In a figurative sense, then. Direct and figurative meaning of the word, or an entertaining play on words
A word can have one lexical meaning. Such words are called unambiguous, For example: dialog, purple, saber, alert, appendicitis, birch, felt-tip pen
Several types can be distinguished unambiguous words.
1. These include, first of all, proper names (Ivan, Petrov, Mytishchi, Vladivostok). Their extremely specific meaning excludes the possibility of varying the meaning, since they are the names of single objects.
2. Usually recently emerged words that have not yet become widespread are unambiguous (briefing, grapefruit, pizza, pizzeria etc.). This is explained by the fact that for the development of ambiguity in a word, its frequent use in speech is necessary, and new words cannot immediately receive universal recognition and distribution.
3. Words with a narrow subject meaning are unambiguous (binoculars, trolleybus, suitcase). Many of them denote objects of special use and therefore are rarely used in speech. (beads, turquoise). This helps to keep them unique.
4. One meaning, as a rule, highlights the terms: sore throat, gastritis, fibroids, syntax, noun.
Most Russian words have not one, but several meanings. These words are called polysemantic, they are opposed to single-valued words. The ability of words to have multiple meanings is called polysemy. For example: word root- multivalued. In the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova, four meanings of this word are indicated:
1. The underground part of the plant. The apple tree has taken root. 2. Inner part tooth, hair, nail. Blush down to the roots of your hair. 3. trans. Beginning, source, basis of something. The root of evil. 4. In linguistics: the main, significant part of the word. Root- significant part of the word.
The direct meaning of the word is its main meaning. For example, an adjective gold means "made of gold, composed of gold": gold coin, gold chain, gold earrings.
The figurative meaning of the word- this is its secondary, non-primary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one. gold autumn, golden curls- the adjective in these phrases has a different meaning - figurative ("similar to gold in color"). Golden time, skillful fingers- in these examples, the adjective has a figurative meaning - "beautiful, happy."
The Russian language is very rich in such transfers:
wolf skin- wolfish appetite;
iron nail- iron character.
If we compare these phrases, we can see that adjectives with a figurative meaning not only tell us about some quality of a person, but evaluate it, figuratively and vividly describe: golden character, deep mind, warm heart, cold look.
The use of words in a figurative sense gives speech expressiveness, figurativeness. Poets and writers are looking for fresh, unexpected, accurate means of conveying their thoughts, feelings, emotions, moods. On the basis of the figurative meaning of words, special means artistic representation: comparison, metaphor, personification, epithet and etc.
Thus, on the basis of the figurative meaning of the word, the following are formed:
comparison(one object is compared to another). The moon is like a lantern; fog like milk;
metaphor(hidden comparison). Rowan bonfire(rowan, like a fire); the bird cherry is throwing snow(bird cherry, like snow);
personification(human properties are transferred to animals, inanimate objects). The grove answered; cranes do not regret; the forest is silent;
epithet(figurative use of adjectives). The grove is golden; birch tongue; pearl frost; dark fate.
The section is very easy to use. In the proposed field, just enter right word, and we will give you a list of its values. It should be noted that our site provides data from different sources- encyclopedic, explanatory, derivational dictionaries. Here you can also get acquainted with examples of the use of the word you entered.
What does "portable meaning" mean?
Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998
figurative meaning of the word
secondary (derivative) meaning of a word that arose on the basis of different types associations, through metonymy, metaphor and other semantic changes. For example, the figurative meaning of the word "wake up" ("the forest woke up"), "rig" ("rig the facts").
