form. negative attention. With this form, the child tries to attract the attention of adults by any means, even the most negative.

Second form. Seeking confirmation. The child is constantly looking for consolation from adults.

Third form. positive attention. Seeking praise from significant adults.

Fourth form. Search for special closeness. The child requires constant attention from adults.

Fifth form. Search for touch. The child needs constant physical attention, expressing love from the parents: affection and hugs.

The scientist considered all these forms enough dangerous topics that they were extreme. He advised parents to adhere to the golden mean in education and not to bring matters to the point that these forms of dependent behavior began to progress in the child.

B. Skinner's concept

The theory of social learning has found its embodiment in the works of Skinner. chief in his scientific theory the phenomenon of so-called reinforcement appears. He suggests that reinforcement, expressed by encouragement or reward, greatly enhances the child's likelihood of assimilation of the model of behavior proposed to him.

Reinforcement scientist divides into two large groups, conditionally calling it positive reinforcement and negative. He refers to positive things that have a positive effect on the development of the child, to negative ones - that which leads to failures in his development and forms social deviations (for example, addiction to alcohol, drugs, etc.).

Also, according to Skinner, reinforcement can be primary (natural exposure, food, etc.) and conditional (tokens of love, monetary units, signs of attention, etc.).

By the way, B. Skinner was a consistent opponent of any punishment in the upbringing of children, believing that they are absolutely harmful, as they represent a negative reinforcement.

Works by other scientists

The theory of social learning, briefly discussed above, has found its embodiment in the works of other psychologists in the United States and Canada.

Thus, the scientist J. Gewirtz studied the conditions for the birth of social motivation in children. The psychologist came to the conclusion that such motivation is created in the process of interaction between adults and children and manifests itself from infancy in the latter in the fact that children laugh or cry, scream or, conversely, behave peacefully.

Colleague of J. Gewirtz, American W. Bronfenbrenner, Special attention paid attention to the problem of personality development in a family environment and pointed out that social learning occurs primarily under the influence of parents.

As the author of the theory of social learning, Bronfenbrenner described and considered in detail the phenomenon of the so-called age segregation. Its essence was as follows: young people, having left certain families, cannot find themselves in life, they do not know what to do with them, and feel like strangers to everyone around them.

The works of the scientist on this topic turned out to be very popular in contemporary society. Bronfenbrenner cited the reasons for such social exclusion as the need for mothers to spend a lot of time away from their families and children at work, the growth of divorces, leading to the fact that children cannot fully communicate with their fathers, the lack of communication with both parents, the passion of family members for products modern technical culture (TVs, etc.), which hinders the interaction of adults and children, the reduction of contacts within a large intergenerational family.

At the same time, Bronfenbrenner believed that such an organization of the family negatively affects the personalities of children, which leads to their alienation from both family members and the whole society.

Useful Chart: The Evolution of Social Learning Theory Over the Past Century

Thus, considering the work of a number of scientists, we can conclude that this theory, having arisen at the beginning of the last century, has passed a long period of its formation, having been enriched in the works of many scientists.

The term itself arose in 1969 in the writings of a Canadian, however, the theory itself received its integral design both in the writings of the scientist himself and his ideological followers.

The evolution of social learning theory, which is also called social-cognitive theory, suggests that the most important thing in a person's life is the example of the behavior of the people around him.

Another key term of this concept was the phenomenon of self-regulation. A person can change his behavior at will. Moreover, he can form an image of the desired future in his mind and do everything to make his dream a reality. People who have no purpose in life, who have a vague idea of ​​​​their future (they are called "go with the flow"), lose a lot compared to those people who have decided how they want to see themselves in years and decades. Another problem that is touched upon in their works, including by supporters of this concept: what to do if the goal cannot be realized?

Indeed, in this case, a person has a burning disappointment in life, which can lead him to depression and suicidal thoughts.

Results: what new has this concept introduced into science?

In the West, this concept remains among the popular theories of personality development. Numerous books have been written on it, protected scientific work, filmed.

