The theory of the origin of language from gestures: the founder of this theory, the essence of this theory. The Essence of the Social Contract Theory

Theory of the origin of language from gestures

The founder of this theory is German philosopher and psychologist second half of XIX in. W. Wundt (1832-1920). According to Wundt, the original word is an unconscious product inner peace man, mental movements of this world. The origins of language are in the bright, conspicuous features of objects. The first sounds caused by these features could be both emotional cries (interjections) and imitation of the sound of the corresponding object. At the first stage of language development, and sound emotional reactions were accompanied by mimic and pantomime, which reflected internal state person.

Wundt believed that initially there were, as it were, two languages ​​- the language of sounds (physical movements of the tongue and lips) and the language of gestures (movement of hands, head, body, facial muscles). Sounds expressed feelings, emotional state, gestures - ideas about objects, the will of a person. Hand and facial expressions expressed permission and prohibition, instructions and requests, threats and encouragement. Gradually, the sound language improves, and the sign language begins to play a supporting role. Speech gestures begin to play a different role in different peoples, which corresponds to their special mentality, that is, the mental and spiritual warehouse. So, during an hour-long conversation, a modern Mexican uses gestures 180 times, a Frenchman 120, an Italian 80, and a Finn only once.

The German philologist L. Geiger (1829-1870) proposed his version of the gestural theory of the origin of language. He believed that the formation of language is based on visual perceptions, the strongest of which are human motion perceptions. The pronunciation of a sound by a person is necessarily associated with facial expressions, easily observed by the interlocutor. This "gesture" of the face represents a sound, and each sound has its own gesture. In the process of language development, sound is freed from facial expressions and already independently denotes impressions from the surrounding world.

Many researchers of the origin of language have emphasized the special role of gestures and pantomime in the development of human consciousness and sound speech. Ancient dramatic actions - dances, accompanied by cries, reflected the hunt, reproduced scenes of battles. They depicted those moments of real situations that were perceived with great emotional excitement - joy, despair, horror. As a result of the separation of pantomime, sounds become symbols of both the whole situation and its individual elements. Thus, according to these researchers, language arises.

Social contract theory

In the XVIII century. the theory of the social contract appeared, which was based on antiquity, and in many respects corresponded to the rationalism of the 18th century. The French enlighteners P. Maupertuis (1698-1759), E. Condillac (1715-1780), J.-J. Rousseau (1712-1778), Scottish philosopher A. Smith (1723-1790) and others.

Some fundamental ideas of the theory of the social contract were formulated in the 17th century. one of the predecessors of the enlighteners, English philosopher T. Hobbes (1588-1679). He believed that speech was invented by people in the same way that people invented printing. Primitive people "came to mind" to give names to things. With the help of names, people were able to keep their thoughts in memory and communicate them to each other for mutual benefit and pleasant communication.

J.-J. Rousseau's theory of the social contract is connected with the division of human life into two periods - natural and civilized. In the first period, man was a part of nature and language came from feelings, emotions, passions. The origins of language lie primarily in emotional and aesthetic experiences and their expression in the voice. As people approached each other, they began to look for other signs for communication, more convenient and numerous than "screams". Gestures and onomatopoeia became such signs. Gestures denoted objects that are visible to the eye and easy to image, imitative sounds - objects that "amaze" the ear.

Emotional cries, Rousseau believes, come from human nature, onomatopoeia - from the nature of things. But vocal articulations are pure convention; they cannot arise without a general agreement. The replacement of gestures by articulated sounds required not only the collective consent of primitive people, but also words, in order to bring new words into use and agree on their meaning.

As it is easy to see, the concept of a social contract combines different etymological theories of the origin of the language - onomatopoeic and interjectional. The possibility of combining them in one theory lies in the fact that the social contract theory establishes the unity of the human psyche, mind and thinking as the source of the linguistic unity of people.

Labor cry theory and labor theory

In the 19th century in the works of vulgar materialists - the French philosopher L. Noiret (1829-1889) and the German scientist K. Bucher (1847-1930) - a theory was put forward of the origin of the language from labor cries. Its main essence boiled down to the fact that language arose from the cries that accompanied collective work. L. Noiret emphasized that thinking and action were originally inseparable. Cries and exclamations during joint activities facilitated and organized the actions of primitive people.

The labor activity of the first people was carried out with the help of natural objects. The process of labor activity began to be accompanied by more or less rhythmic exclamations. These exclamations gradually turned into symbols of labor processes. Thus, the original language was a set of verbal roots. The theory of labor cries is, in fact, a variant of the interjection theory.

In a more complex form in the last third of the XIX century. F. Engels (1820-1895) formulated the labor theory of the origin of the language. General Process Engels presents the development of man and society in it as the interaction of labor, consciousness and language. Labor, language and thought were formed simultaneously, in unity and interaction. In turn, the development of consciousness, thinking and speech had an impact on labor, led to the creation of new tools and technologies, to a change in the sphere of material production. Thus, throughout the history of mankind, the mutually stimulating influence of labor, thought and language has been carried out.

These are, in brief, the main theories of the origin of language, which are more or less probable hypotheses, traditionally called theories in linguistics.

Labor cry theory

§ 261. In the second half of the XIX century. some European scholars developed the labor theory of the origin of the language in a slightly different direction. The German scientist K. Bucher in his works explained the origin of the language from the "labor cries" that accompanied various acts of collective labor, collective labor actions. Thus, another theory, or hypothesis, of the natural origin of language arises, which in modern linguistics is known as the theory of labor cries. According to this theory, the cries, or exclamations, of primitive people that accompanied collective labor were at first instinctive, involuntary, and then gradually turned into certain symbols of labor processes, i.e. into consciously pronounced language units.

Voice accompaniment of labor processes, especially acts of collective labor, among primitive people seems to be a completely natural phenomenon. This can be confirmed by the fact that in modern society, during some work, certain cries or exclamations are carried out, which to some extent facilitate, rhythmize labor processes, and contribute to the organization of people's labor activity. However, such cries do not express any information and could hardly serve as a source (at least the only one) of the origin of the speech of primitive people. They could only be an external, technical means of rhythmizing labor, as is the case in the life of modern people.

In the works of modern linguists, the theory of labor cries is sometimes mixed with the labor theory of Noiret.

In addition to the considered theories, some other theories of the natural origin of language are explained in modern specialized literature. One of these theories is the "baby babble theory" recently formulated in the United States, according to which human speech could arise from uttered emotive-neutral sounds similar to the involuntary babble of an infant.

