What is the peculiarity of the dwellings of different peoples. National types of housing of the peoples of the world

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The main issue for young families is housing. If you approach this matter with imagination, then it will not be necessary to take a mortgage. This is how different peoples of the world solve their housing problem.

Yurt

Ancient portable dwelling of nomads. It is convenient because it takes several hours to assemble and install it, you can stop at any convenient place. Such a house is easily transported on a horse. felt cover, reliable protection from cold, rain and wind.

These amazing domed dwellings in a modern design can be found in the northeast of Asia, in Greenland, on the Canadian island of Baffin Island. Housing is made of snow blocks. To enter, they break through a special tunnel in the snow. Nearby igloos are interconnected by separate snowy corridors so that you can visit without going out into the cold.

house in a cave

In the south of Tunisia there are quarries with sandy rocks. These deposits of sand are not one thousand years old. Over the years, it has become strong enough to cut through these sands almost entire hotels for tourists. The walls of such caves protect from the incredible heat and sandstorms.

Rondavel in translation - round house. Such stone houses are built in southern Africa. Instead of cement, a mixture of earth, sand and manure is used in the construction of walls. The floor of the dwelling is also leveled with manure and dried. The round shape of the house and the thatched roof give it a slightly fairytale look. These buildings were conceived as hunting lodges, but now they are increasingly being used for permanent housing.

Houses on stilts

These exotic and practical dwellings can be found in Southeast Asia,. In the local climate, where rainy days prevail, the locals came up with the idea of ​​building houses on stilts. Do not be surprised that the piles are so high. At this height, the house becomes inaccessible to snakes and mosquitoes.

Tiny houses in the USA

In Oregon, there was a fashion for such tiny houses. Their main advantage is the presence of wheels. The construction of such inexpensive and original housing was the beginning of a whole direction.

houses underground

Underground houses in - this is not a whim of the jaded rich. This is an urgent need to protect yourself from the daily heat, up to 45 ° C, from sandstorms. Because of such difficult weather conditions a good half of the town of Coober Pedy moved into apartments dug underground. Now this city is famous not only for opals, but also for a network of underground living quarters.

Houses made of adobe bricks

Saman is essentially clay concrete. It is from these blocks that the Indians from the Acoma Pueblo reservation in the US state of New Mexico have been building houses for many centuries. Saman is a mixture of clay, water, sand and chopped straw. Lime and manure are also added there.

Colored houses on the island of Martha's Vineyard

It seems that the inhabitants of this American island are very fond of gingerbread houses. For the first time, such houses of different colors began to be built at the end of the 19th century.

house in a boat

Remember, as in the classic - "He was seized by the desire to change places." If the same thing happened to you, come to London. A certain number of the British were tired of land dwelling, and they moved to live in boats. On the water channel, 14 kilometers long, there are parking lots for small yachts and boats. The restless part of English society lives on them. However, one "small" feature should be taken into account. Each boat has the right to stay in one parking place for no more than 14 hours. So, enjoy your swim.

1. Write down what kind of greetings the guest is greeted according to the customs of the peoples of your region:

"Bread and salt", "The rich - so happy." They accept affectionately: they take them by both hands and lead them to a red corner.

2. Write down how the guest is escorted according to the customs of the peoples of your region:

The equestrian guest is escorted to the horse, the foot guest is escorted to the gate.

3. Glue a photo or make a drawing appearance traditional dwelling the peoples of your region.

4. Glue photos or make a drawing of the internal structure of the traditional dwellings of the peoples of your region.

5. Project "Young local historian". Compare the most important features of the ancient traditional dwellings of different peoples. Fill in the table number 1 using the text of the textbook.