Each representative of the theory of social learning is a scientist with a capital letter, recognized in the scientific world. By the way, many popular books on psychology use this theory either in whole or in part. In this regard, it is appropriate to recall the book of the once popular psychologist D. Carnegie, in which simple tips about how to win over people. In this book, the author relied on the works of representatives of the theory we are studying.

Based on this theory, principles of work were developed not only with children, but also with adults. It is still relied upon in the training of military personnel, medical workers, and educators.

Psychologists, addressing the problems of family relationships and advising couples, resort to the basics of this concept.

The first author of the theory of social learning (named A. Bandura) did a lot to ensure that his scientific research was so widely disseminated. Indeed, today the name of this scientist is known all over the world, and his concept is included in all textbooks on social psychology!

The learning procedure is called "operant conditioning". It consisted in the desire of the experimenter to establish a connection between the stimulus (S) and the response (R) through reinforcement - encouragement or punishment. In the stimulus-response (S-R) scheme, the key for Skinner was precisely the reaction. Reactions were considered from the point of view of simplicity-complexity. Simple - salivation, hand withdrawal; difficult - solving a mathematical problem, aggressive behavior (see Reader 6.3).
operant conditioning is the process by which the characteristics of a response are determined by the consequences of that response.
Further, Skinner distinguished (1) reactions that are caused by certain stimuli (pulling the hand away from a hot object) - in this case, the connection between the stimulus and the reaction is unconditional; and (2) responses that are not directly related to the stimulus. The latter reactions are produced by the organism itself and are called operants. Skinner believed that stimuli by themselves do not compel an individual to respond to them. The root cause lies in the body itself. In any case, the behavior occurs without the impact of any special stimulus. The implementation of operant behavior is inherent in the biological nature of the organism. Skinner viewed learning as a process. No (especially complex) operant appears immediately. The process is the encouragement of the operant behavior of the animal. A reward or punishment is a reinforcer or stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood of it occurring. When a pigeon poke at the disk with its beak (or a rat presses a lever with its paw) is an operant behavior in which, if accompanied by reinforcement, the likelihood of its repetition increases. “Operant conditioning shapes behavior in the same way that a sculptor sculpts a figure out of clay. Although at some point the sculptor seems to create a completely new object, we can always go back to the beginning of the process, to the original undifferentiated blank and pick out arbitrarily small steps, or successive stages, following which you can reach the desired condition... At no single moment can anything appear that would be very different from what preceded it ... Operant - this is not something that appears in the behavior already completely ready-made. This is the result of a continuous process of formation "(quoted by: Pervin L., John O. Psychology of personality. Theory and research. M., 2000. P. 350).

6.1.2. Principles of Operant Conditioning

6.1.3. Reinforcement modes

6.1.4. Personal growth and development

As the child develops, his responses are internalized and remain under the control of reinforcing influences from environment. In the form of reinforcing influences are - food, praise, emotional support, etc. The same idea is presented by Skinner in the book "Verbal Behavior" (1957). He believes that mastery of speech occurs according to the general laws of operant conditioning. The child receives reinforcement by pronouncing certain sounds. Reinforcement is not food or water, but the approval and support of adults.
In 1959, the well-known American linguist N. Chomsky made critical remarks about Skinner's concept. He denied the special role of reinforcement in the course of language acquisition and criticized Skinner for neglecting the syntactic rules that play a role in a person's understanding of language constructs. He believed that learning the rules does not require special educational process, but is accomplished thanks to an innate, specific speech mechanism, which is called the "mechanism of mastering speech." Thus, mastery of speech does not occur as a result of learning, but through natural development.

6.1.5. Psychopathology

From the point of view of the psychology of learning, there is no need to look for an explanation of the symptoms of the disease in hidden underlying causes. Pathology, according to Behaviorism - (from the English behavior, biheviour - behavior) direction in American psychology of the twentieth century, which denies consciousness as a subject of scientific research and reduces the psyche to various forms behavior, understood as a set of reactions of the body to stimuli external environment. The direction in psychology, which was initiated by the article of the American psychologist J. Watson "s="" r="" xx="" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">behaviorism, is not ailment, but either (1) the result of an unlearned reaction, or (2) a learned maladaptive reaction.

