Chronological periods and epochs in the history of mankind. Age periods of a person’s life and his mental development What period of development of human society is the origin of agricultural production

Question 1. How did the activities of primitive man affect the environment?

Already more than 1 million years ago, pithecanthropes obtained food by hunting. Neanderthals used a variety of stone tools for hunting, drove the prey collectively. Cro-Magnons created snares, spears, spear throwers and other devices. However, all this did not introduce serious changes in the structure of ecosystems. The impact of man on nature intensified in the Neolithic era, when cattle breeding and agriculture began to acquire increasing importance. Man began to destroy natural communities, without, however, having a global impact on the bio-sphere as a whole. Nevertheless, unregulated grazing, as well as the clearing of forests for fuel and for crops, already at that time changed the state of many natural ecosystems.

Question 2. What period of development of human society is the emergence of agricultural production?

Agriculture appeared after the end of the glaciation in the Neolithic (New Stone Age). This period is usually dated to 8-3 millennium BC. e. At this time, a man domesticated several types of animals (first a dog, then ungulates - a pig, a sheep, a goat, a cow, a horse) and began to cultivate the first cultivated plants (wheat, barley, legumes).

Question 3. What are the reasons for the possible occurrence of a shortage of water in a number of areas of the world.

Lack of water can occur as a result of various human actions. During the construction of dams, changes in the course of rivers, a redistribution of the runoff occurs: some territories are flooded, others begin to suffer from drought. Increased evaporation from the surface of reservoirs leads not only to the formation of a water deficit, but also changes the climate of entire regions. Irrigated agriculture depletes the reserves of surface and soil water. Deforestation on the border with deserts contributes to the formation of new territories with a lack of water. Finally, the reasons may be high population density, excessive needs of industry, as well as pollution of available water supplies.

Question 4. How does deforestation affect the state of the bio-sphere?material from the site

Deforestation catastrophically worsens the state of the biosphere as a whole. As a result of felling, surface water runoff increases, which increases the likelihood of floods. Intensive soil erosion begins, leading to the destruction of the fertile layer and pollution of water bodies with organic substances, flowering of water, etc. Deforestation increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which is one of the factors intensifying the greenhouse effect; the amount of dust is growing in the air; the danger of a gradual decrease in the amount of oxygen is also relevant.

The felling of large trees destroys well-established forest ecosystems. They are replaced by much less productive biocenoses: small forests, swamps, semi-deserts. At the same time, dozens of plant and animal species may disappear irrevocably.

Currently, the main "lungs" of our planet are equatorial rainforests and taiga. Both of these groups of ecosystems need extremely careful treatment and protection.

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• name the reasons for the possible occurrence of water shortage in a number of regions of the world
• How does deforestation affect the biosphere?
• essay on biosphere and man
• Biology. How did the activity of primitive man affect the environment?
• to what period of development of human society does the emergence of agricultural production belong?

The physical development of a person is a complex of morphological and functional properties of the body that determine the shape, size, body weight and its structural and mechanical qualities.

Introduction

Signs of physical development are variable. The physical development of a person is the result of the influence of hereditary factors (genotype) and environmental factors, and for a person - the whole complex of social conditions ( phenotype). With age, the value of heredity decreases, the leading role passes to individually acquired features.
The physical development of children and adolescents is associated with growth. Each age period - infancy, childhood, adolescence and youth - is characterized by specific features of the growth of individual parts of the body. In each age period, the child's body has a number of characteristic features that are unique to this age. Between the body of a child and an adult, there are not only quantitative differences (body size, weight), but, above all, qualitative ones.
Currently, there is an acceleration of human physical development. This phenomenon is called acceleration.
In my work, I will try to briefly characterize each of the main stages of individual development of a person.