Theory of the divine origin of language

§ 262. Of the theories or hypotheses of the artificial origin of language, the theory of its divine origin, or the divine theory, the theory of revelation, divine revelation, the theory of the divine establishment of language, is widely known. This theory has been known since ancient times, along with other theories discussed above. Its content is based on biblical legends, reflected in ancient mythology, in mythological literature, in mythological works of different eras.

The most ancient of the literary monuments that have come down to us, containing information about the divine theory of the origin of the language, are the Indian Vedas (literally "knowledge"). These are four collections of artistic (poetic and prose) works of different genres - songs, hymns, sacrificial sayings and spells, created in the Asian territory to the east of present-day Afghanistan in the 25th-15th centuries. BC.

The theory of the divine origin of language was especially popular in the Middle Ages, when it occupied a dominant position among other hypotheses. The question of the divine origin of language was animatedly discussed in the scientific literature in the XVIII - early XIX c., which is associated with the vigorous activity of the French enlighteners, the spread of ideas French Revolution and is explained by the desire to resist the growing influence of the ideas of the natural origin of language. However, by the end of the XIX century. this theory is no longer valid.

The theory of the divine origin of language has undergone a complex evolution since its inception, in different times it was presented in different versions.

Since ancient times, two main versions of the theory of the divine origin of language have been known. According to one of them (simplified, the most naive), the origin of the language is explained very simply: the language is given to man by God; God created man, and with him, human language. In accordance with another version of this theory, the language was created by people, but with the help of God, under his auspices. The first of the ancient Indian Vedas, called the Rig Veda, says, in particular, that the beginning of speech was given by people, the first great sages, under the auspices of the god Brhaspati, the inspirer of eloquence and poetry. A similar idea is expressed in the ancient Iranian sacred book "Avesta" (literally "law"), in ancient Chinese philosophical literature. A version close to this is contained in the works of Armenian philosophers, as well as scientists from other countries, and is as follows: God created the first man - Adam and gave him some names (earth, sky, sea, day, night, etc.), and Adam came up with names to all other beings and objects, i.e. created a language of his own accord.

Along with the data, the main variants of the divine theory of the origin of language, various intermediate variants are known. So, for example, in one of the hymns contained in the above-mentioned ancient Indian book "Rigveda", the idea is expressed that God, "the universal artisan, sculptor, blacksmith and carpenter who created heaven and earth", did not establish all the names, but only for the gods subordinate to him, the names of things were established by people - the holy sages, although with the help of God, "the lord of speech." According to the Bible, God, who created the world in six days, named only the largest of the objects he created (such as earth, sea, sky, day, night, and some others). The establishment of the names of smaller objects (for example, animals, plants) he entrusted to his creation - Adam. Approximately the same views were reflected in English nominalist philosophy, for example, in the works of the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679): God, at his own discretion, invented only some names and communicated them to Adam, and also taught Adam to create new names and "swarm out of them speech understandable to other people.Similar thoughts are preached in traditional Arabic theology.

As noted above, the divine theory of the origin of language lost its significance by the end of the last century. However, even in ancient times, in ancient philosophy, this theory was not very popular and was in the background; preference was given to theories of the natural origin of language. For some Epicureans, the divine theory even evoked a dismissive attitude. Ancient philosophers (Socrates, Carl Lucretius, Diogenes from Enoanda) drew attention to the fact that one person is not able to "denotate all things with his voice", that for this you first need to know the essence of all things, and this alone is beyond the power. In addition, there was nothing to create words from, since before the establishment of names there were no smaller units, sounds.

In the 19th century with sharp criticism of the divine origin of the language was made by the German philologist J. Grimm, who recognized the widespread at that time concept of impoverishment, damage to the language in the historical development. Grimm puts forward some theological arguments against this theory; he declares, firstly, that it is contrary to God's wisdom to forcibly impose what "must develop freely in the human environment," and, secondly, it would be contrary to God's justice to allow "the divine language bestowed on the first people to lose its original perfection." On this basis, it is concluded that God had nothing to do with the emergence and development of language.

In modern linguistic literature, attention is also drawn to the impossibility of the divine origin of language as a one-time, spasmodic act, also because the formation of the original human speech requires the adaptation of certain human organs, the formation of the speech apparatus, which requires a significant period of time.

The loss of popularity of the theory of the origin of the language under consideration is undoubtedly associated with the spread of atheistic beliefs among many scientists.

Despite the scientific failure of the divine theory of the origin of language, modern scholars also note some positive points last. In the works of some authors, attention is drawn to the fact that "the theory of the divine origin of language ... significantly influenced the development of other theories"; the revival of this theory at the beginning of the XIX century. contributed to the fact that "the attention was additionally focused on the role and essence of the language ability of a person."

Spontaneous jump hypothesis

According to this hypothesis, the language arose abruptly, immediately with a rich vocabulary and language system. Hypothesized by a German linguist Wilhelm Humboldt(1767-1835): “Language cannot arise otherwise than immediately and suddenly, or, more precisely, everything must be characteristic of the language at every moment of its existence, thanks to which it becomes a single whole ... It would be impossible to invent a language if its type was no longer embedded in the human mind. In order for a person to be able to comprehend at least one word not just as a sensual impulse, but as an articulate sound denoting a concept, the entire language and in all its interconnections must already be embedded in it. There is nothing singular in language; each individual element manifests itself only as part of the whole. No matter how natural the assumption of the gradual formation of languages ​​may seem, they could arise only immediately. A person is a person only because of language, and in order to create a language, he must already be a person. The first word already presupposes the existence of the whole language.

Jumps in the emergence of biological species also speak in favor of this seemingly strange hypothesis. For example, when developing from worms (which appeared 700 million years ago) to the appearance of the first vertebrates - trilobites, 2000 million years of evolution would be required, but they appeared 10 times faster as a result of some kind of qualitative leap.

Human origin of language

The German philosopher Herder spoke of the purely human origin of language.
Herder believed that human language arose not to communicate with other people, but to communicate with oneself, to realize one's own self. If a person lived in complete solitude, then, according to Herder, he would have a language. Language was the result of "a secret agreement that the soul of man entered into with itself."
There are also other theories about the origin of the language. For example, the theory of gestures (Geiger, Wundt, Marr). All references to supposedly purely "sign languages" cannot be supported by facts; gestures always act as something secondary for people who have a spoken language. There are no words among gestures, gestures are not connected with concepts.
It is also unlawful to derive the origin of the language from analogues with the mating songs of birds as manifestations of the instinct of self-preservation (Ch. Darwin), especially from human singing (Rousseau, Jespersen). The disadvantage of all the theories listed above is that they ignore language as a social phenomenon.

