Describe the medieval city history 6. Abstract: Medieval city, main features

According to their origin, Western European medieval cities are divided into two types: some of them trace their history from ancient times, from ancient cities and settlements (for example, Cologne, Vienna, Augsburg, Paris, London, York), others arose relatively late - already in the era middle ages. Former ancient cities in the early Middle Ages are experiencing a period of decline, but still remain, as a rule, the administrative centers of a small district, the residences of bishops and secular rulers; trade relations continue to be maintained through them, primarily in the Mediterranean region. In the 8th-10th centuries. in connection with the revival of trade in the north of Europe, proto-urban settlements appeared in the Baltic (Hedeby in Schleswig, Birka in Sweden, the Slavic Wolin, etc.).

However, the period of mass emergence and growth of medieval cities falls on the 10th-11th centuries. The cities that had an ancient basis were formed first of all in Northern and Central Italy, in Southern France, and also along the Rhine. But very quickly, the whole of Europe north of the Alps was covered with a network of cities and towns.

New cities arose near castles and fortresses, at the intersections of trade routes, at river crossings. Their appearance became possible thanks to the rise of agriculture: the peasants were able to feed large groups of the population not directly employed in the agricultural sector. In addition, economic specialization led to an ever more intensive separation of handicrafts from agriculture. The population of cities grew due to the influx of villagers who were attracted by the opportunity to obtain personal freedom in the city and enjoy the privileges that the townspeople had. Most of those who came to the city were involved in handicraft production, but many did not completely abandon agricultural occupations. The townspeople had plots of arable land, vineyards and even pastures. The composition of the population was very diverse: artisans, merchants, usurers, representatives of the clergy, secular lords, hired soldiers, schoolchildren, officials, artists, artists and musicians, vagabonds, beggars. This diversity is due to the fact that the city itself played many important roles in the social life of feudal Europe. It was the center of crafts and trade, culture and religious life. The organs of state power were concentrated here and the residences of the powerful were built.

At first, the townspeople had to pay many dues to the lord of the city, obey his court, be personally dependent on him, sometimes even work on corvee. The lords often patronized the cities, as they received considerable benefits from them, but the payment for this patronage eventually began to seem too burdensome for the strengthened and wealthy citizens. A wave of clashes, sometimes armed, between townspeople and seniors swept across Europe. As a result of the so-called communal movement, many Western European cities received the right to self-government and personal freedom for their citizens. In Northern and Central Italy, the largest cities - Venice, Genoa, Milan, Florence, Pisa, Siena, Bologna - achieved complete independence and subjugated large territories outside the city walls. There, the peasants had to work for the city republics in the same way as before for the lords. The large cities of Germany also enjoyed great independence, although they, as a rule, recognized in words the authority of the emperor or duke, count or bishop. German cities often formed alliances for political or commercial purposes. The most famous of them was the union of North German merchant cities - Hansa. The Hansa flourished in the 14th century, when it controlled all trade in the Baltic and the North Sea.

In a free city, power most often belonged to an elected council - a magistrate, all places in which were divided between patricians - members of the richest families of landowners and merchants. The townspeople united in partnerships: merchants - in guilds, artisans - in workshops. The workshops monitored the quality of products, protected their members from competition. Not only work, but the whole life of an artisan was connected with the workshop. The workshops organized holidays and feasts for their members, they helped "their" poor, orphans and the elderly, and, if necessary, put up military detachments.

In the center of a typical Western European city, there was usually a market square, and on it or not far from it stood the buildings of the city magistrate (town hall) and the main city church (in episcopal cities - the cathedral). The city was surrounded by walls, and it was believed that inside their ring (and sometimes also outside at a distance of 1 mile from the wall) a special city law operates - here they are judged according to their own laws, different from those adopted in the district. Powerful walls, majestic cathedrals, rich monasteries, magnificent town halls not only reflected the wealth of the inhabitants of the city, but also testified to the ever-increasing skill of medieval artists and builders.

The life of members of the urban community (in Germany they were called burghers, in France - bourgeois, in Italy - popolans) differed sharply from the life of peasants and feudal lords. The burghers, as a rule, were small free proprietors, they were famous for their prudence, business ingenuity. Rationalism, which was gaining ground in the cities, contributed to a critical view of the world, free-thinking, and sometimes doubting church dogmas. Therefore, the urban environment from the very beginning became favorable for the dissemination of heretical ideas. City schools, and then universities, deprived the church of the exclusive right to train educated people. Merchants went on distant wanderings, opened up ways to unknown countries, to foreign peoples, with whom they established trade exchanges. The further, the more cities turned into a powerful force that contributed to the growth of intensive commodity relations in society, a rationalistic understanding of the world and the place of man in it.