The main stages of individual human development

When studying human development, its individual and age characteristics in anatomy and other disciplines, they are guided by scientifically based data on age periodization. The scheme of age periodization of human development, taking into account anatomical, physiological, and social factors, was adopted at the VII Conference on Problems of Age Morphology, Physiology, and Biochemistry (1965). It distinguishes twelve age periods (Table 1). Table 1

Individual development, or development in ontogeny, occurs in all periods of life - from conception to death. In human ontogenesis, two periods are distinguished: before birth (intrauterine, prenatal - from the Greek natos - born) and after birth (extrauterine, postnatal).

Prenatal ontogeny

To understand the individual structural features of the human body, it is necessary to get acquainted with the development of the human body in the prenatal period. The fact is that each person has his own individual characteristics of external appearance and internal structure, the presence of which is determined by two factors. This is heredity, traits inherited from parents, as well as the result of the influence of the external environment in which a person grows, develops, studies, works.
In the intrauterine period, from conception to birth, for 280 days (9 calendar months), the embryo (embryo) is located in the mother's body (from the moment of fertilization to birth). During the first 8 weeks, the main processes of the formation of organs and body parts take place. This period is called the embryonic (embryonic), and the body of the future person is the embryo (embryo). From the age of 9 weeks, when the main external human features begin to appear, the body is called a fetus, and the period is fetal (fetal - from the Greek fetus - fetus).
The development of a new organism begins with the process of fertilization (fusion of sperm and egg), which usually occurs in the fallopian tube. Merged sex cells form a qualitatively new unicellular embryo - a zygote that has all the properties of both germ cells. From this moment, the development of a new (daughter) organism begins.
The optimal conditions for the interaction of sperm and egg are usually created within 12 hours after ovulation. The union of the nucleus of the spermatozoon with the nucleus of the ovum leads to the formation in a unicellular organism (zygote) of a diploid set of chromosomes characteristic of a human being (46). The sex of the unborn child is determined by the combination of chromosomes in the zygote and depends on the father's sex chromosomes. If the egg is fertilized by a sperm with the sex chromosome X, then two X chromosomes appear in the resulting diploid set of chromosomes, which are characteristic of the female body. When fertilized by a sperm with a Y sex chromosome, a combination of XY sex chromosomes is formed in the zygote, which is characteristic of the male body.
The first week of embryo development is the period of crushing (division) of the zygote into daughter cells (Fig. 1). Immediately after fertilization, during the first 3-4 days, the zygote divides and simultaneously moves along the fallopian tube towards the uterine cavity. As a result of division of the zygote, a multicellular vesicle is formed - a blastula with a cavity inside (from the Greek blastula - sprout). The walls of this vesicle are formed by two types of cells: large and small. From the outer layer of small cells, the walls of the vesicle are formed - the trophoblast. Subsequently, trophoblast cells form the outer layer of the membranes of the embryo. Larger dark cells (blastomeres) form a cluster - an embryoblast (embryonic nodule, embryo rudiment), which is located medially from the trophoblast. From this accumulation of cells (embryoblast), the embryo and adjacent extraembryonic structures (except for the trophoblast) develop.

Fig.1. A - fertilization: 1 - sperm; 2 - egg; B; C - crushing of the zygote, D - morublastula: 1 - embryoblast; 2 - trophoblast; D - blastocyst: 1-embryoblast; 2 - trophoblast; 3 - amnion cavity; E - blastocyst: 1-embryoblast; 2-amnion cavity; 3 - blastocoel; 4 - embryonic endoderm; 5-amnionitic epithelium - F - I: 1 - ectoderm; 2 - endoderm; 3 - mesoderm.
A small amount of fluid accumulates between the surface layer (trophoblast) and the germinal nodule. By the end of the 1st week of development (6-7th day of pregnancy), the embryo enters the uterus and is introduced (implanted) into its mucous membrane; implantation lasts about 40 hours. The surface cells of the embryo that form the vesicle, the trophoblast (from the Greek trophe - nutrition), secrete an enzyme that loosens the surface layer of the uterine mucosa, which is prepared for the introduction of the embryo into it. The emerging villi (outgrowths) of the trophoblast come into direct contact with the blood vessels of the mother's body. Numerous trophoblast villi increase the surface of its contact with the tissues of the uterine mucosa. The trophoblast turns into a nutrient membrane of the embryo, which is called the villous membrane (chorion). At first, the chorion has villi on all sides, then these villi remain only on the side facing the wall of the uterus. In this place, a new organ develops from the chorion and the uterine mucosa adjacent to it - the placenta (children's place). The placenta is the organ that connects the mother's body with the fetus and provides its nutrition.
The second week of the life of the embryo is the stage when the embryoblast cells are divided into two layers (two plates), from which two vesicles are formed (Fig. 2). From the outer layer of cells adjacent to the trophoblast, an ectoblastic (amniotic) vesicle is formed. An endoblastic (yolk) vesicle is formed from the inner layer of cells (the rudiment of the embryo, the embryoblast). The bookmark ("body") of the embryo is located where the amniotic vesicle is in contact with the yolk sac. During this period, the embryo is a two-layer shield, consisting of two sheets: the outer germinal (ectoderm) and the inner germinal (endoderm).