20. Social hypotheses of the origin of language

Language Creation Theory

Of all the theories of the origin of language put forward by science, only one has retained its position since its inception to this day, despite the fact that all this time its opponents have been desperately searching for counterarguments against it. This is the theory of the divine creation of language. The belief that it was created and given to people by an omnipotent and omniscient God makes it possible to bypass those insurmountable obstacles against which all theories of the emergence of a language in an evolutionary way are broken.

It is clear from the biblical account of Creation that language existed even before God began to create this world. The language was one of the ways of communication of the Most Holy Trinity, hypostases of the Triune God.

The history of mankind allows Christians to claim that language exists as long as God exists, and according to the Bible, God exists forever.

"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. The earth was formless and empty, and the Spirit of God hovered over the waters. And God said: let there be light. And there was light” (Genesis 1:1-3).

But why, of all the living beings He created, did God endow only humans with language? We find the answer to this question in the very first chapter of the Holy Scriptures: “And God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them” (Genesis 1:27). God created people in his own image, and since God is inherent in language and communication, people also got this gift. Thus, the tongue is one of the facets of the Personality of Godhead that He transmitted to people. This is a perfectly sound conclusion, since language gives us a partial idea of ​​the nature of God. Like God, language is unthinkably complex. It can take a lifetime to study it; but at the same time, children, having barely learned to walk, begin to understand and use the language.

Onomatopoeic(Greek "creating names"), or, in other words, an onomatopoeic hypothesis.

Language arose from the imitation of the sounds of nature. The ironic name for this hypothesis is the "wow-wow" theory.

This theory of the Stoics was revived by the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716). He divided sounds into strong, noisy ones (for example, the sound "r") and soft, quiet ones (for example, the sound "l"). Thanks to the imitation of the impressions that things and animals made on them, the corresponding words (“roar”, “weasel”) also arose. But modern words, in his opinion, have moved away from their original sounds and meanings. For example, "lion" ( Lowe) has a soft sound due to the speed of running ( Lauf) of this predator.

Interjection hypothesis

Emotional cries of joy, fear, pain, etc. led to the creation of the language. The ironic name of this hypothesis: the "pah-pah" theory.

Charles de Brosse(1709-1777), a French writer-encyclopedist, observing the behavior of children, discovered how initially meaningless children's exclamations turn into interjections, and decided that primitive man passed the same stage. His conclusion: the first words of a person are interjections.

Etienne Bonnot de Condillac(1715-1780), French philosopher, believed that language arose from the need for mutual assistance of people. It was created by a child because he needs to tell his mother more than his mother needs to tell him. Therefore, initially there were more languages ​​than individuals. Condillac singled out three types of signs: a) random, b) natural (natural cries to express joy, fear, etc.), c) chosen by the people themselves. The screams were accompanied by gestures. Then people began to use words that were originally only nouns. At the same time, initially one word expressed a whole sentence.

French writer and philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712-1778) believed that “the first gestures were dictated by needs, and the first sounds of the voice were torn out by passions ... The natural effect of the first needs was to alienate people, and not to bring them closer. It was alienation that contributed to the rapid and even settlement of the earth […] the source of the origin of people […] in spiritual needs, in passions. All passions bring people together, while the need to preserve life forces them to avoid each other. Not hunger, not thirst, but love, hatred, pity and anger vomited the first sounds from them. The fruits do not hide from our hands; they can be fed in silence; a man silently pursues the prey with which he wants to get enough. But in order to excite a young heart, in order to stop an unjust attacker, nature dictates to a person sounds, cries, complaints. These are the most ancient of words, and this is why the first languages ​​were melodious and passionate before they became simple and rational […].

The English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) believed that onomatopoeia and interjection theories are the two main sources of the origin of language. He drew attention to the great imitative abilities of monkeys, our closest relatives. He also believed that during the courtship of a primitive man, "musical cadences" arose, expressing various emotions - love, jealousy, a challenge to an opponent.

Hypothesis of the public (social) contract.

This hypothesis shows the influence of the ancient theory theseus, according to which people agreed on the designation of objects with words.

This hypothesis was supported by the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes(1588-1679): The disunity of people is their natural state. Families lived on their own, with little contact with other families, and obtained food in a hard struggle in which people "waged a war of all against all." But in order to survive, they had to unite into a state, concluding an agreement among themselves. To do this, it was necessary to invent a language that arose by establishment.

Jean Jacques Rousseau believed that if emotional cries are from human nature, onomatopoeia are from the nature of things, then vocal articulations are pure convention. They could not arise without the general consent of the people. Later, by agreement (by social contract), people agreed on the words used. Moreover, the more limited was the knowledge of people, the more extensive was their knowledge. vocabulary. At first, each object, each tree had its own name, and only later appeared common names(i.e. not oak A, oak B, etc., but oak as a common name).

Gesture theory

Associated with other hypotheses (interjection, social contract). This theory was put forward by Etienne Condillac, Jean Jacques Rousseau and a German psychologist and philosopher Wilhelm Wundt(1832-1920), who believed that language is formed arbitrarily and unconsciously. But at first, physical actions (pantomime) prevailed in a person. Moreover, these "mimic movements" were of three types: reflex, pointing and visual. Reflex movements expressing feelings later corresponded to interjections. Indicative and pictorial, expressing, respectively, ideas about objects and their outlines, corresponded to the roots of future words. The first judgments were only predicates without subjects, that is, sentence words: “shines”, “sounds”, etc.

Rousseau emphasized that with the advent of an articulate language, gestures disappeared as the main means of communication - the sign language has many shortcomings: it is difficult to use while working, communicate at a distance, in the dark, in a dense forest, etc. Therefore, sign language has been replaced by spoken language, but has not been completely supplanted.

Gestures as an auxiliary means of communication continue to be used modern man. Non-verbal (non-verbal) means of communication, including gestures, studies paralinguistics as a separate discipline of linguistics (see Ch. 11).

Labor hypotheses

Collectivist hypothesis (labor cry theory)

The language appeared in the course of collective work from rhythmic labor cries. Put forward a hypothesis Ludwig Noiret, German scientist of the second half of the XIX century.

So, the primitive language cannot be investigated and experimentally tested.

However, this question has interested mankind since ancient times.