The liberation from the power of seniors (not all cities managed to achieve it) did not eliminate the ground for intra-city conflicts. In the 14-15 centuries. in the cities of Europe, the so-called guild revolutions took place, when craft guilds came into conflict with the patriciate. In the 14-16 centuries. the urban lower classes - apprentices, hired workers, the poor - rebelled against the power of the guild elite. The plebeian movements became one of the most important components of the Reformation and the early bourgeois revolutions of the 16th and 17th centuries. (See the Dutch bourgeois revolution of the 16th century, the English bourgeois revolution of the 17th century).

The first sprouts of early capitalist relations in cities appeared as early as the 14th and 15th centuries. in Italy; in the 15th-16th centuries. - in Germany, the Netherlands, England and some other regions of trans-alpine Europe. Manufactories appeared there, a permanent stratum of hired workers arose, and large banking houses began to take shape (see Capitalism). Now petty shop regulation is increasingly beginning to hinder capitalist entrepreneurship. The organizers of manufactories in England, the Netherlands, South Germany were forced to transfer their activities to the countryside or to small towns, where the guild rules were not so strong. By the end of the Middle Ages, in the era of the crisis of European feudalism, friction began to occur in the cities between the emerging bourgeoisie and the traditional burghers, as a result of which the latter was increasingly pushed aside from sources of wealth and power.

The role of cities in the development of the state is also significant. Even during the period of the communal movement in a number of countries (primarily in France), an alliance between the cities and the royal power began to take shape, which played an important role in strengthening royal power. Later, when class-representative monarchies arose in Europe, the cities not only found themselves widely represented in medieval parliaments, but with their money they significantly contributed to the strengthening of the central government. The gradually strengthening monarchy in England and France subjugates the cities and abolishes many of their privileges and rights. In Germany, the attack on the liberties of the cities was actively led by the princes. The Italian city-states evolved towards tyrannical forms of government.

Medieval cities made a decisive contribution to the formation of a new European culture of the Renaissance and Reformation, new economic relations. In cities, the first sprouts of democratic institutions of power (election, representation) have grown stronger, a new type of human personality has been formed here, filled with self-esteem and confident in its creative powers.

THE LOOK OF CITY STREETS

Pavements in Paris appeared in the 12th century - every citizen had to make sure that the street in front of his house was paved. This measure was then extended by the 14th century by royal order to other French cities. But, for example, in Augsburg there were no pavements until almost the 15th century, as well as sidewalks. Drainage ditches appeared only in the XIV-XV centuries, and then only in large cities.

Garbage and sewage in cities was usually dumped into rivers or into nearby ditches. Only in the XIV century. urban scavengers appeared in Paris.

FThe eudal city bears little resemblance to the modern one. It is usually surrounded by walls, which it needed to protect itself from enemy attacks, to give shelter to the rural population in case of invasions.

The inhabitants of the city, as already mentioned, had their gardens, their fields, their pastures. Every morning, at the sound of the horn, all the gates of the city were opened, through which the cattle were driven out to the communal pastures, and in the evening these cattle were again driven into the city. In the cities they kept mainly small livestock - goats, sheep, pigs. The pigs were not driven out of the city, they found plenty of food in the city itself, since all the garbage, all the remnants of food were thrown right there into the street. Therefore, there was an impossible dirt and stench in the city - it was impossible to walk along the streets of a medieval city without getting dirty in the mud. During the rains, the streets of the city were a swamp in which carts got stuck and sometimes a rider with a horse could drown. In the absence of rain, it was impossible to breathe in the city because of the caustic and fetid dust. Under such conditions, epidemic diseases in the cities were not transmitted, and during the great epidemics that flared up from time to time in the Middle Ages, the cities suffered the most. Mortality in the cities was unusually high. The population of cities would decrease continuously if it were not replenished with new people from the villages. the essence of the enemy. The population of the city carried out guard and garrison service. All the inhabitants of the city - merchants and artisans - were able to wield weapons. City militias often inflicted defeat on the knights. The ring of walls behind which the city was located did not allow it to grow in breadth.