Fig.2. The position of the embryo and embryonic membranes at different stages of human development: A - 2-3 weeks; B - 4 weeks: 1 - amnion cavity; 2 - the body of the embryo; 3 - yolk sac; 4 - tropholast; B - 6 weeks; D - fetus 4-5 months: 1 - body of the embryo (fetus); 2 - amnion; 3 - yolk sac; 4 - chorion; 5 - umbilical cord.
The ectoderm faces the amniotic sac, and the endoderm is adjacent to the yolk sac. At this stage, the surfaces of the embryo can be determined. The dorsal surface is adjacent to the amniotic vesicle, and the ventral surface to the yolk sac. The trophoblast cavity around the amniotic and vitelline vesicles is loosely filled with strands of cells of the extraembryonic mesenchyme. By the end of the 2nd week, the length of the embryo is only 1.5 mm. During this period, the germinal shield thickens in its posterior (caudal) part. Here, in the future, axial organs (chord, neural tube) begin to develop.
The third week of the life of the embryo is the period of formation of a three-layer shield (embryo). The cells of the outer, ectodermal plate of the germinal shield are displaced towards its posterior end. As a result, a cell ridge (primary streak) is formed, which is elongated in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the embryo. In the head (front) part of the primary strip, cells grow and multiply faster, resulting in a slight elevation - the primary nodule (Hensen's nodule). The location of the primary nodule indicates the cranial (head end) of the body of the embryo.
Rapidly multiplying, the cells of the primary streak and the primary nodule grow to the sides between the ectoderm and endoderm, thus forming the median germ layer - the mesoderm. The cells of the mesoderm located between the sheets of the shield are called the intraembryonic mesoderm, and those that have moved beyond it are called the extraembryonic mesoderm.
Part of the mesoderm cells within the primary nodule grows especially actively forward from the head and tail ends of the embryo, penetrates between the outer and inner sheets and forms a cell strand - the dorsal string (chord). At the end of the 3rd week of development, active cell growth occurs in the anterior part of the outer germ layer - the neural plate is formed. This plate soon bends, forming a longitudinal groove - the neural groove. The edges of the groove thicken, approach and fuse with each other, closing the neural groove into the neural tube. In the future, the entire nervous system develops from the neural tube. The ectoderm closes over the formed neural tube and loses contact with it.
In the same period, a finger-like outgrowth, the alantois, penetrates from the back of the endodermal plate of the germinal shield into the extraembryonic mesenchyme (the so-called amniotic stalk), which does not perform certain functions in humans. In the course of the allantois, blood umbilical (placental) vessels sprout from the embryo to the chorion villi. A cord containing blood vessels that connects the embryo to the extra-embryonic membranes (placenta) forms the ventral stalk.
Thus, by the end of the 3rd week of development, the human embryo looks like a three-layer plate, or a three-layer shield. In the region of the outer germ layer, the neural tube is visible, and deeper - the dorsal string, i.e. axial organs of the human embryo appear. By the end of the third week of development, the length of the embryo is 2-3 mm.
The fourth week of life - the embryo, which has the form of a three-layer shield, begins to bend in the transverse and longitudinal directions. The embryonic shield becomes convex, and its edges are delimited from the amnion surrounding the embryo by a deep furrow - the trunk fold. The body of the embryo from a flat shield turns into a three-dimensional one, the ectoderm covers the body of the embryo from all sides.
From the ectoderm, the nervous system, the epidermis of the skin and its derivatives, the epithelial lining of the oral cavity, the anal part of the rectum, and the vagina are further formed. The mesoderm gives rise to internal organs (except endoderm derivatives), the cardiovascular system, the organs of the musculoskeletal system (bones, joints, muscles), and the skin itself.
The endoderm, which is inside the body of the human embryo, rolls up into a tube and forms the embryonic rudiment of the future intestine. The narrow opening connecting the embryonic intestine with the yolk sac later turns into the umbilical ring. From the endoderm, the epithelium and all the glands of the digestive system and respiratory tract are formed.
The embryonic (primary) intestine is initially closed in front and behind. In the anterior and posterior ends of the body of the embryo, invaginations of the ectoderm appear - the oral fossa (future oral cavity) and the anal (anal) fossa. Between the cavity of the primary intestine and the oral fossa there is a two-layer (ectoderm and endoderm) anterior (oropharyngeal) plate (membrane). Between the intestine and the anal fossa there is a cloacal (anal) plate (membrane), also two-layered. The anterior (oropharyngeal) membrane ruptures during the 4th week of development. At the 3rd month, the posterior (anal) membrane breaks.
As a result of bending, the body of the embryo is surrounded by the contents of the amnion - amniotic fluid, which acts as a protective environment that protects the embryo from damage, primarily mechanical (concussion).
The yolk sac lags behind in growth and at the 2nd month of intrauterine development looks like a small sac, and then it is completely reduced (disappears). The ventral stalk lengthens, becomes relatively thin and is later called the umbilical cord.
During the 4th week of development of the embryo, the differentiation of its mesoderm, which began on the 3rd week, continues. The dorsal part of the mesoderm, located on the sides of the chord, forms paired thickened protrusions - somites. Somites are segmented, i.e. divided into metameric regions. Therefore, the dorsal part of the mesoderm is called segmented. Segmentation of somites occurs gradually in the direction from front to back. On the 20th day of development, the 3rd pair of somites is formed, by the 30th day there are already 30 of them, and on the 35th day - 43-44 pairs. The ventral part of the mesoderm is not divided into segments. It forms two plates on each side (non-segmented part of the mesoderm). The medial (visceral) plate is adjacent to the endoderm (primary intestine) and is called the splanchnopleura. The lateral (outer) plate is adjacent to the wall of the body of the embryo, to the ectoderm, and is called the somatopleura.
The epithelial cover of the serous membranes (mesothelium), as well as the lamina propria of the serous membranes and the subserous base, develop from the splanchno- and somatopleura. The mesenchyme of the splanchnopleura also goes to the construction of all layers of the digestive tube, except for the epithelium and glands, which are formed from the endoderm. The space between the plates of the non-segmented part of the mesoderm turns into the body cavity of the embryo, which is subdivided into the peritoneal, pleural and pericardial cavities.