Even in the biblical legends, we find two conflicting solutions to the question of the origin of the language, reflecting different historical eras perspectives on this issue. In the first chapter of the book of Genesis it is said that God created by a verbal spell and man himself was created by the power of the word, and in the second chapter of the same book it is said that God created “silently”, and then led to Adam (i.e. to the first man) all creatures, so that a man gives them names, and whatever he calls, so that it will be in the future.

In these naive legends, two points of view on the origin of the language have already been identified:

1) language is not from a person and 2) language is from a person.

In different periods of the historical development of mankind, this issue was resolved in different ways.

The extrahuman origin of language was initially explained as a "divine gift", but not only ancient thinkers gave other explanations for this issue, but also the "fathers of the church" in the early Middle Ages, ready to admit that everything comes from God, including the gift of speech, doubted so that God could turn into a “school teacher” who would teach people vocabulary and grammar, from where the formula arose: God gave man the gift of speech, but did not reveal to people the names of objects (Gregory of Nyssa, IV century AD) 1 .

Since antiquity, there have been many theories about the origin of the language.

1. Theory of onomatopoeia comes from the Stoics and received support in the 19th and even 20th centuries. The essence of this theory is that the “languageless person”, hearing the sounds of nature (the murmur of a stream, the singing of birds, etc.), tried to imitate these sounds with his speech apparatus. In any language, of course, there are a number of onomatopoeic words like coo-coo, woof-woof, oink-oink, bang-bang, cap-cap, apchi,xa-xa-xa and etc. and derivatives of the type cuckoo, cuckoo, bark, grunt, pig, ha-hanki etc. But, firstly, there are very few such words, and secondly, “onomatopoeia” can only be “sounding”, but how then can we call “mute”: stones, houses, triangles and squares, and much more?

It is impossible to deny onomatopoeic words in language, but it would be completely wrong to think that language arose in such a mechanical and passive way. Language arises and develops in a person together with thinking, and with onomatopoeia, thinking is reduced to photography. Observation of languages ​​shows that there are more onomatopoeic words in new, developed languages ​​than in the languages ​​of more primitive peoples. This is explained by the fact that, in order to “imitate sound”, one must perfectly be able to control the speech apparatus, which a primitive person with an undeveloped larynx could not master.

2. Interjection theory comes from the Epicureans, opponents of the Stoics, and lies in the fact that primitive people turned instinctive animal cries into “natural sounds” - interjections that accompany emotions, from where all other words allegedly originated. This view was supported in the 18th century. J.-J. Rousseau.

Interjections are included in the vocabulary of any language and can have derivative words, as in Russian: ax,ox and gasp, groan etc. But again, there are very few such words in languages ​​and even fewer than onomatopoeic ones. In addition, the reason for the emergence of language by supporters of this theory is reduced to an expressive function. Without denying the presence of this function, it should be said that there is a lot in the language that is not related to expression, and these aspects of the language are the most important, for which the language could have arisen, and not just for the sake of emotions and desires, which animals are not deprived of, however, they do not have a language. In addition, this theory assumes the existence of a "man without language", who came to the language through passions and emotions.

3. The theory of "labor cries" at first glance, it seems to be a real materialistic theory of the origin of language. This theory originated in the 19th century. in the writings of vulgar materialists (L. Noiret, K. Bucher) and boiled down to the fact that language arose from the cries that accompanied collective labor. But these "labor cries" are only a means of rhythmizing labor, they do not express anything, not even emotions, but are only an external, technical means at work. Not a single function that characterizes the language can be found in these "labor cries", since they are neither communicative, nor nominative, nor expressive.

Misconception the fact that this theory is close to the labor theory of F. Engels is simply refuted by the fact that Engels does not say anything about “labor cries”, and the emergence of language is associated with completely different needs and conditions.

4. From the middle of the XVIII century. appeared "social contract theory". This theory was based on some opinions of antiquity (the thoughts of Democritus in the transmission of Diodorus Siculus, some passages from Plato's dialogue Cratylus, etc.) 1 and in many respects corresponded to the rationalism of the 18th century itself.

Adam Smith proclaimed it the first opportunity for the formation of a language. Rousseau had a different interpretation in connection with his theory of two periods in the life of mankind: the first - "natural", when people were part of nature and language "came" from feelings ( passions), and the second - "civilized", when language could be a product "social agreement".

In these arguments, the grain of truth lies in the fact that in the later epochs of the development of languages ​​it is possible to “agree” on certain words, especially in the field of terminology; for example, the system of international chemical nomenclature was developed at the international congress of chemists from different countries in Geneva in 1892.

But it is also quite clear that this theory does nothing to explain the primitive language, since, first of all, in order to “agree” on a language, one must already have a language in which they “agree”. In addition, this theory assumes consciousness in a person before the formation of this consciousness, which develops along with the language (see below about F. Engels' understanding of this issue).

The trouble with all the theories outlined is that the question of the origin of language is taken in isolation, without connection with the origin of man himself and the formation of primary human groups.

As we said above (Chapter I), there is no language outside of society and there is no society outside of language.

Various theories of the origin of language (meaning spoken language) and gestures that have existed for a long time also do not explain anything and are untenable (L. Geiger, W. Wundt - in the 19th century, J. Van Ginneken, N. Ya. Marr - in the XX century). All references to supposedly purely "sign languages" cannot be supported by facts; gestures always act as something secondary for people who have a spoken language: such are the gestures of shamans, intertribal relations of the population with different languages, cases of the use of gestures during periods of a ban on the use of spoken language for women among some tribes standing at a low level of development, etc.

There are no "words" among gestures, and gestures are not connected with concepts. Gestures can be indicative, expressive, but by themselves they cannot name and express concepts, but only accompany the language of words that has these functions 1 .

It is also unjustified to derive the origin of the language from the analogy with the mating songs of birds as a manifestation of the instinct of self-preservation (C. Darwin), and even more so from human singing (J.-J. Rousseau - in the 18th century, O. Jespersen - in the 20th century) or even "fun" (O. Jespersen).

All such theories ignore language as a social phenomenon.

We find a different interpretation of the question of the origin of language in F. Engels in his unfinished work "The Role of Labor in the Process of the Transformation of Apes into Humans", which became the property of science in the 20th century.

Based on a materialistic understanding of the history of society and man, F. Engels in his "Introduction" to the "Dialectics of Nature" explains the conditions for the emergence of language in the following way:

“When, after a thousand years of struggle, the hand finally differentiated from the leg and a straight gait was established, then man separated from the monkey, and the foundation was laid for the development of articulate speech ...” 1

W. von Humboldt also wrote about the role of the vertical position for the development of speech: “The vertical position of a person (which is denied to the animal) also corresponds to speech sound”, as well as H. Steinthal 2 and J. A. Baudouin de Courtenay 3 .