Gradually, suburbs arose around these walls, which in turn also strengthened. The city thus developed in the form of concentric circles. The medieval city was small and cramped. In the Middle Ages, only a small part of the country's population lived in cities. In 1086, a general land census was carried out in England. Judging by this census, in the second half of the XI century. in England, no more than 5% of the total population lived in cities. But even these townspeople were not yet quite what we understand by urban population. Some of them were still engaged in agriculture and had land outside the city. At the end of the XIV century. in England a new census was made for tax purposes. It shows that already about 12% of the population at that time lived in cities. If we move from these relative figures to the question of the absolute number of urban population, we will see that even in the XIV century. cities with 20 thousand people were considered large. On average, there were 4-5 thousand inhabitants in cities. London, in which in the XIV century. there were 40 thousand people, was considered a very large city. At the same time, as we have already said, most cities are characterized by a semi-agrarian character. There were many "cities" and purely agrarian type. They also had crafts, but rural crafts prevailed. Such cities differed from villages mainly only in that they were walled and presented some features in management.

Since the walls prevented cities from expanding in breadth, the streets were narrowed to the last degree to accommodate the possible pain. better order ny, the houses hung over each other, the upper floors protruded above the lower ones, and the roofs of the houses located on opposite sides of the street almost touched each other. Each house had many outbuildings, galleries, balconies. The city was cramped and crowded with residents, despite the insignificance of the urban population. The city usually had a square - the only more or less spacious place in the city. On market days, it was filled with stalls and peasant carts with all kinds of goods brought from the surrounding villages.
Sometimes there were several squares in the city, each of which had its own special purpose: there was a square where grain trade took place, on another one they traded hay, etc.

CULTURE (HOLIDAYS AND CARNIVALS)

Among the definitions that scientists give to a person - "reasonable person", "social being", "working person" - there is also this: "playing person". "Indeed, the game is an integral feature of a person, and not just a child. People of the medieval era loved games and entertainment just as much as people at all times.
Harsh living conditions, heavy piles, systematic malnutrition were combined with holidays - folk, which dated back to the Pagan past, and church, partly based on the same Pagan tradition, but transformed and adapted to the requirements of the church. However, the attitude of the church towards folk, primarily peasant, festivities was ambivalent and contradictory.
On the one hand, she was powerless to simply ban them - the people stubbornly held on to them.
It was easier to bring the national holiday closer to the church one. On the other hand, throughout the Middle Ages, clergy and monks, referring to the fact that "Christ never laughed", condemned unbridled fun, folk songs and dances. dances, the preachers asserted, the devil invisibly rules, and he carries away the merry people straight to hell.
Nevertheless, fun and celebration were ineradicable, and the church had to reckon with this. jousting tournaments, no matter how askance the clergy looked at them, remained a favorite pastime of the noble class. By the end of the Middle Ages, a carnival took shape in the cities - a holiday associated with seeing off winter and welcoming spring. Instead of unsuccessfully condemning or forbidding the carnival, the clergy preferred to take part in it.
During the days of the carnival, all prohibitions on fun were canceled and even religious rites were ridiculed. At the same time, the participants in the carnival buffoonery understood that such permissiveness was permissible only during the days of the carnival, after which the unbridled fun and all the outrages that accompanied it would stop and life would return to its usual course.
However, it happened more than once that, having begun as a fun holiday, the carnival turned into a bloody battle between groups of wealthy merchants, on the one hand, and artisans and urban lower classes, on the other.
The contradictions between them, caused by the desire to take over the city government and shift the burden of taxes on opponents, led to the fact that the carnival participants forgot about the holiday and tried to deal with those whom they had long hated.

LIFE (SANITARY CONDITION OF THE CITY)

Due to the overcrowding of the urban population, the many beggars and other homeless and homeless people, the lack of hospitals and any regular sanitary supervision, medieval cities were constantly breeding grounds for all kinds of epidemics.
The medieval city was characterized by a very unsanitary condition. The narrow streets were quite stuffy. They were mostly unpaved. Therefore, in hot and dry weather in the city it was very dusty, in inclement weather, on the contrary, it was dirty, and carts could hardly pass through the streets and passers-by made their way.
In settlements there is no sewerage for dumping sewage. Water is obtained from wells and stagnant springs, which often get infected. Disinfectants are not yet known.
Due to the lack of sanitation, women in labor often do not survive difficult births, and many babies die in their first year of life.
For the treatment of simple diseases, they use grandmother's recipes, usually based on medicinal herbs.
In severe cases, the sick decide on bloodletting, which is done by a barber, or they buy drugs from a pharmacist. The poor go to the hospital for help, but the tightness, inconvenience, and dirt leave the seriously ill with almost no chance of surviving.

URBAN POPULATION

The main population of medieval cities were artisans. They became peasants who fled from their masters or went to the cities on the terms of payment of dues to the master. Becoming townspeople, they gradually freed themselves from excellent dependence on the feudal lord. If a peasant who fled to the city lived in it for a certain period, usually one year and one day, then he became free. A medieval proverb said: "City air makes you free." Only later did merchants appear in the cities. Although the bulk of the townspeople were engaged in crafts and trade, many residents of the city had their fields, pastures and gardens outside the city walls, and partly within the city. Small livestock (goats, sheep and pigs) often grazed right in the city, and the pigs ate garbage, leftover food and sewage, which were usually thrown directly into the street.