The figurative meaning of the word
the secondary (derivative) meaning of a word associated with the main, main meaning by metonymic, metaphorical dependence or some associative features. P. z. with. may arise on the basis of spatial, temporal, logical, etc. correlation of concepts (contiguity of material and product, process and result, etc.), average metonymic meanings of the words “publishing”, “finishing”, “wintering”, “image ”, based on associations by similarity (in shape, color, character of movements, etc.), for example, the metaphorical meanings of the words “stupid”, “fresh”, “stamp”. As a result of the transfer of names based on common function there were many P. z. s., for example, the words "wing", "shield", "satellite". P. z. with. have a greater syntagmatic connection (see Syntagmatic Relations), while direct meanings are most paradigmatically conditioned (see Paradigmatic Relations). Regularities of emergence of P. z. with. (regularity and irregularity of formation in semantically homogeneous groups of words, etc.), the nature of their relationship with the main meaning (for example, the direction of development from more specific to more abstract meanings, etc.) can be described both in synchrony (see Synchrony) and and in diachronic (see Diachrony) plans. In the history of the development of the language P. z. with. can become the main ones and vice versa (the average development of the meanings of the words “hearth”, “slum”, “red”). This shift in the semantic structure of the word is influenced by various factors(emotional and evaluative elements, associative links accompanying the word when it is used, etc.).
Lit .: Vinogradov V. V., The main types of lexical meanings of the word, “Issues of Linguistics”, 1953, ╧5; Kurilovich E., Notes on the meaning of the word, in his book: Essays on linguistics, M., 1962; Shmelev D.N., Problems of semantic analysis of vocabulary, M., 1973.
Words, phrases, phrases and sentences - all this and much more is embedded in the concept of "language". How much is hidden in it, and how little we really know about the language! Every day and even every minute we spend next to him - whether we say our thoughts aloud or lead internal dialogue, read or listen to the radio... Language, our speech is a real art, and it should be beautiful. And its beauty must be genuine. What helps in finding the true beauty of language and speech?
The direct and figurative meaning of words is what enriches our language, develops it and transforms it. How does this happen? Let's understand this endless process, when, as they say, words grow from words.
First of all, you should understand what the direct and figurative meaning of the word is, and what main types they are divided into. Each word can have one or more meanings. Words with the same meaning are called monosemantic words. In Russian, there are much fewer of them than words with many different values. Examples are words such as computer, ash, satin, sleeve. A word that can be used in several meanings, including figuratively, is a polysemantic word, examples: a house can be used in the meaning of a building, a place for people to live, a family way of life, etc.; the sky is the air space above the earth, as well as the location of the visible luminaries, or divine power, conduction.
With ambiguity, a direct and figurative meaning of a word is distinguished. The first meaning of the word, its basis - this is direct meaning the words. By the way, the word “direct” in this context is figurative, i.e. the main meaning of the word is “something even, 
without bends” - is transferred to another object or phenomenon with the meaning “literal, unambiguously expressed”. So there is no need to go far - you just need to be more attentive and observant in what words we use, when and how.
From the above example, it already becomes clear that the figurative meaning is the secondary meaning of the word, which arose when the literal meaning of the word was transferred to another object. Depending on what feature of the object was the reason for the transfer of meaning, there are such types of figurative meaning as metonymy, metaphor, synecdoche.
The direct and figurative meaning of a word can overlap with each other based on similarity - this is a metaphor. For example:
ice water - ice hands (by sign);
poisonous mushroom - poisonous character (by sign);
a star in the sky - a star in the hand (according to the location);
chocolate candy - chocolate tan (based on color).
Metonymy is the selection in a phenomenon or object of some property, which, by its nature, can replace the rest. For example:
gold jewelry - she has gold in her ears;
porcelain dishes - there was porcelain on the shelves;
headache - my head is gone.
And, finally, synecdoche is a type of metonymy, when one word is replaced by another on the basis of a constant, really existing ratio of part to whole and vice versa. For example:
He is a real head (meaning very smart, the head is the part of the body that contains the brain).
The whole village sided with him - every inhabitant, that is, the "village" as a whole, which replaces its part.
What can be said in conclusion? Only one thing: if you know the direct and figurative meaning of a word, you will not only be able to use certain words correctly, but also enrich your speech, and learn how to convey your thoughts and feelings beautifully, and maybe one day you will come up with your own metaphor or metonymy ... Who knows?
What is the direct and figurative meaning of the word
The plurality of meanings of a word is that aspect of linguistics and linguistics that attracts close attention researchers, since each language is a mobile and constantly changing system. Every day new words appear in it, as well as new meanings of words already known. For their competent use in speech, it is necessary to monitor the processes of formation of new semantic shades in the Russian language.
Polysemantic words
These are lexical items that have two or more meanings. One of them is direct, and all the rest are portable.