Vertical gait was in human development both a prerequisite for the emergence of speech, and a prerequisite for the expansion and development of consciousness.

The revolution that man introduces into nature consists primarily in the fact that human labor is different from that of animals, it is labor with the use of tools, and, moreover, made by those who should own them, and thus progressive and social labor. No matter how skillful architects we consider ants and bees, they “do not know what they are doing”: their work is instinctive, their art is not conscious, and they work with the whole organism, purely biologically, without using tools, and therefore no progress in their work no: both 10 and 20 thousand years ago they worked in the same way as they work now.

The first human tool was the freed hand, other tools developed further as additions to the hand (stick, hoe, rake, etc.); even later, a person shifts the burden to an elephant, a camel, an ox, a horse, and he only manages them, finally, a technical engine appears and replaces the animals.

Simultaneously with the role of the first instrument of labor, the hand could sometimes also act as an instrument of communication (gesture), but, as we saw above, this is not connected with “incarnation”.

“In short, the forming people came to what they had the need to say something each other. Need created its own organ: the undeveloped larynx of the monkey was slowly but steadily transformed by modulation for more and more developed modulation, and the organs of the mouth gradually learned to pronounce one articulate sound after another.

Thus, not mimicry of nature (the theory of "onomatopoeia"), not an affective expression of expression (the theory of "interjections"), not meaningless "hooting" at work (the theory of "labor cries"), but the need for reasonable communication (by no means in "public contract”), where the communicative, semasiological, and nominative (and, moreover, expressive) functions of the language are carried out at once - the main functions without which the language cannot be a language - caused the appearance of the language. And language could arise only as a collective property necessary for mutual understanding, but not as an individual property of this or that incarnated individual.

F. Engels presents the general process of human development as the interaction of labor, consciousness and language:

“First, labor, and then, along with it, articulate speech, were the two most important stimuli, under the influence of which the brain of a monkey gradually turned into a human brain ...” abstraction and inference had a reciprocal effect on labor and language, giving both more and more impetus to further development. “Thanks to the joint activity of the hand, the organs of speech and the brain, not only in each individual, but also in society, people have acquired the ability to perform increasingly complex operations, set themselves ever higher goals and achieve them” 3 .

The main propositions arising from Engels's doctrine of the origin of language are as follows:

1) It is impossible to consider the question of the origin of language outside the origin of man.

2) The origin of a language cannot be scientifically proven, but one can only build more or less probable hypotheses.

3) Some linguists cannot solve this issue; thus this question is subject to resolution of many sciences (linguistics, ethnography, anthropology, archeology, paleontology and general history).

4) If the language was “born” together with the person, then there could not be a “languageless person”.

5) Language appeared as one of the first "signs" of a person; without language man could not be man.

6) If “language is the most important means of human communication” (Lenin), then it appeared when the need for “human communication” arose. Engels says so: "when the need arose to say something to each other."

7) Language is called upon to express concepts that animals do not have, but it is the presence of concepts along with language that distinguishes man from animals.

8) The facts of a language, to varying degrees, from the very beginning must have all the functions of a real language: language must communicate, name things and phenomena of reality, express concepts, express feelings and desires; without it, language is not "language".

9) Language appeared as a spoken language.

This is also mentioned by Engels in his work The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (Introduction) and in his work The Role of Labor in the Process of the Transformation of Apes into Man.

Consequently, the question of the origin of the language can be resolved, but by no means on the basis of linguistic data alone.

These solutions are hypothetical in nature and are unlikely to turn into a theory. Nevertheless, the only way to solve the question of the origin of the language, if based on the real data of languages ​​and on general theory development of society in Marxist science.

Labor theory, the essence of this theory. Fundamental difference this theory from the theory of labor cries. evolutionary theory. anthropological theory.

The main functions of the language.

Thought-forming function - language serves as a means of forming and expressing thoughts. The ability of a word to serve as a means of naming objects and phenomena determines another of the most important intrastructural functions of the language - nominative. The name of a thing becomes its sign, which makes it possible to operate with the thought of a thing: to derive concepts about objects, to reflect their essential properties, to build judgments and conclusions.

From the intrastructural functions of the language - thought-forming and nominative, associated with the thinking of a person and his attitude to reality, one should distinguish between the functions of language units associated with the structure of the language system itself. In this case, they talk about the function of the phoneme, morpheme and other structural units of the language, about the function of the subject, predicate, object, etc. This function is called metalinguistic , which serves to describe the language itself.

The most important social function of language is communicative in which language is the universal means of human communication. With the help of language, people convey their thoughts, feelings, wills, emotional experiences to each other, thereby influencing each other and forming social consciousness. Language enables people to understand each other, remains one of the forces that ensure the existence and development of human society. The types of communicative function are: informative, emotionally expressive, pragmatic. First: the transmission of information from individual to individual, from generation to generation is carried out mainly through language. Emotionally expressive function consists in expressing the moods and emotions of the speaker. Pragmatic - in expressing the goals, motives, interests, attitudes of the speaker.

The second main social function of language is accumulative a function in which language serves as a means of accumulating social experience and knowledge, a means of forming and developing material and spiritual culture. In language, written texts, information is accumulated and transmitted from individual to individual, from generation to generation.

cognitive the function of the language is to display the process of cognition, i.e. through the language people receive information about the world, through the language this information is represented by a person, it is stored in memory and converted into knowledge, and this knowledge affects our attention and behavior.

In addition to the main intrastructural and public functions of the language, private functions are distinguished: contact-setting , or phatic - the function of creating and maintaining contact between interlocutors when there is no need to transmit any significant information (exchange of remarks about the weather, health, etc.); aesthetic - the function of aesthetic impact on a person with the help of language (literature, theater, cinema, etc.); appellative - the function of calling, inducing to certain actions, and some others.

The system and structure of the language. Levels of the language system and their units. Language as a system of interconnected levels. Types of system relations in the language: syntagmatic, paradigmatic, hierarchical. The concept of synchrony and diachrony. The problem of system relations in synchrony and diachrony.