• (1) An unlearned response or behavioral deficit results from a lack of reinforcement in developing the necessary skills and abilities. Depression is also seen as the result of a lack of reinforcement to form or even maintain the necessary responses.
• (2) A non-adaptive reaction is the result of the assimilation of an action that is unacceptable for society, that does not correspond to the norms of behavior. This behavior occurs as a consequence of the reinforcement of an unwanted response, or as a result of a random coincidence of the response and reinforcement.

Behavior change is also built on the principles of operant conditioning, on a system of behavior modification and associated reinforcements.
A. Behavioral change can come from self-control.

• Self-control includes two interdependent reactions:
  1. A control response that affects the environment by changing the likelihood of secondary responses ("withdrawal" so as not to express "anger"; removal of food to wean from overeating).
  2. A control reaction aimed at the presence of stimuli in the situation that can make the desired behavior more likely (the presence of a table for the implementation of the learning process).

B. Behavioral change can also occur as a result of behavioral counseling. Much of this type of counseling is based on the principles of learning.
Wolpe defines behavior therapy as conditioning therapy, which involves using principles of learning formulated through experimentation to change inappropriate behavior. Inadequate habits are weakened and eliminated; adaptive habits, in contrast, are introduced and reinforced.

• Goals of counseling:
  • (1) Change inappropriate behavior.
  • (2) Learning to make a decision.
  • (3) Prevention of problems by anticipating the results of behavior.
  • (4) Eliminate deficits in the behavioral repertoire.
• Stages of counseling:
  • (1) Behavioral assessment, collection of information about acquired actions.
  • (2) Relaxation procedures (muscular, verbal, etc.).
  • (3) Systematic desensitization - the association of relaxation with the image that causes anxiety.
  • (4) Assertiveness training
  • (5) Reinforcement procedures.

6.1.6. Advantages and disadvantages of learning theories

• Advantages:
  1. The desire for rigorous testing of hypotheses, experimentation, control of additional variables.
  2. Recognition of the role of situational variables, environmental parameters and their systematic study.
  3. A pragmatic approach to therapy has created important procedures to change behavior.
• Disadvantages:
  1. Reductionism is the reduction of the principles of behavior obtained on animals to the analysis of human behavior.
  2. Low external validity is caused by experiments in laboratory conditions, the results of which are difficult to transfer to natural conditions.
  3. Ignoring cognitive processes in the analysis of S-R relationships.
  4. Big gap between theory and practice.
  5. Behavioral theory does not give stable results.

6.2. Social-cognitive theory of A. Bandura

6.2.1. Learning Through Observation

The main thesis of Albert Bandura's theory was the assertion that learning can be organized not only through the implementation of any actions, as Skinner believed, but also with the help of observations behind the behavior of other people. Apparently, the mechanisms of such learning are not only external tracking of the sequence of actions performed, but also internal determinants - cognitive variables. "Modern socio-cognitive theory holds a view of a person as an active being, using cognitive processes to represent events, anticipate the future, choose the direction of action and interact with other people" (Pervin L., John O., 2000. P. 434). Behavior can be explained by the interaction of a person with his environment. This approach to research was called reciprocal determinism by A. Bandura.
The object of observation is not only the model of behavior, but also the consequences to which it leads. Bandura called this process mediated (indirect) reinforcement, which also has a cognitive component - the expectation of consequences. Bandura emphasized the situational specificity of a person's expectations and beliefs, associated with a person's ability to subtly differentiate and group the diverse conditions and circumstances of life. At the same time, the perception of the same situation is individually variable and depends on unique personal characteristics.

6.2.2. self-efficacy

• One of these features is self-efficacy as an individual's perception of his ability to cope with specific situations. The sources of self-efficacy are:
  • knowledge of their own achievements;
  • indirect experience gained through observation of other people, having approximately the same ability as the individual, who demonstrate the ability to complete the task;
  • Verbal - (from Latin verbalis - verbal) - a term used in psychology to refer to the forms of sign material, as well as the processes of operating with this material. There are verbal meaningful material (series of nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, text fragments, poems, etc.) and verbal meaningless material (syllables, meaningless words, etc.). Verbal material is opposed to non-verbal meaningful material ( geometric figures, drawings, photographs. objects, etc.) and non-verbal meaningless material (unusual geometric shapes, ink stains). Depending on the material used, there are verbal (verbal) and non-verbal (for example, gestural) communication, verbal (determined on the basis of solving verbal tasks) and non-verbal intelligence (characterized by solving figurative, constructive and other non-verbal tasks). ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">verbal beliefs and social support;
  • physical, bodily signs (fatigue, tension, lightness, etc.) indicating the degree of difficulty of the task.