Fig.3. Cross section through the body of the embryo (diagram): 1 - neural tube; 2 - chord; 3 - aorta; 4 - sclerotome; 5 - myotome; 6 - dermatome; 7 - primary intestine; 8 - body cavity (as a whole); 9 - somatopleura; 10 - splanchnopleura.
The mesoderm on the border between the somites and the splanchnopleura forms nephrotomes (segmental legs), from which the tubules of the primary kidney, the sex glands, develop. From the dorsal part of the mesoderm - somites - three rudiments are formed. The anteromedial section of the somites (sclerotome) goes to the construction of skeletal tissue, giving rise to cartilage and bones of the axial skeleton - the spine. Lateral to it lies the myotome, from which the skeletal muscles develop. In the posterolateral part of the somite there is a site - the dermatome, from the tissue of which the connective tissue base of the skin is formed - the dermis.
In the head section on each side of the embryo from the ectoderm on the 4th week, the rudiments of the inner ear (first the auditory pits, then the auditory vesicles) and the future lens of the eye are formed. At the same time, the visceral sections of the head are rebuilt, which form the frontal and maxillary processes around the mouth bay. Behind (caudal) of these processes, the contours of the mandibular and sublingual (hyoid) visceral arches are visible.
Elevations are visible on the anterior surface of the torso of the embryo: cardiac, and behind it - hepatic tubercles. The recess between these tubercles indicates the place of formation of the transverse septum - one of the rudiments of the diaphragm. Caudal to the hepatic tubercle is the ventral stalk, which contains large blood vessels and connects the embryo to the placenta (umbilical cord). The length of the embryo by the end of the 4th week is 4-5 mm.