A language system is a set of linguistic elements of any natural language that are in relationships and connections with each other, which forms a certain unity and integrity. The concepts of structure and system are very closely related and are often used as synonyms. Nevertheless, it is customary to distinguish between them: the structure is the unity of heterogeneous elements within the whole, and the system is the unity of homogeneous interdependent elements. JS are inherent: integrity, the presence of units, the presence of connections and relationships between them.
Levels of the language system: text (the largest unit of the speech flow, limited by pauses and having its own sound pattern), sentence (grammatical organization of the connection of words with semantic or intonational significance), phrase (combination of two or more significant words related in meaning and grammatically) , word (structural unit of the language, which serves to name objects, qualities and characteristics). morpheme (a linguistic unit that has a meaning), phoneme (the shortest unit of the sound structure of a language, which is realized in the sounds of speech and with
Syntagmatic ot-iya are relations that units of the same level enter into, connecting with each other in the process of speech or as part of units of a higher level. This refers, firstly, to the very fact of compatibility (the raven is combined with the form screams, but not with the forms I scream and scream, with adjectives old, but not with the adverb old; combined with flies, screams and many other verbs, does not combine with sings and clucks.Secondly, we have in mind the semantic relations between units that are jointly present in the speech chain (for example, in the old raven, the word old serves as a definition for raven)
Paradigmatic - these are relations of mutual opposition in the language system between units of the same level, one way or another related in meaning. Paradigms such as crow - crow - crow, etc. are based on this relationship. (grammatical case paradigm in which morphemes are opposed to each other); shouting - shouting - shouting (grammatical personal paradigm, personal endings are contrasted); raven - falcon - hawk - kite (lexical paradigm, words denoting birds of prey are opposed to each other). It serves to distinguish the meaning of words and does not have an independent meaning).
Hierarchical - these are relationships according to the degree of complexity; relations of “occurrence” of less complex units into more complex ones. Hierarchical relationships can be defined using the constructions "included in ..." or "consists of ...". These are the relations of the whole and the part, i.e., relations that characterize the structure of various units, both linguistic and speech, formed in the process of using language tools. Hierarchical relations characterize only relations between units of different levels, i.e., relations of qualitatively different quantities. In this case, the transition from a unit of a lower level to a unit of a higher level is carried out, as a rule, as a result of combination, i.e., the realization of the syntagmatic properties of elements of a lower level. Thus, syntagmatic relations act as a form of existence of hierarchical relations.
Synchrony and diachrony in language correlate with the concept of time. In the first case, the language is understood as a static system, and the object of study of linguistics is its state at a given particular moment. In the case of diachrony, the evolution of the language is considered, all its phenomena line up in a kind of sequence, at the end of which is the language in its current state. In accordance with the selection of two axes of synchrony (simultaneity) and diachrony (sequence), Saussure distinguishes two linguistics: synchronic and

diachronic. According to Saussure, Slinguistics should deal with the logical and psychological relationships that connect coexisting elements and form a system, studying them as they are perceived by the same collective consciousness. Linguistics, on the contrary, must study the relations that connect elements that follow one after another in time and are not perceived by the same collective consciousness, that is, elements that successively replace each other and do not form a system in their totality. Linguistics, according to Saussure, from the very beginning paid too much attention to diachrony, the history of language. Meanwhile, diachronic changes cannot affect the entire system at once, but only its individual elements. "Language is a system, all parts of which can and must be considered in their synchronic interdependence."

23. Polysemy. The concept of lexical-semantic variant. The ratio of the meanings of a polysemantic word. Ways of development of polysemy of a word in various languages.

Polysemy, i.e. "polysemy", is characteristic of most ordinary words. This is quite natural. Words as names can easily pass from one thing to another, or to some sign of this thing or part of it. Therefore, the question of polysemy is, first of all, a question of nomination, i.e., the change of things while the word is the same. The question of the preservation and permanence of a concept or its essential features is realized in polysemy in different ways.

Words that have at least 2 meanings are called polysemantic or polysemantic. Some lexical meanings form its semantic variants.

the polysemy of a word in one language often has much in common with the polysemy of the same word in other languages, which indicates the patterns of development of meanings. For example, in the word table in many languages, two main common values- "furniture and food", although in other meanings this word may diverge. So, the English word table also has the meaning "board", which is not characteristic of the Russian word table. In German, the word Fuchs - a fox means not only an animal, its fur, and not only a sly one, as in Russian, but also a person with red hair, a horse with a red color, gold coin and also, for some reason, a first-year student.

The actualization of one or another meaning of a polysemantic word is carried out in combination with other words, as well as in a broader context - a verbal environment, communication situations that eliminate polysemy.

New meanings usually arise when a word already existing in the language is used to name an object or phenomenon that was not previously designated by this word. There are certain semantic connections between the meanings of a polysemantic word that preserve one or another sign in a figurative meaning. direct meaning. The nature of the relationship between the meanings of a polysemantic word, the features of semantic subordination within its semantic structure give grounds to single out three main ways of semantic transformation and development of meanings: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.

The meanings of polysemantic words are not equal. Some of them act as primary, basic, others develop on the basis of these primary values. The former can be attributed to the phenomena of direct primary nomination, the latter are facts of secondary nomination, since they develop on the basis of already established linguistic units. If iron (stick, poker, box, etc.) is made of iron, i.e. the meaning is based on the selection of one of the signs of the phenomenon, then in iron (will) the meaning of "strong, firm" is based on the primary meaning of the word iron (i.e. it is "similar to that made of iron"). Similarly, the ratio of nomination types is walking to fast walking, walking and under. and trains run on schedule, clocks run correctly and under., where the correlation with the primary value is felt quite clearly.

Secondary names based on the transfer of the name from one phenomenon to another often turn out to contain an assessment of the corresponding phenomena (cf.: stone house and stone heart, steel bar and steel character, sour milk and sour mood, etc.).

Primary meanings are called free, since they can be combined with a diverse range of words, limited only by the subject-logically, the real-semantic possibility of the corresponding combinations and the rules and norms for the use of words adopted in the team.

Secondary, figurative meanings are always limited in the possibilities of their use. (Compare: a red-hot house, a barn, a pillar, a fence, a basement, a bridge, etc., but only a stone heart; lather (with soap) the neck, head, arm, legs, underwear, etc., but with a meaning, lather "to scold" only combinations are possible - lather the neck, head; the rope, glass, bubble, cup, ball, etc. burst, but burst with laughter, with anger).

Restrictions on the use of secondary, derivative, figurative meanings may be different *.

Secondary names are most often formed on the basis of metaphor and metonymy.

Metaphorical transfers, i.e., transfers based on similarity, are characteristic of all languages, and often there is a similarity in the main directions of transfer with differences in details.