Self-efficacy beliefs affect motivation and performance, as well as the ability to cope with problems and difficulties. Research shows that a sense of control over events helps a person overcome stressful life circumstances (see Reader 6.2).

6.2.3. Components of Observational Learning

• Observational learning has four components:
  1. Gain attention behind the model. It consists in highlighting those of its features, the assimilation of which will lead to a useful result.
  2. Process update memorization, which lies in the ability to store the results of observations in a symbolic, coded form.
  3. Playback movements, reinforcing the effects obtained by observation.
  4. Motivation learning, which determines the significance of this model as a role model.

All these conditions determine the effectiveness of training. However, the assimilation of the model does not yet mean its implementation in behavior. The connection between learning and performance depends on reinforcements - rewards and punishments. Bandura's experiment, which has become a classic, confirms this position. In the study, three groups of children were observed with a model showing aggressive behavior towards a Bobo doll. In the first group, the aggressive behavior of the model was not followed by any sanctions; in the second group, the aggressive behavior of the model was encouraged; in the third, it was punished. Immediately after observing aggressive behavior, children from these three groups found themselves in one of two experimental situations. In the first situation, the children were left alone in a room with many toys, including a Bobo doll. They were observed through a one-way mirror. In another situation, children were encouraged to reproduce the behavior of the model.
It turned out that in a situation with a positive incentive to action, children demonstrate much more executive aggressive actions than in a situation where they were not prompted to act. Rewards/punishments also affected the performance part of the action. Children who observed the aggressive behavior of a model who was then punished produced fewer aggressive actions than children in whose presence the model was rewarded.
Aggressive behavior was considered not only as an example of the influence of reinforcement on the assimilation of the model, but also as a style of behavior formed in the process of socialization.
The process of socialization- these are the mechanisms by which society encourages its members to act in accordance with generally accepted norms. As part of the problem of socialization, Bandura considers the formation aggressive, gender role, prosocial behavior and self-regulation.
Formation aggressive behavior occurs under the influence of adults encouraging children to show aggression in socially acceptable forms (for example, in games, when defending one's opinion as an instrumental form of aggressive behavior) and punishments for socially unacceptable forms of aggression (damaging another person, humiliation). Bandura's well-known experiments, in which one group of children watched violent films on television and the other was a control group, showed that learning from the model occurs very quickly and fades slowly (see Reader 6.1).
In the process of socialization, children are taught behavioral skills appropriate to their gender , boys - "male", and the girls - "female" character traits and behavioral techniques. Proponents of the theory social learning do not deny the influence of the genotype on sex-specific behavior, however, from their point of view, the processes of socialization occupy a dominant position in determining the process of assimilation of the sex role. In the learning process gender role behavior the distinction between assimilation and execution takes on special significance. The fact is that children observe both types of behavior - male and female, and implement only the behavior that is characteristic of their gender. The degree of this realization depends on the measure of reinforcement of such behavior.
The lack of social reinforcement, according to Bandura, limits the implementation of the sex-role model in behavior, but does not affect the assimilation of the model through observation.
prosocial behavior associated with the manifestation of altruistic and cooperative strategies. It is formed under the influence of adult encouragement and the child's observation of the consequences of such behavior. Numerous experiments have shown that the model's behavior can affect not only children's ability to share with others, but also helping those in need, willingness to cooperate, and showing concern for other people's feelings.
Self-regulation associated with a change in the locus of rewards and punishments. If at the beginning of the process of socialization the child is dependent on external (extrinsic) forms of punishment and encouragement, then with experience he moves on to internal forms reinforcements, i.e. becomes capable of self-regulation. Self-regulation is carried out on the basis of the claims of the individual. A high level of claims requires and high level achievements, it is formed under the influence of parents' assessments. Goals that are too difficult Frustration - (from lat. frustratio - deception, failure) a psychological state that occurs in a situation of disappointment, failure to fulfill any goal or need that is significant for a person ");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">frustrated activity, causing depression and frustration. Bandura believes that such people can cope (cope) with difficulties if they work out intermediate goals. This strategy does not require a reduction in the level of claims, while maintaining the achievement motivation at the height due to the achievement of goals.
Social Cognitive Theory and Theory personal constructs J. Kelly have common grounds. Such grounds are the cognitive structures of the psyche. However, for other positions, both concepts do not coincide. Kelly focused on Cognitive psychology - one of the leading areas of modern psychology. Cognitive psychology emerged in the late 1950s and early 1960s. 20th century as a reaction to the denial of the role of the internal organization of mental processes, characteristic of the behaviorism dominant in the USA. Initially main task cognitive psychology was the study of the transformation of sensory information from the moment the stimulus hits the receptor surfaces until the response is received (D. Broadbent, S. Sternberg). Later cognitive psychology began to be understood as a direction whose task is to prove decisive role knowledge in the behavior of the subject (W. Neisser). With such a broader approach, cognitive psychology includes all areas that criticize behaviorism and psychoanalysis from intellectualistic or mentalistic positions (J. Piaget, J. Bruner, J. Fodor). The central issue is the organization of knowledge in the memory of the subject, including the correlation of verbal and figurative components in the processes of memorization and thinking (G. Bauer, A. Paivio, R. Shepard).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> cognitive psychology, on the study, construction and prediction of reality. Bandura's social-cognitive theory is associated not with cognitive psychology, but with the psychology of learning (which is why we present the main provisions of this concept in this chapter). Moreover, “if supporters of the theory of personality constructs are to some extent interested in what a person thinks, then supporters of social cognitive theory are interested in how what a person thinks is related to what he feels and does” (Pervin L. ., John O. Psychology of personality. Theory and research. M., 2000. P. 476).