Craftsmen of a certain profession united within each city into special unions - workshops. In Italy, workshops arose already from the 10th century, in France, England, Germany and the Czech Republic - from the 11th-12th centuries, although the final design of workshops (obtaining special charters from kings, writing workshop charters, etc.) usually took place , later. In most cities, belonging to a guild was a prerequisite for doing a craft. The workshop strictly regulated production and, through specially elected officials, ensured that each master - a member of the workshop - produced products of a certain quality. For example, the weaver's workshop prescribed what width and color the fabric should be, how many threads should be in the warp, what tool and material should be used, etc. The workshop charters strictly limited the number of apprentices and apprentices that one master could have, they forbade work at night and on holidays, limited the number of machines for one artisan, and regulated the stocks of raw materials. In addition, the guild was also a mutual aid organization for artisans, providing assistance to its needy members and their families at the expense of an entrance fee to the guild, fines and other payments in case of illness or death of a member of the guild. The workshop also acted as a separate combat unit of the city militia in case of war.

In almost all the cities of medieval Europe in the 13th-15th centuries, there was a struggle between craft workshops and a narrow, closed group of urban rich (patricians). The results of this struggle varied. In some cities, primarily those where craft prevailed over trade, workshops won (Cologne, Augsburg, Florence). In other cities where merchants played a leading role, handicraft workshops were defeated (Hamburg, Lübeck, Rostock).

Jewish communities have existed in many old cities of Western Europe since the Roman era. Jews lived in special quarters (ghettos), more or less clearly separated from the rest of the city. They were usually subject to a number of restrictions.

THE STRUGGLE OF CITIES FOR INDEPENDENCE

Medieval cities always arose on the land of the feudal lord, who was interested in the emergence of a city on his own land, since crafts and trade brought him additional income. But the desire of the feudal lords to get as much income from the city as possible inevitably led to a struggle between the city and its lord. Often, cities managed to obtain the rights of self-government by paying a large sum of money to the lord. In Italy, cities achieved great independence already in the 11th-12th centuries. Many cities of Northern and Central Italy subjugated significant surrounding areas and became city-states (Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Florence, Milan, etc.)

In the Holy Roman Empire, there were so-called imperial cities, which were actually independent city republics since the 12th century. They had the right to independently declare war, make peace, mint their own coin. Such cities were Lübeck, Hamburg, Bremen, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Frankfurt am Main and others. The symbol of the freedom of the cities of the Holy Roman Empire was the statue of Roland.

Sometimes large cities, especially those located on royal land, did not receive the rights of self-government, but enjoyed a number of privileges and liberties, including the right to have elected city government bodies. However, such bodies acted jointly with the representative of the seigneur. Paris and many other French cities had such incomplete rights of self-government, for example, Orleans, Bourges, Lorris, Lyon, Nantes, Chartres, and in England - Lincoln, Ipswich, Oxford, Cambridge, Gloucester. But some cities, especially small ones, remained entirely under the control of the seigneurial administration.

CITY SELF-GOVERNMENT

Self-governing cities (communes) had their own court, military militia, and the right to levy taxes. In France and England, the head of the city council was called the mayor, and in Germany, the burgomaster. The obligations of commune towns towards their feudal lord were usually limited only to the annual payment of a certain, relatively low amount of money and sending a small military detachment to help the lord in case of war.

The municipal government of the urban communes of Italy consisted of three main elements: the power of the people's assembly, the power of the council and the power of the consuls (later the podestas).

Civil rights in the cities of northern Italy were enjoyed by adult male homeowners with property subject to taxation. According to the historian Lauro Martinez, only 2% to 12% of the inhabitants of the northern Italian communes had the right to vote. According to other estimates, such as those given in Robert Putnam's book Democracy in Action, 20% of the city's population had civil rights in Florence.

After an attempt to subjugate Milan (1158) and some other cities of Lombardy, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa introduced a new post of podest-mayor in the cities. Being a representative of the imperial power (regardless of whether he was appointed or approved by the monarch), the podesta received the power that previously belonged to the consuls. He was usually from another city so that local interests would not influence him. In March 1167, an alliance of Lombard cities arose against the emperor, known as the Lombard League. As a result, the political control of the emperor over the Italian cities was effectively eliminated and the podestas were now elected by the townspeople.