Table #1

	The dwelling of the Khanty and Mansi.	Dwelling of the Caucasian peoples.
Construction material	Chum on a frame of poles, covered with reindeer skins. dugouts, Shashash from branches.	House-fortress, house-tower made of stone.
Threshold	A special place. Near him are shoes and a smoker (to repel mosquitoes). Stopping and sitting is not allowed.	The threshold is high, you can not step on it. Whoever crosses the threshold is already a guest.
Male half	Front side opposite the entrance.	The back half is behind the hearth. Guests are welcome here.
The female half	The right corner is the home fire side.	Anterior half in front of hearth.
sacred and honored place	Front side opposite the entrance. Home shrines are kept here.	The central pillar of the residential floor, hearth.

Explore the most important features of the traditional dwelling of one of the peoples of your region (optional). Record the results in table number 2. Compare the results of both tables. Identify common and different features.

Table number 2

Name of people and dwelling	Mongolian yurt
Construction material	Kerege / rope (lattice folding walls), uuk / uyk (poles that make up the dome), tundyuk / shanyrak (a circle at the top of the dome holding the poles together), a felt mat covering the entire structure.
	The guest does not greet through the threshold. The threshold of the yurt is considered a symbol of the well-being and tranquility of the family. Talking across the threshold is not accepted. When entering, you cannot step on the threshold of the yurt, sit on it, this is forbidden by custom and is considered impolite towards the owner.
Male half	West is masculine. On the male half - closer to the door, that is, closer to the ground - is the hosts' bed. A man's weapons, horse harness, talismans are hung here.
The female half	East - female. On the women's - girl's - bed of the bride - the daughter of the owner.
sacred and honored place	The honorable side of the yurt, where important guests are seated and where the altar with the image of the gods is kept, is located in the north.

Write the output:

Dwellings have both common features, and different. Each dwelling has a sacred place, the house is usually divided into male and female parts. Threshold of the house - always special place in the home of all peoples, many beliefs and customs are associated with it.

Swap notebooks with a classmate. Appreciate each other's work.

Residential buildings of the peoples of Siberia were distinguished by a variety of architectural forms and structures. The features of the dwelling were due to the huge scale of the territory of settlement, the variety of natural and climatic conditions, geographical habitat and the difference in economic and cultural types, which included the peoples of Siberia.

Yaranga

The main type of dwelling of the northeastern Paleo-Asian peoples (Chukchi, Koryaks and Eskimos) was the yaranga - portable among the reindeer Koryaks and Chukchi and stationary among the Asian Eskimos and coastal Chukchi. characteristic feature The Chukchi-Eskimo yaranga, which distinguished them from the dwellings of other peoples of Siberia, was a two-chamber structure: the presence of canopies inside. Yaranga with a canopy is an amazing invention of the Koryaks and Chukchi, who literally called their dwelling "real house".

The yaranga of the reindeer Koryak and Chukchi was a winter and summer dwelling. It was based on three poles from 3.5 to 5 meters high, tied at the top with a belt. Around them, tripods of two poles with a crossbar were installed, forming the skeleton of the walls. The basis of the roof was long poles tied to the beams. From above, the skeleton of the yaranga was covered with reindeer skin tires. Outside, the tires were pressed down with vertically placed sleds in order to strong wind they stayed where they were. The entrance to the yaranga was located on the northeastern or eastern side - the life side, as the Chukchi and Koryaks believed. Inside the yaranga there was a canopy - a structure rectangular shape from winter deer skins, hung upside down, and the open part down. It was not only sleeping, but also living quarters in cold weather. The temperature in the canopy, due to the heat of the human body, was high enough that even in cold weather it was possible to sleep here without clothes.

From the beginning of the 18th century, yaranga frame type, borrowed from the Chukchi, is widely used among the Asian Eskimos and the coastal Chukchi - hunters of marine animals. The Eskimo yaranga differed from the yaranga of reindeer herders: it was larger, practically did not understand, its walls were often lined with turf. Tires made of walrus skins were fastened in strong winds with large stones hung on ropes. Inside the dwelling there was a fur canopy made of deer skins, which was a bedroom, and in cold weather, a living quarters. It was heated and illuminated with the help of a zhirnik - a lamp made of stone or clay with seal oil and a moss wick. Food was prepared on it. The Evens of all habitats have long had two main types of dwelling: the Evenk conical tent and the so-called "Even yurt", similar to the Chukchi-Koryak yaranga. AT winter time reindeer skins were used as tires, in summer - rovduga or birch bark. The Evens, who lived on the coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, also used fish skin as a material for tires.

ancient traditional dwelling Asian Eskimos was a semi-dugout with a frame made of bones, ribs and jaws of whales.