Glossary of terms

1. Learning
2. Respondent conditioning
3. operant conditioning
4. Reinforcement
5. Reinforcement modes
6. Observation
7. indirect reinforcement
8. self-efficacy

Questions for self-examination

1. How is operant conditioning different from respondent conditioning?
2. What is reinforcement? What is the meaning of reinforcement in Skinner's theory?
3. Which reinforcement regimens are the most effective?
4. What is negative reinforcement?
5. How is learning with the help of observation according to A. Bandura?
6. What is self-efficacy? What are its functions?
7. What are the reasons for aggressive behavior according to A. Bandura?

Bibliography

1. Butterworth J., Harris M. Principles of developmental psychology. M.: Kogito-Centre, 2000. 350 p.
2. Baron R., Richardson D. Aggression. St. Petersburg: Piter, 1997. 336 p.
3. Crane W. Secrets of Personality Formation. St. Petersburg: Prime-Eurosign, 2002. 512 p.
4. Nelson-Jones R. Theory and practice of counseling. St. Petersburg: Piter, 2000. 464 p.
5. Pervin L., John O. Psychology of personality. Theory and research. M., 2000. 607.
6. Skinner B. Operant behavior // History of foreign psychology: Texts. M., 1986. S. 60-82.
7. Sokolova E.E. Thirteen Dialogues on Psychology. M.: Meaning, 1995. S. 653.
8. Khjell L., Ziegler D. Personality Theories. SPb., Peter, 1997. 608 p.
9. Pervin L., John O. Psychology of personality. Theory and research. M., 2000. S. 350.

Topics of term papers and essays

1. Aggression as social learning
2. Self-efficacy and its dynamics
3. Imitation and identification in the theory of A. Bandura
4. The Problem of Expectation in Social Cognitive Theory
5. The problem of socialization and its solution in learning theories

Essence of learning

TOPIC 3. LEARNING

3.1. Essence of learning

3.2. Theories of learning

3.3. Types of learning, levels and mechanisms of learning.

There are several concepts related to the acquisition of life experience by a person in the form knowledge, skills, abilities, abilities. This - teaching, teaching, learning. Most general concept is learning. Learning is said to be in the case when a person began to know and (or) be able to do something that he did not know and (or) did not know how to do before.