Usually, a special electoral college, formed from members of the Grand Council, was created to elect the podest. She had to nominate three people who are worthy to govern the Council and the city. The final decision on this issue was taken by the members of the Council, who elected the podestas for a period of one year. After the end of the term of office of the podest, he could not apply for a seat on the Council for three years.

Western Europe at the beginning of the 11th century. characterized by the growth of cities, and also many new cities appeared. The most populous medieval cities then were Milan, Florence, Paris and London. The number of inhabitants of these cities exceeded 80 thousand people.

Medieval cities often arose near monasteries, fortresses and castles. It was there that a large number of artisans and merchants came. They settled on the land of the feudal lord, they had to pay a tax in favor of the feudal lord.

Gradually, the townspeople began to fight the power of the feudal lord. The medieval city tried to free itself from the power of the feudal lord. The largest medieval cities could afford to pay off the lord, and those cities that were not so rich were forced to wage an open struggle. By the 15th century many cities have already become free.

The population of the medieval city

The influx of population into medieval large cities is associated primarily with the second division of labor. The fact is that in the XI century. in medieval Europe, in the mountains, crafts were separated from agriculture. Previously, peasants were engaged in handicraft only as a side activity. They made products only for their own use. They did not have enough time to actively engage in crafts, as they were forced to work on the land of the feudal lord. And it was still unrealistic to earn a living at the expense of the craft.

Later, the tools of labor become more complex, artisans have to devote more time to their manufacture. In order to make a product of high quality, the artisan first had to invest money - to purchase raw materials, new tools. For this, funds were needed. But it was worth it - by selling the product, the artisans covered their expenses and made a profit.

Later, artisans completely leave the earth and go to the cities. In medieval developed cities, they had a great opportunity to earn money by selling their products. Their buyers were feudal lords, merchants and peasants. In addition, the city in the Middle Ages could give artisans good places to sell their products - these are fairs and bazaars.

But artisans did not always sell their products only for money. Very often, the peasants offered the artisans to make an exchange. It was also beneficial for them - the artisans did not grow any products, so they needed cooperation with the peasants. And the peasant did not always have the opportunity to sell his surplus in the city for a coin.

Merchants in a medieval city

In the Middle Ages, in addition to artisans, representatives of a new layer of the population, merchants, began to come to the cities. They were engaged in trade. Traveled from one city to another, selling goods. Their activities were dangerous. Moving from one city to another, they risked the loss of their goods, damaged the wagons, and sometimes could lose their lives. The fact is that bad roads made the carts unusable, and the goods that fell from the cart automatically ended up on the land of some feudal lord. It was forbidden to take him back.The same thing happened during the wreck of a merchant ship, everything that came ashore was in the possession of the owner of the coast.

In addition, medieval merchants risked their lives, as they constantly carried large sums of money with them. There were many "dashing people" who sought to enrich themselves at their expense. But over time, they were able to secure their money. They did not leave a large amount to another merchant, but in return they received a paper on which there was a seal and the amount of money was registered. So a new concept appeared in the Middle Ages - a bill. This allowed the merchants to secure money. It was possible to fold the bill and hide it. The merchants who issued such documents took a percentage for transactions and this brought them income. So gradually began to appear banks.

With the separation of crafts from agriculture and the emergence of merchants, the population of medieval cities grew. New cities began to spring up and old ones to expand. Usually the population in an ordinary city was 4-6 thousand people. Over time, the cities acquired a free status, they stopped paying taxes to the feudal lords.

Medieval city video

The history of mankind goes back centuries. Of great interest is the study of different eras. In this article, the reader will get acquainted with the names of cities and their history in

General characteristics of medieval cities

The period is complex and controversial in the history of mankind. Its importance in the formation of cities is enormous. The following factors influenced their development in the Middle Ages:

• inherited the main features from the reign of the Roman Empire. They have been preserved to this day.
• Trade routes that connected Europe with the East played a huge role in the formation of medieval cities.

• It mattered where the monasteries and castles were located, which were the beginnings of future cities. Although only some residences of kings and feudal lords contributed to the growth of the economic development of the city.
• Of great importance were wars that lasted continuously for centuries. For defensive purposes, the buildings were of great height, the streets were narrow, and landscaping was at a low level.
• The phenomenon of the Middle Ages is the development of cities among the Arabs. They built military camps everywhere. In order to control the conquered country, citadels were built, which the Arabs called shahristans. Everyone settled there: rulers, their servants, courtiers, artisans, military squads. Settlements surrounded by fortress walls were built around the shahristans.
• The cities of the East in the Middle Ages differed from European ones. They existed in a single system of the state, but had no rights.