A large patriarchal family of up to 40 people lived in such a semi-dugout. Large semi-dugouts were communal houses in which several families lived, meetings and holidays were held here. The same type of semi-dugout, but with wooden frame was the main dwelling of the settled Koryaks - the inhabitants of the eastern and western coasts of Kamchatka. A feature of the Koryak semi-dugout was a funnel-shaped bell made of densely folded thin boards, which served additional protection from snow drifts of the upper entrance to the dwelling.

chum

Among hunters and reindeer herders of the taiga (Evenks, Tofalars), tundra and forest-tundra (Nentsy, Enets, Dolgans, Nganasans), the most common dwelling was a conical tent, the frame of which consisted of obliquely mounted poles that crossed at the top and formed a cone shape.

The taiga peoples usually made poles for the skeleton at the parking lot, and during migrations they transported only tires. In the tundra and forest-tundra, where there is little forest, reindeer herders transported their dwelling completely, along with poles (drag in summer, on sleds in winter) and could put it in a new place in a few minutes. Tire material depended on the time of year and the availability natural materials. Taiga peoples used birch bark and rovduga tires in summer, and in winter they used deer skins. Less prosperous families lived in bark or iron tents. In the harsh conditions of the tundra, reindeer herders used reindeer fur tires in summer, but in winter they were double - fur inside and out.

The interior of the chum was distinguished by the simplicity and sparseness of decorative decoration, typical of the life of hunters and reindeer herders. A hearth was set up in the center of the dwelling. To the left of him was the female half, and to the right - the male. The place of honor for male guests was behind the hearth opposite the entrance.

From the middle of the 19th century, the so-called sled chum (beams), borrowed from Russian peasants, became widespread among the Nganasans, Dolgans and Enets from the middle of the 19th century. It was used as a winter dwelling and was a movable lung. frame structure placed on skids. Deer skins were used as tires, which were covered from above with a cover made of canvas or tarpaulin. Such a dwelling was transported from one camp to another by a team of 5-7 deer.

Such a dwelling can be built anywhere.

The chum was built from six-meter poles (from 15 to 50 pieces), sewn reindeer skins (50-60 pieces), mats from grasses and twigs.
Women installed the plague among the Nenets. A hearth was built in the center of the dwelling. Floor boards were laid around it. Then two main poles were installed. The lower ends were stuck into the ground, and the upper ends were tied with a flexible loop. The remaining poles were placed in a circle.
Two horizontal poles were attached to the inner pole (simza). An iron rod with a hook for the boiler was laid on them. Then tires were pulled - nukes. Main element plague - six. It was processed so that it thickened from both ends to the middle. The deer hair on the tires was trimmed so that in winter the snow would not pack into the long fur.

Outside, the chum has a conical shape. It is well adapted to the open spaces of the tundra. Snow easily slides off the steep surface of the plague. In the plague, the air is always clean and transparent. Smoke hangs only at the very hole in the upper part of the plague - makodashi.
After kindling the hearth, smoke fills the entire space of the plague, and after a few minutes it rises up the walls. It also rises and heat. It does not allow cold air from the street to get into the chum. And in summer, mosquitoes and midges cannot fly into the chum.

Winter chum is called raw me. This is a traditional chum;
- summer chum - tany me. It is distinguished by a covering - muiko - old winter coverings with fur inside. Previously, birch bark coverings were used for the summer plague.

The Nenets tent is never locked. If there is no one in the tent, a pole is attached to the entrance.

Of the furniture in the chum, there is only a low table (about 20 cm), at which the family dine.

In the plague great importance has a hearth - a stove, which is located in the center of the chum and serves as a source of heat and is adapted for cooking.