It is important to note what place in the Russian language is occupied by polysemantic words. direct and figurative meaning are one of the main aspects of the study of linguistics, since the phenomenon of polysemy covers more than 40% of the vocabulary of the Russian language. This happens because no language in the world is able to give its own specific designation to each specific subject and concept. In this regard, there is a discrepancy between the meanings of one word for several others. This is natural process which is influenced by factors such as associative thinking people, metaphor and metonymy.
Aspects of polysemy: relations of meaning
Polysemy implies a certain system of meanings of a word. How does this system come about? How do such two components appear as the direct and figurative meaning of a word? First of all, any lexical unit is formed in the language with the formation of a new concept or phenomenon. Then, due to certain linguistic processes, additional meanings appear, which are called figurative. The main influence on the formation of new meanings is provided by the specific context in which the word is located. Many researchers note that polysemy is often impossible outside the linguistic context.
Words with direct and figurative meanings become such by linking to the context, and their use depends on the choice of meaning in each specific situation.
Aspects of polysemy: semantic relations
It is very important to distinguish between such concepts as polysemy and homonymy. Polysemy is a polysemy, a system of meanings attached to the same word, related to each other. Homonymy is a phenomenon of linguistics, covering words that are identical in form (spelling) and sound design (pronunciation). At the same time, such lexical units are not related in meaning and do not have a common origin from one concept or phenomenon.
The direct and figurative meaning of a word in the light of the semantic relationships between the various meanings attached to a particular word are the object of study by many scientists. The difficulty of studying this group of lexical units is that it is often difficult to find a common initial meaning for polysemantic words. It is also difficult to separate completely unrelated meanings that have many common features, but they are only examples of homonymy.
Aspects of polysemy: categorical connection
Of particular importance for scientists in the aspect of the study of the topic "Direct and figurative meaning of the word" is the explanation of polysemy in terms of cognitive categorization. This theory suggests that the language system is extremely flexible structure, which can change due to the acquisition of new concepts about a phenomenon or object in the human mind.
Many researchers are inclined to believe that polysemy appears and develops according to certain laws, and is not due to spontaneous and unsystematic processes in the language. All the meanings of this or that word are initially in the mind of a person, and are also a priori embedded in the structure of the language. This theory already affects not only aspects of linguistics, but also psycholinguistics.
Direct value characteristic
All people have an intuitive idea of what the direct and figurative meaning of the word is. Speaking in the language of the inhabitants, the direct meaning is the most common meaning that is embedded in the word, it can be used in any context, directly pointing to specific concept. In dictionaries, the direct meaning always comes first. The numbers are followed by figurative values.
All lexical units, as mentioned above, can be divided into single-valued and multi-valued. Single-valued words are those that have only a direct meaning. This group includes terms, words with a narrow subject relatedness, new, not yet very common words, proper names. Perhaps, under the influence of the processes of development of the language system, the words of these categories may acquire additional meanings. In other words, lexical units, representatives of these groups, will not necessarily always be unambiguous.
Portable value characteristic
This topic will definitely be chosen by any teacher of the Russian language at school for certification. "Direct and figurative meaning of the word" - a section that occupies a very important place in the structure of the study of Russian speech, so it is worth talking about it in more detail.
Consider the figurative meaning of lexical units. A figurative is an additional meaning of a word that has appeared as a result of an indirect or direct nomination. All additional meanings are associated with the main meaning metonymically, metaphorically or associatively. For figurative meanings, blurring of meanings and boundaries of usage is characteristic. It all depends on the context and style of speech in which the additional meaning is used.
Particularly interesting are cases when a figurative meaning takes the place of the main one, displacing it from use. An example is the word "balda", which originally meant a heavy hammer, and now - a stupid, narrow-minded person.
Metaphor as a way of transferring meaning
Scientists identify different types figurative meanings of a word depending on the way they are formed. The first one is a metaphor. The main meaning can be transferred by the similarity of features.
So, they distinguish similarities in shape, color, size, actions, feelings and emotional state. Naturally, this classification is conditional, since similar concepts can be metaphorically subdivided into the categories listed earlier.