Learningdenotes the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from protozoa to man as higher form its organization under the conditions of the Earth). Living beings learn new behaviors that enable them to survive more efficiently. Everything that exists, adapts, survives, acquires new properties, and this happens according to the laws of learning.

Doctrinedefined as learning a person as a result of purposeful, conscious appropriation by him of the transmitted (translated) his socio-cultural (socio-historical) experience and the individual experience formed on this basis. Therefore, teaching is considered as a kind of learning.

Educationin the most common sense of this term, it means a purposeful, consistent transfer (transmission) of socio-cultural (socio-historical) experience to another person in specially created conditions. Learning is seen as managing the process of accumulation knowledge, formation of cognitive structures, as the organization and stimulation of educational and cognitive activity of the student.

If "education" And "teaching" denote the process of acquiring individual experience, the term "learning" describes both the process itself and its result. Teaching and learning are almost always conscious processes, while learning can also occur at an unconscious level.

There are many theories of learning. In each of them, one can single out a separate aspect of the phenomenon under study. According to some theories, in the process of teaching and learning there is a single learning mechanism (both in humans and animals); other theories consider teaching and learning as different mechanisms

To the first group relate theories foreign psychology.

– theories behaviorism(J. Watson), where learning is interpreted as a process of random, blind association not related to the psyche and cognition, incentives and responses based on readiness, exercise, reinforcement, or contiguity in time. Such theories contradict later established facts, talking about the possibility of learning without reinforcement, without exercises, etc.;

- a theory where learning is seen as a process of changing the mental reflection of the conditions of activity and behavior on the principle of passively establishing new connections (associationism), restructuring the initially holistic experience in the form of samples (Gestalt psychology) or plans (neobehaviorism). This also includes to a large extent the theory of J. Piaget (Geneva School) and theories of some representatives of the informational approach and cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychologists are interested in what psychological structures are formed during learning. Many of them try to model the learning process in the form computer programs.

To the second group relate theories of domestic psychologists and a number of foreign authors. In man learning And doctrine are considered by them as a cognitive process of assimilation of social experience of practical and theoretical activity. In animals, learning is interpreted as a process of changing the innate species experience and adapting it to specific conditions.

R.G. Averkin, having analyzed the whole variety of learning theories, singled out general provisions, with which, in his opinion, most researchers agree:

1. Learning is gradual or abrupt change behavior. There are two types of temporal flow of the learning process. Forms of learning such as classical or operant conditioning are gradual, while forms of learning such as imprinting or insight are instantaneous.

2. Learning is a change in behavior that is not a direct consequence of the maturation of the organism, although development is always accompanied by learning. Problem learning is closely related to the problem development And maturation. Sometimes in a young organism it is difficult to distinguish the result of learning from the result of maturation, therefore learning is preferred to be studied in adults.

3. Learning is not a change in behavior when tired or as a result of the use of psychoactive substances.

4. Exercise improves the learning process.

5. The species affiliation of an organism determines the possibilities of its learning

There are many theories of learning. In each of them, one can single out some separate aspect of the phenomenon under study (see animation) (http://www.voppsy.ru/journals_all/issues/1996/965/965030.htm; see the article by L.F. Two paradigms in child development research.

According to some theories, in the process of teaching and learning there is a single learning mechanism (both in humans and animals); other theories consider teaching and learning as different mechanisms.

To the first group include theories of foreign psychology:

the theory of behaviorism (J. Watson), where learning is interpreted as a process of random, blind association of stimuli and reactions not related to the psyche and cognition based on readiness, exercise, reinforcement, or contiguity in time. Such theories contradict the later established facts, which speak of the possibility of learning without reinforcement, without exercises, etc.;

theory, where learning is seen as a process of changing the mental reflection of the conditions of activity and behavior on the principle of passively establishing new connections (associationism), restructuring the initially holistic experience in the form of samples (Gestalt psychology) or plans (neobehaviorism). This also includes to a large extent the theory of J. Piaget (Geneva School) and the theories of some representatives of the informational approach and cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychologists are interested in what psychological structures are formed during learning. Many of them are trying to model the learning process in the form of computer programs (http://www.voppsy.ru/journals_all/issues/1999/996/996048.htm; see the article by Fridman L.M. "Another look at the Piaget phenomenon" ).