Mdina

The medieval city is the first capital of Malta. In another way, it is called the Silent City. The first human settlement dates back to the Bronze Age, 900 BC. The Phoenicians chose the top of the hill as their place of residence. The settlement was surrounded by fortified walls to protect against attacks by other tribes.

What attracted the ancient settlers to this place? There are groundwater sources here, thanks to which people could withstand a siege for a long time without going beyond the protective structures. The city reached an unprecedented prosperity when it was ruled by the Romans. Later, when the rule of Mdina passed to the Arabs, the city was divided into parts, one of them became known as Rabat.

The Middle Ages for Mdina were marked by the resettlement of aristocrats into it. In the thirties of the sixteenth century, the city was recognized as independent, it received the status of an autonomous settlement. Only after that did the knights take possession of the keys to the city. Later, the owners of Mdina changed many more times, and with them the status and name of medieval cities.

Constantinople

The origin of the names of medieval cities is symbolic. Constantinople is a Byzantine city with strong ancient traditions. Its origin is associated with the ancient Greek city of Byzantium. Constantinople was built in its place, and it was of great strategic importance: the location of the ancient city was the peninsula, which went to the Bosporus, and he - to the Black Sea.

Byzantium was founded by Greek colonists in 660 BC, but Constantinople surpassed it. The territory of the city occupies seven hills, like that of Rome. In his image and likeness, power was organized in Constantinople, houses were built for wealthy people. The history of the early period of Byzantium is marked by the status of a world power, where the road networks were preserved, as in Rome, and Constantinople held the main nodes of land and sea routes. The city occupied the main position between two seas: the Black and the Mediterranean.

Medieval cities of Romania

Medieval cities are of great interest to people of various professions, especially scientists. The list of names of some saved cities is as follows:

• Sighisoara is the most beautiful city in Transylvania, located on a hill. It is considered the birthplace of Dracula. This city has the German name Shessburg and the Hungarian - Shegeshvar. Founded by German colonists in the eighth century. They built a fortress, churches and the Clock Tower. For several centuries the city has been a haven for politicians and the military. Ammunition, looted treasures, valuable documents and food supplies had to be stored somewhere. The clock tower was surrounded by a powerful wall, everything was stored there. By Shessburg received the status of a free city and became a leading center of trade and crafts in Eastern Europe.

• Brasov is a city that is not inferior in beauty to Sibiu, for which it received a different name - the Romanian Salzburg. Located in the center of Romania. The first written sources about the city date back to 1235. The names of medieval cities in Europe changed frequently. So it happened with Brasov. It was called Brasco, Stefanopolis, Brasso, Kronstadt. The favorable geographical position and connections with other settlements allowed the city to rapidly develop its economy, thanks to which Brasov soon became a major center of Transylvania.

Name of medieval cities: Georgia and Armenia

The major cities of this era consisted of the citadel, the city itself and the suburbs. The city was called shahastan, the ruler - amir. The king appointed him. The inhabitants of the cities were people of different classes, but the majority were merchants and artisans. The specific name of the medieval cities (for each of them) in Georgia and Armenia will be considered below:

• Ani received the status of a city only in the tenth century. Prior to that, it was a fortress on the Akhuryan River. It has developed rapidly since 961, when it received the status of the capital of the Bagratid kingdom. Fifty years later it became an important center of the Middle East. The rapid development of the city is primarily due to its geographical location: Ani was located in the center of the kingdom and bordered on other countries: Russia, Byzantium, Iran, Aghvank and Georgia.
• Karin is an ancient Armenian city. It has other names: Theodosiopolis, from the eleventh century - Erzerum. Karin became a walled city with double walls, towers and defensive moats. Caravan routes passed through Karin, which connected the West and the East. But Karin did not become the most important city of the country due to frequent wars.
• Van is the oldest city in Armenia, the date of foundation of which is the ninth century BC. It was the largest center of handicraft production and trade. The craftsmen were engaged in weapons, pottery, jewelry and weaving.

Medieval cities of Kazakhstan

The cities of the country of this era have an interesting history. But now only remnants of them have been preserved. The name of medieval cities in Kazakhstan is unusual for the ear of a contemporary. Some of them are presented below in the article:

• Otrar. The location is the valley of the Syrdarya River. Scientists call the confluence of the two and Arys, the Otrar oasis. The city had an advantageous geographical position: it was located at the intersection of many roads. It was the most profitable and most dangerous location in Central Asia. The wars of conquest, which lasted for centuries, turned the once flourishing city into ruins. Today it resembles an open-air museum.