This classification is not the only possible one. Other researchers distinguish metaphorical transfer by similarity, depending on the animation of the subject. Thus, the transfer of the properties of an animate object to an inanimate one, and vice versa, is described; animate to animate, inanimate to inanimate.
There are also certain models according to which metaphorical transfer occurs. Most often, this phenomenon refers to household items (a rag as a tool for washing the floor and a rag as a weak-willed, weak-willed person), professions (a clown as a circus performer and a clown as one who behaves stupidly, trying to seem like the soul of the company), sounds characteristic of animals (mooing like a sound that a cow makes, and like a slurred speech of a person), diseases (an ulcer as a disease and as satire and evil irony in human behavior).
Metonymy as a way of transferring meaning
Another aspect that is important for studying the topic “Direct and figurative meaning of a word” is metonymic transfer by adjacency. It is a kind of substitution of concepts depending on the meanings inherent in them. For example, documents are often called papers, a group of children at school is called a class, and so on.
The reasons for this transfer of value can be as follows. Firstly, this is done for the convenience of the speaker, who seeks to shorten his speech as much as possible. Secondly, the use of such metonymic constructions in speech may be unconscious, because in Russian the expression "eat a bowl of soup" implies a figurative meaning, which is realized with the help of metonymy.
The use of words in a figurative sense
In practical classes in Russian, any teacher will certainly require examples to be given to the section being studied. “Polysemantic words: direct and figurative meanings” is a topic that is replete with visual illustrations.
Take the word "burdock". direct meaning this concept- a plant with big leaves. This word can also be used in relation to a person in the meaning of "narrow", "stupid", "simple". This example is the classic use of metaphor to convey meaning. Adjacency transfer is also easily illustrated by the phrase "drink a glass of water." Naturally, we do not drink the glass itself, but its contents.
So, the topic of figurative meanings is intuitively clear to everyone. It is only important to understand how the direct meaning of the word is transformed.
Direct and figurative meaning of the word. What examples can you give?
The direct meaning of the word strictly correlates with a certain thing, attribute, action, quality, etc. A word may have a figurative meaning at points of contact, similarity with another object in form, function, color, purpose, etc.
Examples of the meaning of words:
table (furniture) - address table, table No. 9 (diet);
black color - back door (auxiliary), black thoughts (cheerless);
a bright room - a bright mind, a bright head;
dirty rag - dirty thoughts;
cold wind - cold heart;
golden cross - golden hands, golden heart;
heavy burden - heavy look;
heart valve - cardiac reception;
gray mouse - gray man.
Zolotynka
A large number of words and figures of speech in Russian can be used both in the direct and figurative (figurative) sense.
The direct meaning usually completely coincides with the original meaning, the narrator means exactly what he says.
We use words in a figurative sense in order to give figurativeness to our speech, to emphasize some quality or action.
The examples below will help you "feel the difference":
The language is in constant development, those words that a few decades ago were used only in the literal sense, can begin to be used figuratively - a birdhouse - a starling's house, a birdhouse - a traffic police post, a zebra - an animal, a zebra - a pedestrian crossing.
Nelli4ka
The direct is the primary meaning of a word, the figurative is the secondary. Here are some examples:
Golden earrings - direct meaning.
My husband has golden hands - figurative meaning.
Rain worm- direct.
Book worm- portable.
Silver ring - straight.
Silver century - portable.
Burning in the sky star- direct.
Star screen - portable.
Icy sculpture - direct.
Icy smile is portable.
Sugar buns - straight.
Mouth sugar- portable.
Woolen a blanket- direct.
Winter covered everything around with snow blanket- portable.
mink fur coat- direct.
Herring under fur coat- portable.
Marble plate - straight.
Marble cupcake - portable.
Black suit - direct.
Leave for black day - portable.
Any word in Russian initially has one or more direct meanings. That is, the word Key can mean something with which we close the lock on front door and can mean water spouting from the ground. In both cases, this is a direct meaning polysemantic word. But almost every word in Russian can be given a figurative meaning. For example, in the expression key to all doors, not a word key, not a word doors are not used in their direct meaning. Here the key is the possibility of solving the problem, and the doors are the very problem. The figurative meaning of words is often used by poets, for example, in the famous poem by Pushkin, every word has a figurative meaning:
Or here is the famous young man at Bryusov, who had a burning eye, of course, burning in a figurative sense.