Fifth to eighth weeks

In the period from the 5th to the 8th week of the life of the embryo, the formation of organs (organogenesis) and tissues (histogenesis) continues. This is the time of early development of the heart and lungs, the complication of the structure of the intestinal tube, the formation of visceral arches, the formation of capsules of the sense organs. The neural tube completely closes and expands in the head region (the future brain). At the age of about 31-32 days (5th week), the length of the embryo is 7.5 mm. At the level of the lower cervical and 1st thoracic segments of the body, fin-like rudiments (buds) of the hands appear. By the 40th day, the rudiments of the legs are formed.
At the 6th week (parietal-coccygeal length of the embryo - 12 - 13 mm), the laying of the outer ear is noticeable, from the end of the 6-7th week - the laying of the fingers, and then the toes.
By the end of the 7th week (the length of the embryo is 19-20 mm), eyelids begin to form. Thanks to this, the eyes are outlined more clearly. On the 8th week (the length of the embryo is 28-30 mm), the laying of the organs of the embryo ends. From the 9th week, i.e. from the beginning of the 3rd month, the embryo (parietal-coccygeal length 39-41 mm) takes the form of a person and is called a fetus.

third to ninth months

Starting from three months and throughout the entire fetal period, further growth and development of the resulting organs and body parts occur. At the same time, the differentiation of the external genitalia begins. Nails are laid on the fingers. From the end of the 5th month (length 24.3 cm), eyebrows and eyelashes become noticeable. At the 7th month (length 37.1 cm), the eyelids open, fat begins to accumulate in the subcutaneous tissue. On the 10th month (length 51 cm) the fetus is born.

Critical periods of ontogeny a

In the process of individual development, there are critical periods when the sensitivity of the developing organism to the effects of damaging factors of the external and internal environment is increased. There are several critical periods of development. These most dangerous periods are:
1) the time of development of germ cells - ovogenesis and spermatogenesis;
2) the moment of fusion of germ cells - fertilization;
3) implantation of the embryo (4-8 days of embryogenesis);
4) formation of rudiments of axial organs (brain and spinal cord, spinal column, primary intestine) and formation of the placenta (3-8 weeks of development);
5) the stage of enhanced brain growth (15-20 weeks);
6) formation of the functional systems of the body and differentiation of the urogenital apparatus (20-24th week of the prenatal period);
7) the moment of the birth of the child and the neonatal period - the transition to extrauterine life; metabolic and functional adaptation;
8) the period of early and first childhood (2 years - 7 years), when the formation of relationships between organs, systems and apparatuses of organs ends;
9) adolescence (puberty - in boys from 13 to 16 years, in girls - from 12 to 15 years).
Simultaneously with the rapid growth of the organs of the reproductive system, emotional activity is activated.