After installing the plague, the women make their beds inside. Reindeer skins are placed on top of the mats. Soft things are folded at the very base of the poles. Reindeer herders often carry feather beds, pillows and special warm sleeping bags made of sheepskin. During the day, all this is rolled up, and at night the hostess lays out the bed.

The tent is illuminated by fat lamps. These are cups filled with reindeer fat. They put a piece of rope in them. Nenets national household items include bags made of reindeer skins. They serve to store fur clothes, pieces of fur, skins. The front side of the bag was always richly ornamented, sewing patterns from kamus with inserts from strips of cloth. The back side had no decorations and was often made of rovduga.

In tents, bags sometimes served as pillows. Wooden beaters, male and female, are a necessary accessory of the life of the Nenets. Men's are used to knock snow off the seat of the sled. They dig up the snow when inspecting the place. Women's mallets serve to knock snow off shoes and fur things and have a saber shape.

Wooden house

Among the fishermen-hunters of the West Siberian taiga - Khanty and Mansi - the main type of winter dwelling was a log house with a gable roof covered with boards, birch bark or turf.

Among the Amur peoples - fishermen and hunters leading a sedentary lifestyle (Nanai, Ulchi, Orochi, Negidals, Nivkhs) - square-shaped single-chamber houses with a pillar frame and a gable roof were used as winter dwellings. Two or three families usually lived in a winter house, so there were several hearths in it. Summer dwellings were varied: square bark houses with gable roofs; conical, semi-cylindrical, gable huts covered with hay, bark, birch bark.

Yurt

The main dwelling of the cattle-breeding peoples of Southern Siberia (Eastern Buryats, Western Tuvans, Altaians, Khakasses) was a portable cylindrical frame-type yurt covered with felt.

It was maximally adapted to nomadic life: it was easily disassembled and transported, and its installation took a little more than an hour. The skeleton of the yurt was made up of walls made of sliding wooden gratings and a dome formed from poles, the upper ends of which were inserted into the circle of the chimney. It took 8-9 felt cavities to cover the yurt. Like all Mongolian-speaking peoples, the dwelling of the Buryats was oriented to the south.

The internal structure of the yurt was strictly regulated. There was a hearth in the center. The place opposite the entrance was considered the most honorable and was intended for receiving guests; here was the home altar. The yurt was divided into male (left) and female (right) halves (if you stand facing its northern part). In the men's part there were harnesses, tools, weapons, in the women's part - utensils and food. The furniture was limited to low tables, benches, chests, bedding, and a shrine.

Among pastoralists who have switched to a semi-settled way of life (Khakas, western Tuvans, western Buryats), a stationary log polygonal yurt with a gable or polyhedral roof has become widespread.

Balagan and urasa

The dwelling of the Yakuts was seasonal. Winter - "booth" - a log yurt of a trapezoidal shape with a flat roof and earthen floor. The walls of the booth were coated with clay, and the roof was covered with bark and covered with earth. Before late XIX century, the traditional summer dwelling of the Yakuts was the urasa - a conical building made of poles covered with birch bark. in birch bark window frames pieces of glass or mica were inserted, and in poor families in winter - pieces of ice. The entrance to the dwelling was on the east side. Along the walls there were plank bunks - "oron". The dwelling was divided into right (male) and left (female) halves. In the northeast corner there was a fireplace - a primitive hearth made of poles and logs coated with a thick layer of clay, diagonally - an honorary (southwest) corner.

residential and utility rooms The estates of the Yakuts were always surrounded by a continuous low fence of horizontal poles. Inside the estate they placed carved wooden poles- hitching posts to which horses were tied.

Like all living creatures with the ability to move, a person needs a temporary or permanent shelter or dwelling for sleep, rest, protection from the weather and attack by animals or other people. Therefore, concerns about housing, along with concerns about food and clothing, should, first of all, excite the mind of primitive man. In the essays on primitive culture, we said that already in the Stone Age, man used not only caves, hollows of trees, clefts of rocks, etc. natural shelters, but also developed various types of buildings that we can see among modern peoples at all levels of culture. From the time when man acquired the ability to extract metals, his building activity quickly advanced, facilitating and providing other cultural achievements.