So, there are often transfers from the names of parts of the human body to other objects: the head of a pin, the eye of a needle, the neck of a bottle, a door handle, a chair back, a teapot spout. In other languages, where such hyphenation is widely represented, there may be partial differences. For example, in English, a needle does not have an "eye", but an "eye", a bottle does not have a "neck", but a "neck"; in French, the teapot does not have a "spout", but a "beak", etc. But more often there is a coincidence. So, the pin has a "head" not only in Russian, but also in English, German, Polish; the chair has a "back" not only in Russian, but also in English; "handle" by the armchair in Russian, English; "handle" at the door in Russian and Polish; "leg" at the chair in Russian and German, etc.

Historically, the development and accumulation of secondary, derived meanings followed two main paths, called chain and radial.

With the chain path of development of polysemy, each next meaning developed from the previous one, sometimes very far breaking away from the original one.

More common is another path, known as the radial. In this case, the initial value can be represented as a certain center, from which the radii of secondary, derived values ​​depart. Each of these secondary values ​​develops directly from the original and does not depend on the previous derivative. The connection between the LSV is mediated by the presence of the original, pivotal meaning. As well as the chain, radial path of development in pure form is rare.

24. Single words: terms. Ways of their education. professionalism. Their difference from terms.

Terms are special words, limited by their special purpose; words that tend to be unambiguous as an exact expression of concepts and naming things. It is necessary in science, technology, politics and diplomacy.

Ways of education:

1) semantic - meaning transfer

2) morphological - the formation of new words from existing ones (core + core)

3) Creation of stable terminological phrases from two or more words

4) Substantiation - the transition of adjectives into a noun

5) Eponymy transition of proper names into terms

6) Anagram permutation of letters in proper names

7) Borrowing

8) Connecting words and particles

Professionalisms - words and expressions that are not scientifically defined, strictly legalized names of certain objects, actions, processes associated with professional, scientific, production activities of people.

Terms, unlike professionalisms, are fixed in dictionaries, are obligatory in training, and are stable.

Semiotics (semiology) is the science of sign systems. Types of sign systems. Language as a sign system. Theory of the linguistic sign. Bilateral nature of the linguistic sign. Types of relationships between linguistic signs: syntagmatic, paradigmatic.

The science that studies sign systems is called semiotics, or semiology. Types of sign systems. Before proceeding to the description of language as a system, it is necessary to clearly define the place of the language system among other systems surrounding a person. V.M. Solntsev gives a classification of systems according to their origin, genesis. In the beginning there are primary material systems. These are systems that are characteristic of nature before man and outside man. They are represented in liquids, gases, solids, organic life. The quality of systems is determined by the quality of the elements and structures that make them up. Human activity creates 3 new classes of systems: ideal, artificial and secondary, or semiotic. Ideal systems are such systems, the elements (elementary objects) of which are ideal objects - concepts or ideas connected by certain relationships. Ideal system, for example, is a system of ideas of a particular work, a system of concepts of a particular science, etc. Artificial systems are defined as those created by humans, i.e. technical systems. Secondary material systems are characterized by the fact that in them the material elements are significant for the system not only because of their substantial properties, but because of the properties attributed to them. They arise only due to the activity of people as a means of fixing and expressing semantic information (systems of ideas or concepts) and thus as a means of transmitting these ideas from person to person, i.e. as a means of communication between people. Secondary material systems are divided into primary and secondary sign systems. Primary sign systems are natural languages. Secondary sign systems are divided into three groups: transposing, signal and indicative. Transposing sign systems are secondary sign systems that transpose the signs of the original system into another substance (these are geographical maps, photographs, fingerprints, etc.). Signal sign systems are incentive signs that, informing about a certain state of affairs, encourage certain behavior (traffic light, red card in football, whistle about the beginning and end of a match in sports, etc.). Indicative sign systems are secondary signs that inform, but do not encourage action, do not form systems (state flags, coats of arms, company logos, etc.). IV. Language as a sign system Language is also a sign system, but it is the most complex of all sign systems. All sign systems have the following properties: 1) all signs have a material, sensually perceived "form", which is sometimes called the denoting or exponent of the sign. Exhibitors are available to visual, auditory, tactile perception, as well as olfactory and gustatory exhibitors. It is important that the exhibitor be accessible to human perception, i.e. was material; 2) a material object is an exponent of a sign only if this or that idea, this or that signified, or, as they often say, the content of the sign is associated with it in the minds of those who communicate; 3) very important property a sign is its opposition to another or other signs within a given system. Contrasting presupposes the sensual distinguishability of the exponents and the opposite or distinguishability of the content of the signs. It follows from this that not all material properties of exponents turn out to be equally important for the implementation of their sign function: in the first place, it is precisely those properties by which these exponents differ from each other, their “differential features”, that are important. Some properties turn out to be insignificant. The opposition of signs is clearly manifested in the case of the so-called zero exponent, when the material, sensually perceived absence of something (an object, an event) serves as an exponent of a sign, since this absence is opposed to the presence of some object or event as an exponent of another sign; 4) the connection established for each given sign between its exhibitor and content is conditional, based on a conscious agreement (the connection between green and the idea “the path is free”). In other cases, this connection can be more or less motivated, internally justified, in particular, if the exhibitor has similarities with the designated object or phenomenon (road signs, with the image of running children, a zigzag road, a turn); 5) the content of the sign is a reflection in the minds of people using this sign, objects, phenomena, situations of reality, and the reflection is generalized and schematic (the zigzag road sign always indicates the real meanders of a particular road, but in general refers to any meander, to a class of roads) . The sign also has this content when there is no winding road nearby (for example, in a training table). At the same time, language is a sign system of a special kind, noticeably different from artificial systems. Distinctive features of the language from other sign systems: 1) language is a universal sign system. It serves a person in all areas of his life and activity and therefore must be able to express any new content that needs to be expressed. Artificial systems are not like that, they are all special systems with narrow tasks that serve a person only in certain areas, in certain types of situations. The number of contents conveyed by the signs of such a system is limited. If there is a need to express any new content, a special agreement is required introducing into the system new sign, i.e., changing the system itself; 2) signs in artificial systems either do not combine with each other at all as part of one “message” (for example, the raised and lowered semaphore arms do not combine), or they are combined within strictly limited limits, and these combinations are usually accurately recorded in the form of standard complex signs ( cf. prohibition road signs, in which a round shape and a red border indicate a ban, and the image inside the circle indicates what exactly is prohibited). On the contrary, the number of contents conveyed by the means of language is, in principle, unlimited. This infinity is created firstly, a very wide ability for mutual combination and, secondly, the unlimited ability of linguistic signs to acquire new meanings as needed, without necessarily losing the old ones. Hence the widespread ambiguity of linguistic signs; 3) language is a system that is much more complex in its internal structure than the considered artificial systems. The complexity is already manifested in the fact that a complete message is only rarely transmitted by one integral linguistic sign, but usually a message, an utterance is a certain combination of more or less signs. This combination is free, created by the speaker at the moment of speech, a combination that does not exist in advance, is not standard. A linguistic sign, as a rule, is therefore not a whole utterance, but only a component of the utterance; as a rule, it does not provide complete information corresponding to a specific situation, but only partial information corresponding to the individual elements of the situation, to which this sign indicates, which it highlights, names, etc.; 4) some linguistic signs are "empty", that is, they do not denote any "extra-linguistic realities". These signs perform purely official functions. Thus, the endings of adjectives in Russian usually function only as indicators of the syntactic connection (agreement) of a given adjective with the noun being defined (new journal - New Newspaper- New letter); 5) the complexity of the structure of the language is manifested, further, in the fact that the language has not only a tier that lies "above" the sign - a tier of sentences and free (variable) phrases like a white sheet, but also a tier that lies "below" the sign, the tier “non-signs”, or “figures”, from which the exponents of signs are built (and with the help of which they are distinguished); 6) in addition, each language evolved and changed spontaneously over thousands of years. Therefore, in every language there is a lot of "illogical", "irrational" or, as they say, there is no symmetry between the plane of content and the plane of expression. In all languages, there are many signs with completely coinciding exponents, the so-called homonyms, for example, bow, which should be distinguished from polysemy, when one sign (for example, a rooster), in addition to its direct meaning, has another one that is logically deduced from the first; 7) for all the fundamental economy of its structure, the language sometimes turns out to be very wasteful and sometimes expresses the same meaning several times within the same message. Such redundancy is not, however, a disadvantage: it creates the necessary "margin of safety" and allows you to accept and correctly understand voice message even in the presence of interference; 8) the meaning of linguistic signs often includes an emotional moment (cf. affectionate words, and, on the contrary, curses, the so-called suffixes of emotional evaluation, and finally, intonational means of expressing emotions).