There are a lot of words with direct and figurative meaning in Russian. And as a rule, all these meanings are reflected in dictionaries. Periodically it is very useful to look there.
Examples of words and phrases with a figurative meaning:
- to step on a rake, figuratively - to get a negative experience.
- prick up your ears - become very attentive,
- reel fishing rods - leave, and not necessarily from fishing,
- stone heart - an insensitive person,
- sour mine - a displeased expression.
- work hard - work hard
- sharp tongue - the ability to formulate accurate, well-aimed and even caustic information.
Here, I remembered.
Moreljuba
But in fact, the fact is very interesting that words can have not only a direct meaning, but also a figurative one.
If we talk about the direct meaning, then in the text we mean exactly the lexical meaning of a particular word. But the figurative meaning means the transfer of the meaning of the lexical initial in the consequence with comparison
And here are some examples:
Eugenie001
In Russian, words can have both direct and figurative meanings. Under direct meaning understand words that name an object of reality or its property. At the same time, the meaning of such words does not depend on the context, we immediately imagine what they call. For example:
Based on the direct meaning, the word may have additional lexical meanings, which are called portable. The figurative meaning is based on the similarity of objects or phenomena according to appearance, properties, or actions to perform.
Compare: " stone house" and "stone face". In the phrase "stone house", the adjective "stone" is used in its direct meaning (solid, motionless, strong), and in the phrase "stone face", the same adjective is used in a figurative sense (insensitive, unfriendly, severe).
Here are some examples of the direct and figurative meaning of words:
Many stylistic figures or literary tropes are built on the basis of figurative meaning (metonymy, personification, metaphor, synecdoche, allegory, epithet, hyperbole).
Sayans
Examples of words and expressions with a figurative meaning:
As we can see, words acquire a figurative meaning when they are used together with certain words (which do not have such a quality in the literal sense). For example, nerves cannot literally be made of iron, so this is a figurative meaning, but iron ore just consists of iron (the phrase has a direct meaning).
virgin virginia
Sweet tea - sweet kitty, sweet music.
Crying in pain - the prison is crying (for someone).
Soft plasticine - soft light, soft heart.
Sunny day - sunny soul, sunny smile.
A plastic bag is a social package (about vacations, sick leave).
Wolverine skin is a venal skin.
Garden flowers - flowers of life (about children).
Green fruits - green generation.
Woodpecker (bird) - woodpecker (informer).
To poison with pills - to poison with moral violence.
Marlena
The direct meaning of a word is when the word is used in the sense it originally was. For example: sweet porridge.
The figurative meaning of the word is when the word is not used in the literal sense, such as sweet deception.
Need to give examples of words with a figurative meaning .. help?
give examples please
Diana Klimova
Portable (indirect) meanings of words are those meanings that arise as a result of the conscious transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.
So, the word table is used in several figurative meanings: 1. Subject special equipment or part of a cold-formed machine (operating table, raise the machine table); 2. Food, food (rent a room with a table); 3. Department in an institution in charge of a special range of cases (reference desk).
The word black has the following figurative meanings: 1. Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white (black bread); 2. Took on a dark color, darkened (black from sunburn); 3. In the old days: chicken (black hut); 4. Gloomy, bleak, heavy (black thoughts); 5. Criminal, malicious (black treason); 6. Not the main one, auxiliary (back door in the house); 7. Physically difficult and unskilled (menial work).
The word boil has the following figurative meanings:
1. Manifest to a strong degree (work is in full swing); 2. Show something with force, to a strong degree (boil with indignation); 3. Randomly move (the river was seething with fish).
As you can see, when transferring the meaning, words are used to name phenomena that do not serve as a constant, ordinary object of designation, but come close to another concept through various associations that are obvious to speakers.
Figurative meanings can retain figurativeness (black thoughts, black betrayal). However, these figurative meanings are fixed in the language; they are given in dictionaries when interpreting words. In this figurative-figurative meanings differ from the metaphors that are created by writers.