“When one thinks of the nests of birds, the dams of beavers, and the scaffolding of trees made by monkeys, it is hardly possible to suppose that man was ever incapable of making shelter of one kind or another” (E. B. Taylor, “Anthropology "). If he did not always suit him, it was because, moving from place to place, he could find a cave, hollow or other natural shelter. South African Bushmen also live in mountain caves and make temporary huts for themselves. Unlike animals, capable of only one type of building, man creates, depending on local conditions, buildings of various types and gradually improves them.

Since the ancestral home of man was in the tropical region, the first human building appeared there. It was not even a hut, but a canopy or screen of two stakes stuck into the ground with a transverse crossbar, against which tree branches and huge leaves of tropical palm trees leaned on the windward side. On the leeward side of the shed, a fire burns, on which food is cooked, and near which the family warms itself in cold weather. Such dwellings are made by natives of central Brazil and Australians walking completely naked, and sometimes by modern hunters in the northern forests. The next step in the arrangement of the dwelling is a round hut made of branches with dense foliage stuck into the ground, connected or intertwined with tops, forming a kind of roof over the head. Our round garden gazebos, covered with branches, are very similar to such a hut of savages.

Some of the Brazilian Indians put more art into the work, as they make a frame from the tops of young trees tied with the tops or poles stuck in the ground, which is then covered with large palm leaves. The same huts are arranged by the Australians in the event of a long stay, covering the skeleton of branches with bark, leaves, grass, sometimes they even lay sod or cover the hut with clay on the outside.

Thus, the invention and construction of a round hut is a simple matter and accessible to the most backward peoples. If wandering hunters carry with them poles and a cover of a hut, then it turns into a tent, which more cultured peoples cover with skins, felt or canvas.

The round hut is so cramped that you only have to lie or squat in it. An important improvement was the setting of a hut on pillars or walls of intertwined branches and earth, that is, the construction of round huts, which in ancient times were in Europe, are now found in Africa and other parts of the world. To increase the capacity of the round hut, a hole was dug inside it. This digging of the inner pit gave the idea to build the walls of the hut from the earth, and it turned into a dugout with a conical flat roof made of tree trunks, brushwood, turf and even stones that were superimposed on top to protect against gusts of wind.

A major step in the art of building was the replacement of round huts with square ones. wooden houses, whose walls were much stronger than earthen walls, easily washed away by rains. But solid wooden walls made of horizontally laid logs did not appear immediately and not everywhere; their construction became possible only with the availability of metal axes and saws. For a long time their walls were made of vertical pillars, the gaps between which were filled with turf or intertwined rods, sometimes smeared with clay. In order to protect against people, animals and river floods, buildings already familiar to readers on pillars or on piles, which are now found on the islands of the Malay Archipelago and in many other places, began to appear.

Further, the improvement of human habitation were doors and windows. The door remains for a long time the only opening of the primitive dwelling; later, light openings or windows appear, in which even now in many places bull bladder, mica, even ice, etc., are used instead of glass, and sometimes they are only shut up at night or in bad weather. A very important improvement was the introduction of a hearth or stove inside the house, since the hearth not only allows you to maintain the desired temperature in the home, but also dries and ventilates, making the home more hygienic.

Types of dwellings of cultural peoples: 1) the house of an ancient German; 2) housing of the Franks; 3) japanese house; 4) Egyptian house; 5) Etruscan house; 6) an ancient Greek house; 7) ancient Roman house; 8) an old French house; 9) Arab house; 10) English mansion.

Types wooden buildings different times and peoples are extremely diverse. Buildings made of clay and stone are no less diverse and even more widespread. A wooden hut or hut is easier to build than a stone one, and probably stone architecture arose from a simpler wooden one. The rafters, beams and columns of stone buildings are undoubtedly copied from the corresponding wooden forms, but, of course, on this basis one cannot deny the independent development of stone architecture and explain everything in it by imitation.