• Sauran. This city was founded by the tribes of Kimaks and Oguzes, where they concluded contracts and traded. The city was a powerful fortress with a powerful fortification with special structures that made it possible to withstand a long siege without the supply of water and food. The city received the status of the capital of Ak-Orda in the fourteenth century. At this time, ceramic production reached an unprecedented flourishing. Written sources testify that Sauran was a large and rich city.

Internal fortifications of the city

The fortification fences surrounded not only the outer perimeter of the city, but also the territory inside it. At that time, this was necessary to protect the city from constant clashes with foreign and internal troops. During the attack of opponents, people had to seek protection, going beyond the walls of the city, where imminent death awaited them, so they built fortifications inside the city to protect themselves from the danger that could be expected at any time. There was always danger, even if there were no official wars.

The name of the inner fortification in a Russian medieval city depends on the type of fortification. The simplest was the cape type. Usually, a place was chosen for the settlement, surrounded by ravines or formed by the confluence of rivers. Nature itself enclosed the city on the sides, but it was open from the floor side. Fortifications were built in this place: ditches, ramparts, palisades. In general, cities, monasteries and castles were fortifications in the Middle Ages.

As a rule, the authorities were engaged in their construction, and if it was weak, then the clergy or secular feudal lords, as in France or Italy. German cities with internal fortifications were called burghs. They had their own laws and regulations.

• People in the described era very rarely washed, as they believed that water that got on the body could infect it.
• Residents of London in the Middle Ages threw fifty tons of excrement into the streets in one day.
• Medieval cities did not have sidewalks and asphalt on the roads. People had to walk on the ground covered with rotting animal remains, scraps of food, excrement. So, the excessive pollution of the streets of London led to the emergence of people of a new profession who cleaned up excrement and other garbage. These people were called goldsmiths, because they were paid more money for this dirty work.

§ 18. Medieval city

Medieval city phenomenon.

In the Middle Ages, the vast majority of the population lived in the countryside. There were few townspeople, their role in society far exceeded their numbers. During the Great Migration of Nations, many cities were destroyed. In the few remaining fortress cities lived kings, dukes, bishops with close associates and servants. The townspeople were engaged in agriculture in the vicinity of the city, and sometimes """ inside it.

Around the 10th century big changes are taking place. In cities, crafts and trade become the main occupation of the inhabitants. Cities preserved from Roman times are growing rapidly. Appear

new cities.

By the XIV century. there were so many cities that from almost anywhere in Europe it was possible to drive to the nearest city within one day. The townspeople by that time differed from the peasants not only in their occupations. They had special rights and duties, wore special clothes, and so on. The class of workers was divided into two parts - peasants and townspeople.

emergencecitiesastrade and craft centers.

The formation of cities as centers of crafts and trade was caused by the progressive development of society. As the population grew, so did its needs. So, the feudal lords were increasingly in need of things that merchants brought from Byzantium and eastern countries.

The first cities of the new type developed as settlements of merchants. who traded with these distant countries. In Italy, in the south of France in Spain since the end of the 9th century. some Roman cities were revived, new ones were built. The cities of Amalfi became especially large. Pisa, Genoa, Marseille, Barcelona, ​​Venice. Some merchants from these cities sailed on ships in the Mediterranean, others transported the goods they delivered to all corners of Western Europe. There were places of exchange of goods - trade fairs(annual markets). I especially had them in the county of Champagne in France.

Later, in the XII-XIII centuries, in the north of Europe, trading cities also appeared - Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck, Danzig, etc. Here, merchants transported goods across the North and Baltic Seas. Their ships often fell prey to the elements, and even more often to pirates. On land, in addition to bad roads, merchants had to deal with robbers, often played by knights. Therefore, trading cities united to protect sea and land caravans. The union of cities in Northern Europe was called the Hansa. Not only individual feudal lords, but also the rulers of entire states were forced to reckon with the Hansa.

There were merchants, but in all cities, but in most of them the main occupation of the population of the herd was not trade, but handicraft. Initially, artisans lived in the villages and castles of the feudal lords. However, it is difficult to live by handicraft in rural areas. Here, few people bought handicrafts, because subsistence farming dominated. Therefore, artisans sought to move to places where they could sell their products. These were areas of fairs, crossroads of trade routes, river crossings, etc. In such places there was usually a castle of a feudal lord or a monastery. Craftsmen built dwellings around the castle and the monastery, later such graying turned into cities.

The feudal lords were also interested in these settlements. After all, they could get a big quitrent. Seniors sometimes brought artisans from their feud to one place, and even lured them from their neighbors. However, most of the inhabitants, coming to the city on their own. Often serf artisans and peasants fled from their lords to the cities.