In most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example: a pipe elbow, a teapot spout, a carrot tail, a clock. In such cases, one speaks of extinct figurativeness in the lexical meaning of the word.
The transfer of names occurs on the basis of the similarity in something of objects, signs, actions. The figurative meaning of a word can be attached to an object (sign, action) and become its direct meaning: a teapot spout, a door handle, a table leg, a book spine, etc.
Anton Maslov
The direct (or main, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the word table has the following basic meaning: “a piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports, legs.
The figurative (indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc. Thus, the word table has several figurative meanings: 1. An item of special equipment or a part of a machine of similar shape (operating table, raise the machine table). 2. Food, food (to rent a room with a table). 3. Department in an institution in charge of some special range of affairs (reference desk).
Depending on the basis and on what grounds the name of one object is transferred to another, there are three types of transfer of word meanings: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche. Some linguists also distinguish transfer by the similarity of functions.
With ambiguity, one of the meanings of the word is direct, and all the rest portable.
direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed to the subject (immediately causes an idea of the subject, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context. Words denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in
direct meaning.
portable meaning of the word- this is its secondary meaning that arose on the basis of the direct one. For example:
toy, -i, well. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys.
2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.
The essence of polysemy lies in the fact that some name of an object, phenomenon passes, is also transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects, phenomena at the same time. Depending on the basis of which sign the name is transferred, there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.
Metaphor(from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: ripe apple - eyeball(by form); human nose- bow of the ship(by location); chocolate bar- chocolate tan(by color); bird wing- aircraft wing(by function); the dog howled- the wind howled(according to the nature of the sound), etc. yes
Metonymy(then Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency *, for example: water boils- behindthe kettle boils; porcelain dish- tasty dish; native gold- Scythian gold etc. A kind of metonymy is synecdoche.
Synecdoche(from the Greek "synekdoche - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant- ripe currant; beautiful mouth- extra mouth(about an extra person in the family); bighead- clever mind etc.
In the process of development of figurative names, the word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding the main meaning. Over time figurative meanings can become straight.
It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context. See, for example, the sentences: 1) Wesat on the corner bastion, so both sides couldsee everything (M. Lermontov). 2) In Tarakanovka, as in the most remote corner of a bear, there was no place for secrets (D. Mamin-Siberian)
* Adjacent - located directly next to, having about border.
In the first sentence, the word injection used in the literal sense: "a place where two sides of something converge, intersect." And in stable combinations“in a dead corner”, “bear corner” the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a dark corner- in a remote area bearliving corner - dumb place.
AT explanatory dictionaries the direct meaning of the word is given first, and the portable values are numbered 2, 3, 4, 5. The value recently fixed as a portable value is marked "pen,", For example:
Wooden, oh, oh. 1. made of wood 2. trans. Motionless, expressionless. Wooden expression. O wood oil- cheap olive oil.
The same words can be used in different ways in speech, receiving various meanings. stand out straight and portable word meanings. direct(or the main, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality.
Yes, the words table, black, boil have the main meanings: 1. A piece of furniture in the form of a horizontal board on high supports, legs; 2. Color of soot, coal; 3. Boil, bubbling, evaporating from high heat(about liquids). These values are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language it meant "throne", "reigning".
The direct meanings of words less than all others depend on the context, on the nature of the connections with other words.
portable(indirect) meanings of words - such meanings that arise as a result of the conscious transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.
Yes, the word table used in several figurative meanings: 1. An item of special equipment or part of a cold-form machine ( operating table, raise the machine table); 2. Nutrition, food ( rent a room with a table); 3. A department in an institution in charge of a special range of affairs ( information desk).
Word black has such figurative meanings: 1. Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white ( black bread); 2. Having taken on a dark color, darkened ( black from sunburn); 3. In the old days: chicken ( black hut); 4. Gloomy, bleak, heavy ( black thoughts); 5. Criminal, malicious ( black betrayal); 6. Not the main, auxiliary ( back door in the house); 7. Physically difficult and unskilled ( dirty work).
Word boil has the following metaphors:
1. Manifest to a strong degree ( work is in full swing); 2. To manifest something with force, to a strong degree ( boil with indignation); 3. Randomly move ( river boiled with fish).