Primitive man used natural caves for habitation, and then began to arrange artificial caves for himself where soft rocks lay. In southern Palestine, entire ancient cave cities have been preserved, carved into the thickness of the rocks.

Artificial cave dwellings still serve as a shelter for people in China, North Africa and other places. But such dwellings have a limited area of ​​​​distribution and appear where a person already possessed rather high technology.

Probably the first stone dwelling was the same as found among the Australians and in some other places. Australians build the walls of their huts from stones picked up on the ground, not connected in any way. Since not everywhere you can find suitable material from raw stones in the form of layered slabs rocks, then the man began to fasten the stones with clay. Round huts made of unhewn stones, fastened with clay, are still found in northern Syria. Such huts made of unworked stones, as well as molded from clay, river silt and mud, along with reeds, were the beginning of all subsequent stone buildings.

Over time, the stones began to be hewn so that they could be fitted one to the other. A very important and major step in the construction business was the trimming of stones in the form of rectangular stone slabs, which were laid in regular rows. Such trimming of stone blocks reached its highest perfection in ancient Egypt. Cement for fastening stone slabs was not used for a long time, and was not needed, these slabs adhered to each other so well. Cement, however, has long been known and ancient world. The Romans used not only ordinary cement made from lime and sand, but also water-resistant cement, to which volcanic ash was added.

In countries where there was little stone and a dry climate, buildings made of clay or mud mixed with straw are very common, as they are cheaper and even better than wooden ones. Sun-dried bricks made of greasy clay mixed with straw have been known in the East since ancient times. Buildings made of such bricks are now widespread in the dry regions of the Old World and in Mexico. Fired bricks and tiles, necessary for countries with rainy climates, were a later invention, perfected by the ancient Romans.

Stone buildings were originally covered with reeds, straw, wood, the skeleton of the roof and is now made of wood, wooden beams only in our time began to replace the metal. But for a long time people thought of constructing first false and then true vaults. In a false vault, stone slabs or bricks are laid in the form of two stairs until the tops of these stairs converge so much that they can be covered with one brick; such false vaults are made by children from wooden cubes. The similarity of false arches can be seen in the Egyptian pyramids in the ruins of the buildings of Central America and in the temples of India. The time and place of the invention of the true code is unknown; the ancient Greeks did not use it. It was introduced into use and perfected by the Romans: from Roman bridges, domes and vaulted halls, all the later buildings of this kind originated. A person's dwelling serves as an addition to clothing and, like clothing, depends on the climate and geographical environment. Therefore, in various areas the globe we find dominance various types dwellings.

In areas with a hot and damp climate, inhabited by naked, half-naked or lightly dressed people, the dwelling is intended not so much for warmth, it plays the role of protection from tropical showers. Therefore, light huts or huts covered with straw, bamboo, reeds and palm leaves serve as dwellings here. In hot and dry areas of deserts and semi-deserts, the settled population lives in earthen houses with a flat earthen roof, well protected from the heat of the sun, while nomads in Africa and Arabia live in tents or tents.

In more or less humid areas with an average annual temperature of 10° to + 20°C. in Europe and America, thin walled stone houses, covered with straw, reeds, tiles and iron, prevail, in Korea, China and Japan - thin-walled wooden houses, covered for the most part bamboo. An interesting variety the last areas are japanese houses with movable internal partitions and external walls of mats and frames that can be moved away, allowing access to air and light and allowing residents to jump out into the street in the event of an earthquake. In the thin-walled houses of the European-American type, the frames are single, the stoves are absent or are replaced by fireplaces, and in the Sino-Japanese east - heating pads and braziers. In the dry areas of this region, the settled population lives in the same stone houses with flat roofs, as in dry tropical countries. Huts are used here in spring, summer and autumn. Nomads live here in winter in dugouts, and in summer in felt wagons or yurts, the frame of which is made of wood.