The earliest cities - centers of crafts - arose in the county of Flanders (modern Belgium). In such of them as Bruges, Ghent, Ypres, woolen fabrics were made. In these places, breeds of sheep with thick wool were bred and convenient looms were created.

From the 11th century cities grew especially rapidly. A large city in the Middle Ages was considered a city with a population of 5-10 thousand inhabitants. The largest cities in Europe were Paris, London, Florence, Milan, Venice, Seville, Cordoba.

Cities and seniors.

The weight of the city arose on the land of the feudal lords. Many townspeople were in personal dependence on the lord. The feudal lords, with the help of servants, ruled the cities. Settlers from the villages brought to the cities the habit of living in the community. Very soon, the townspeople began to gather together to discuss issues of city government, they elected the head of the city (mayor or burgomaster), and gathered militia to protect themselves from enemies.

People of the same profession usually settled together, attended the same church, and communicated closely with each other. They created their unions - craft workshops and trade guilds. The guilds monitored the quality of handicrafts, established the order of work in workshops, guarded the property of their members, fought competitors among non-price artisans, peasants, and so on. Guilds and guilds, in order to protect their interests, sought to participate in the management of the city. They exhibited their detachments in the city militia.

As the wealth of the townspeople grew, the feudal lords increased the exactions from them. Urban communities - communes over time, they began to resist such actions of the feudal lords. Some seniors behind a solid ransom expanded the rights of cities. However, in the overwhelming majority of cases, a stubborn struggle unfolded between the feudal lords and the communes. It sometimes lasted for many decades and was accompanied by hostilities.

The outcome of the struggle depended on the balance of forces of the parties. The rich cities of Italy not only freed themselves from the power of the feudal lords, but also took away all their lands from them. Their castles were destroyed, and the lords were forcibly relocated to the cities, where they began to serve the communes. The surrounding peasants became dependent on the cities. Many cities (Florence, Genoa, Venice, Milan) became the centers of small state-republics.

In other countries, the success of cities was not so impressive. However, almost everywhere the townspeople freed themselves from the power of the feudal lords and became free. Moreover, any serf who fled to the city was made free if the lord could not find him there and return him within one year and one day. “City air makes a person free,” said a medieval saying. A number of cities have achieved full self-government.

Some small towns remained under the rule of seniors. A number of large cities, in which kings and other strong rulers lived, failed to become independent. The inhabitants of Paris and London received freedom and many rights, but along with city councils, these cities were also ruled by royal

officials.

Shop organizations.

The main body of the workshop management was the general meeting of all members of the workshop, which was attended only by independent members of the workshop - masters. The craftsmen were the owners of the tools of labor, the handicraft workshop.

As demand increased, it became difficult for the craftsman to work alone. So there were pupils, after apprentices. The student took an oath not to leave the master until the end of the training: the master was obliged to teach him honestly his craft and fully support him. But the position of the students was, as a rule, not easy: they were overwhelmed with overwork, kept starving, beaten for the slightest offense.

Gradually, the student became an assistant to the master - an apprentice. His position improved, but he remained a part-time worker. To become a master, an apprentice had to fulfill two conditions: after learning to wander to improve the craft, and then pass the exam, which consisted in making an exemplary work (masterpiece).

At the end of the Middle Ages, workshops become in many ways a brake on the development of crafts. Masters made it difficult for apprentices to join the guild. There were benefits for the sons of masters.

Contradictions within urban communities.

In the struggle against the lords, all the townspeople were united. However, the leading position in the cities was occupied by large merchants, owners of urban land and houses (patriciate). All of them were often relatives and firmly held the city government in their hands. In many cities, only such people could participate in the elections of the mayor and members of the city council. In other cities, one vote of a rich man was equal to several votes of ordinary citizens.

When distributing taxes, when recruiting into the militia, in the courts, the patriciate acted in his own interests. This situation aroused the resistance of the rest of the inhabitants. Particularly dissatisfied were the craft workshops, which brought the city the greatest income. In a number of cities the guilds rebelled against the patriciate. Sometimes the rebels overthrew the old rulers and established more just laws, chose rulers from among themselves.

Significance of medieval cities.

The townspeople lived much better than most peasants. They were free people, fully owned their property, had the right to fight with weapons in their hands in the ranks of the militia, they could only be punished by a court decision. Such orders contributed to the successful development of cities and medieval society as a whole. Cities have become centers of technological progress and culture. In a number of countries, the townspeople became allies of the kings in their struggle for centralization. Thanks to the activities of the townspeople, the commodity-money relations, in which feudal lords and peasants are involved. The growth of commodity-money relations eventually led to the liberation of the peasants from personal dependence on the feudal lords.