Types of system relations in language: paradigmatics and syntagmatics. Between linguistic units of the same level (word and word, morpheme and morpheme) there are relations of 2 types - paradigmatic and syntagmatic: Paradigmatic series (paradigms) of the type crow - crow - crow, etc. are based on this relation. (grammatical case paradigm, in which morphemes - endings are opposed to each other); shouting - shouting - shouting (grammatical personal paradigm, personal endings are contrasted); raven - falcon - hawk - kite (lexical paradigm, words denoting birds of prey are opposed to each other). Syntagmatic relations are relations that units of the same level enter into, connecting with each other in the process of speech or as part of units of a higher level. This refers, firstly, to the very fact of compatibility (a raven is combined with the form screams, but not with the forms I scream and scream, with adjectives old, but not with the adverb old; combined with flies, screams and many other verbs, it does not normally combine with sings and cackles.Secondly, we have in mind the semantic relations between units that are jointly present in the speech chain (for example, in the old raven, the word old serves as a definition for raven).

28. The main ways of enriching the vocabulary of the language: word formation; rethinking words; borrowing words from other languages; tracing (word-building and semantic tracing).

Ways to enrich the vocabulary of the language:

Morphological (word formation) - the creation of new words from morphemes already existing in the language (own or previously borrowed from the rebellion of other words) according to existing rules, or word-formation models.

Types of word formation:

1) affixation is a way of forming new words by adding word-building affixes to the roots or stems (for example, Russian stylist, cartoonist, English speaker, helpless, German blutlos, Reiterin, French changement, revoir);

2) compounding - the formation of new words by combining two or more root morphemes, stems or whole words (for example, Russian lunokhod, film market, English moneyman, stand-alone, German Alleinhandel, Bildfunk);

3) conversion - the formation of a word of one part of speech from a word of another part of speech without any morphological changes in its original form (for example, Russian pelmennaya, head, English a fine - to fine, a round - round, leben - das Leben, French boire - le boire);

4) abbreviation - the creation of words based on abbreviations, that is, abbreviations (truncated versions) of other words (for example, Russian computer, UFO, university, English VIP, brunch, German GmbH, French ovn).

Semantic (rethinking words) - changing the meanings of existing words, the material shell of which is filled with new content.

Kalki is a type of borrowing in which only the meaning of a foreign language unit and its structure (the principle of its organization) are adopted, i.e., a foreign language unit is copied using its own, non-borrowed material.

Semicalque is a type of borrowing in which one part of the word is borrowed materially, and the other is traced.

Word-building tracing paper are words obtained by morphemic translation of a foreign word from one language into another. Tracing paper usually does not feel like a loan word, as it is made up of morphemes of its own language.

Semantic calques- these are words that have received new, figurative meanings under the influence of a foreign word

Borrowings and their types.

Borrowing of words - replenishment of the vocabulary of the language by borrowing words from other languages.

Borrowings oral and written.

BORROWINGS DIRECT words are directly borrowed from one language to another

INDIRECT words of one language enter another through an intermediary language

Borrowings Assimilated people adapt to the system of a new language for them in such a way that the foreign origin of such words is not felt by native speakers and is detected only with the help of etymological analysis. The undeveloped retain traces of their foreign language origin in the form of sound, graphic, grammatical and semantic features that are alien to the original words.

Taboos and euphemisms.

A taboo is a prohibition adopted in a society (under pain of punishment) and imposed on any actions for members of this society.

Euphemisms (Greek ευφήμη - "dialect") - a word or descriptive expression that is neutral in meaning and emotional "burden", usually used in texts and public statements to replace other words and expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate.

A euphemism is an antonym for the word taboo.

Spheres of use of euphemisms: national, medicine, professions, religion, age, military, economic operations, national social life, etiquette sphere, financial situation, physiologist state.

Logosic theory of the origin of the language and its varieties (Biblical, Vedic and Confucian). Onomatopoeic theory of the origin of language. Interjectional theory of the origin of language. Theory of reflections. Onomatopoeic theory of the origin of language.

The theory of the origin of language from gestures: the founder of this theory, the essence of this theory. Essence of the social contract theory. The essence of the theory of labor cries.