In areas with an average annual temperature of 0°C to +10°C, maintaining the warmth in the dwelling plays decisive role; therefore, brick and wooden houses here are thick-walled, on a foundation, with stoves and double frames, with a ceiling backfilled with a layer of sand or clay on top and with a double floor. Roofs are covered with straw, boards and shingles (shingles), roofing felt, tiles and iron. The area of ​​thick-walled houses with iron roofs is also the area of ​​urban high-rise buildings, the extreme expression of which is the American "skyscrapers" with dozens of floors. Nomads of semi-deserts and deserts live here in dugouts and felt yurts, and wandering hunters of the northern forests live in huts covered with deer skins or birch bark.

A strip with a lower annual temperature is characterized in the south by warm winter wooden houses covered with boards, and to the north, in the tundra region, among polar nomads and fishermen - portable tents or tents covered with deer, fish and seal skins. Some polar peoples, for example, the Koryaks, live in winter in pits dug in the ground and lined with logs inside, over which a roof is erected with an opening that serves to escape smoke and to enter and exit the dwelling by a permanent or attached ladder.

In addition to housing, a person erects a variety of buildings for storing supplies, for housing pets, for his labor activity, for various meetings, etc. The types of these structures are extremely diverse, depending on geographical, economic and living conditions.

The dwellings of nomads and wandering hunters are not fenced in anything, but with the transition to settled life, barriers appear near the estate, near plots occupied by cultivated plants or intended for driving or grazing livestock.

The types of these barriers depend on the availability of a particular material. They are earthen (shafts, ditches and ditches), wicker, pole, board, stone, from thorny bushes and, finally, from barbed wire. In mountainous areas, for example, in the Crimea and the Caucasus, stone walls predominate, in the forest-steppe zone - wattle fences; in wooded areas with small plowed spaces, fences are arranged from poles and stakes, and in some places from boulders. The barriers include not only manor or rural fences, but also wooden and stone walls ancient cities, as well as long fortifications, which in the old days were erected to protect entire states. These were the Russian "guard lines" (total length 3600 km), which were built in XVI-XVII centuries to protect against Tatar raids, and the famous Chinese Wall (completed in the 5th century new era), 3300 km long, protecting China from Mongolia.

The choice of a place for human habitation is determined, on the one hand, natural conditions, i.e., relief, soil properties and proximity to a sufficient amount of fresh water, and on the other hand, the ability to obtain a livelihood in a chosen place.

Settlements (individual houses and groups of houses) are usually located not in lowlands or hollows, but on elevations that have horizontal surface. So, for example, in mountain villages and cities, individual streets are located as far as possible in the same plane in order to avoid unnecessary ascents and descents; therefore, the lines of houses have an arcuate shape and correspond to isohypses, i.e. lines equal height. In the same mountain valley, there are many more settlements on the slope that is better illuminated by the sun than on the opposite. On very steep slopes (over 45°) human dwellings, with the exception of cave dwellings, are not found at all. For human habitation, sandy or light loamy soil is best. When arranging housing, swampy, clayey or too loose soil (loose sand, black soil) is avoided. In crowded settlements, soil imperfections that impede movement are eliminated by means of footbridges, sidewalks and various device bridges.

The main reason that determines the emergence and distribution of human settlements is fresh water. River valleys and lake shores are the most populated, and in the interfluve spaces, dwellings appear where groundwater is shallow, and the construction of wells and reservoirs does not present insurmountable difficulties. Waterless spaces are deserted, but are quickly populated with an artificial irrigation device. Of the other reasons that attract human settlements, important role belongs to mineral deposits and roads, especially railways. Any accumulation of human dwellings, a village or a city, arises only where a knot of human relations is tied, where roads converge, or goods are transshipped or transplanted.

In human settlements, houses are either scattered without any order, as in Ukrainian villages, or protrude in rows, forming streets, as we see in Great Russian villages and villages. With an increase in the number of inhabitants, a village or city grows either in breadth, increasing the number of houses, or in height, i.e. one-story houses in multi-storey buildings; but more often this growth occurs simultaneously in both directions.