As you can see, when transferring the meaning, words are used to name phenomena that do not serve as a constant, ordinary object of designation, but come close to another concept through various associations that are obvious to speakers.
Portable meanings can preserve figurativeness ( black thoughts, black betrayal). However, these figurative meanings are fixed in the language; they are given in dictionaries when interpreting words. In this figurative-figurative meanings differ from the metaphors that are created by writers.
In most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example: pipe elbow, teapot spout, carrot tail, clock movement. In such cases, one speaks of extinct figurativeness in the lexical meaning of the word.
The transfer of names occurs on the basis of the similarity in something of objects, signs, actions. The figurative meaning of a word can be assigned to an object (sign, action) and become its direct meaning: teapot spout, door handle, table leg, book spine, etc.
The value transfer process goes like this : baby's foot(direct) - table leg(portable) - table leg(direct).
The primary, direct meaning can sometimes be restored only by studying the history of the word.
Let's summarize the above material in the table:
Portable Value Types
Depending on which sign the meaning is transferred from one object to another, the following types of figurative meanings of the word are distinguished.
1) Transferring values for some similarity between objects and events. Such transfers are called metaphorical. Metaphor(from the Greek Metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object, action, property, phenomenon to other actions, properties, phenomena based on the similarity of their features (for example, shape, color, function, location and etc.). Examples of metaphorical meanings:
a) onion head, eyeball - transfer based on the similarity of the shape of objects;
b) the bow of the boat, the tail of the train, the head of the nail - transfer based on the similarity of the arrangement of objects;
c) janitor (in the meaning of "a cleaning device on the glass of a car"), electrical position, watchman (in the meaning of "a device on a dish to hold boiling milk") - transfer based on the similarity of the functions of objects.
For many metaphorical figurative meanings of the word, it is characteristic anthropomorphism, that is, the likening of the properties of the surrounding physical world to the properties of a person. Compare such examples: an evil wind, indifferent nature, the breath of spring, “The River Plays” (the title of the story by V.G. Korolenko), the stream runs, the volcano woke up, etc.
On the other hand, some properties and phenomena of inanimate matter are transferred to the human world, for example: a cold look, an iron will, a heart of stone, a golden character, a shock of hair, a ball of thoughts, etc. There are metaphors general language when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely, as a result of which it is known to all speakers of given language(nail head, river arm, black envy, iron will), and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic manner and not becoming common. Compare, for example, metaphors:
S.A. Yesenin: red mountain ash bonfire, birch tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky, grains of eyes, etc.;
B.L. Pasternak: the labyrinth of the lyre, the bloody tears of September, the rolls of lanterns and the donuts of the roofs, etc.
2) Transferring the name from one subject to another based on adjacency these items. This transfer of values is called metonymy(from Greek Metonymia - renaming). Metonymic transfers of meaning are often formed according to certain regular types:
a) material - a product from this material. For example, the words gold, crystal can denote products made from these materials (she has gold in her ears; there is solid crystal on the shelves);
b) a vessel - the contents of the vessel (I ate two plates, drank a cup);
c) the author - the works of this author (I read Pushkin, I know Nerkasov by heart);
d) action - the object of action (actions aimed at publishing a book, illustrated edition of a book as an object);
e) action - the result of an action (construction of a monument - a monumental structure);
f) action - a means or instrument of action (putty of cracks - fresh putty, gear attachment - ski mount, motion transmission - bicycle gear);
g) action - place of action (exit from the house - stand at the exit, traffic stop - bus stop);
h) animal - animal fur or meat (the hunter caught a fox - what kind of fur, arctic fox or fox?).
One of the peculiar types of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche(from the Greek. Sinekdoche - ratio) - the ability of a word to name both a part of something and a whole. For example, the words face, mouth, head, hand denote the corresponding parts of the human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: unauthorized persons are not allowed to enter; in family five mouths; Kolya- light head.
Some characteristics human - beard, glasses, clothing and others are often used to refer to a person. For example:
- Hey, beard, where are you going?
- I'm standing behind the blue cloak...
- It's true that it's expensive, - red pantaloons sigh (Ch.)