To the second group include theories of domestic psychologists and a number of foreign authors. In humans, learning and teaching are considered by them as a cognitive process of assimilation of social experience of practical and theoretical activity. In animals, learning is interpreted as a process of changing the innate species experience and adapting it to specific conditions.

R.G. Averkin, having analyzed the whole variety of learning theories, identified general provisions with which, in his opinion, most researchers agree:

1. Learning is a gradual or abrupt change in behavior. There are two types of temporal flow of the learning process. Forms of learning such as classical or operant conditioning are gradual, while forms of learning such as imprinting or insight are instantaneous.

2. Learning is a change in behavior that is not a direct consequence of the maturation of the organism, although development is always accompanied by learning. The problem of learning is closely related to the problem of development and maturation. Sometimes in a young organism it is difficult to distinguish the result of learning from the result of maturation, therefore learning is preferred to be studied in adults.

3. Learning is not a change in behavior when tired or as a result of the use of psychoactive substances.

4. Exercise improves the learning process.

5. The species affiliation of an organism determines the possibilities of its learning (Psychology…, 2001).

Zone concept nearest development(L.S. Vygotsky)

1. The concept of "zone of proximal development"

2. Education, upbringing, development of the student, their indicators and levels

3. Learnability, development, education as indicators of the zone of proximal development

1. The concept of "zone of proximal development"

The concept of the relationship between learning and mental development of the child, which is being developed in Russian developmental and pedagogical psychology, is based on the position on the zones of actual development (ZAR) and the zone of proximal development (ZPD). These levels mental development were allocated by L.S. Vygotsky (see Fig. 4).

L.S. Vygotsky showed that the real relationship between mental development and learning opportunities can be revealed by determining the level of the child's actual development and his zone of proximal development. Education, creating the latter, leads to development; and only that training is effective which goes ahead of development.

The zone of proximal development is the discrepancy between the level of actual development (it is determined by the degree of difficulty of tasks solved by the child independently) and the level of potential development (which the child can achieve by solving problems under the guidance of an adult and in cooperation with peers).

The scientist believed that ZPD determines mental functions that are in the process of maturation. It is associated with such fundamental problems of child and educational psychology as the emergence and development of higher mental functions, the relationship between learning and mental development, the driving forces and mechanisms of the child's mental development. The zone of proximal development is a consequence of the formation of higher mental functions, which are first formed in joint activity, in cooperation with other people, and gradually become internal mental processes of the subject.

The zone of proximal development indicates the leading role of education in the mental development of children. "Education is only good," wrote L. S. Vygotsky, "when it goes ahead of development." Then it awakens and brings to life many other functions that lie in the zone of proximal development. Learning can be guided by development cycles already passed - this is the lowest threshold of learning, but it can be guided by functions that have not yet matured, by the ZPD - this is the highest threshold of learning; between these thresholds is the optimal training period. ZBR gives an idea of internal state, the potential development of the child and on this basis allows you to give a reasonable forecast and practical advice about optimal timing education both for the mass of children and for each individual child. Determining the actual and potential levels of development, as well as the ZPD, is what L.S. Vygotsky called normative age-related diagnostics, in contrast to symptomatic diagnostics, which is based only on external signs development. In this aspect, the zone of proximal development can be used as an indicator of individual differences in children. In domestic and foreign psychology, research is being carried out with the aim of developing methods that make it possible to qualitatively describe and quantify the ZPD.

ZPD can also be identified when studying the personality of the child, and not only his cognitive processes. At the same time, the difference between the spontaneously developing personal characteristics in the process of socialization and those shifts in the development of the personality that occur as a result of directed educational influences is clarified. Optimal conditions to identify the ZPD of the personality, it is created by its integration in the team (http://liber.rsuh.ru/Conf/Psyh_razvitie/kravcova.htm - see the article by Kravtsova E.E. "Cultural and historical foundations of the zone of proximal development").