Postnatal ontogeny. Neonatal period

Immediately after birth, there is a period called the neonatal period. The basis for this allocation is the fact that at this time the child is fed with colostrum for 8-10 days. Newborns in the initial period of adaptation to the conditions of extrauterine life are divided according to the level of maturity into full-term and premature. Intrauterine development of full-term babies lasts 39-40 weeks, premature babies - 28-38 weeks. When determining maturity, not only these terms are taken into account, but also the mass (weight) of the body at birth.
Newborns with a body weight of at least 2500 g (with a body length of at least 45 cm) are considered full-term, and newborns with a body weight of less than 2500 g are considered premature. In addition to weight and length, other dimensions are taken into account, for example, chest girth in relation to body length and head circumference in relation to chest circumference. It is believed that the girth of the chest at the level of the nipples should be more than 0.5 body length by 9-10 cm, and the girth of the head - more than the girth of the chest by no more than 1-2 cm.

Breast period

The next period - chest - lasts up to a year. The beginning of this period is associated with the transition to feeding "mature" milk. During the breast period, the greatest intensity of growth is observed, in comparison with all other periods of extrauterine life. Body length increases from birth to a year by 1.5 times, and body weight triples. From 6 months milk teeth begin to erupt. In infancy, uneven body growth is pronounced. In the first half of the year, babies grow faster than in the second. In each month of the first year of life, new indicators of development appear. In the first month, the child begins to smile in response to the appeal of adults, at 4 months. persistently tries to stand on legs (with support), at 6 months. tries to crawl on all fours, at 8 - makes attempts to walk, by the year the child usually walks.

early childhood period

The period of early childhood lasts from 1 year to 4 years. At the end of the second year of life, teething ends. After 2 years, the absolute and relative values ​​of annual body size increases rapidly decrease.

First childhood period

From the age of 4, the period of the first childhood begins, which ends at the age of 7. Starting from the age of 6, the first permanent teeth appear: the first molar (large molar) and the medial incisor on the lower jaw.
The age from 1 year to 7 years is also called the period of neutral childhood, since boys and girls almost do not differ from each other in size and body shape.

second childhood period

The period of second childhood lasts for boys from 8 to 12 years, for girls - from 8 to 11 years. During this period, sex differences in the size and shape of the body are revealed, and an increased growth of the body in length begins. Growth rates in girls are higher than in boys, since puberty in girls begins on average two years earlier. Increased secretion of sex hormones (especially in girls) causes the development of secondary sexual characteristics. The sequence of appearance of secondary sexual characteristics is fairly constant. In girls, the mammary glands first form, then pubic hair appears, then in the armpits. The uterus and vagina develop simultaneously with the formation of the mammary glands. To a much lesser extent, the process of puberty is expressed in boys. Only towards the end of this period do they begin to accelerate the growth of the testicles, scrotum, and then the penis.

Teenage years

The next period - adolescence - is also called puberty, or puberty. It continues in boys from 13 to 16 years old, in girls - from 12 to 15 years old. At this time, there is a further increase in growth rates - the puberty jump, which applies to all body sizes. The greatest increase in body length in girls occurs between 11 and 12 years, in body weight - between 12 and 13 years. In boys, an increase in length is observed between 13 and 14 years, and an increase in body weight between 14 and 15 years. The growth rate of body length is especially high in boys, as a result of which at the age of 13.5-14 they overtake girls in body length. Due to the increased activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary system, secondary sexual characteristics are formed. In girls, the development of the mammary glands continues, there is growth of hair on the pubis and in the armpits. The most clear indicator of puberty of the female body is the first menstruation.
In adolescence, there is an intensive puberty of boys. By the age of 13, their voice changes (mutates) and pubic hair appears, and at 14, hair appears in the armpits. At the age of 14-15, boys have their first wet dreams (involuntary eruptions of sperm).
In boys, compared with girls, the pubertal period is longer and the pubertal growth spurt is more pronounced.

adolescence

Adolescence lasts for boys from 18 to 21 years old, and for girls - from 17 to 20 years old. During this period, the growth process and the formation of the body basically end, and all the main dimensional features of the body reach the definitive (final) value.
In adolescence, the formation of the reproductive system and the maturation of the reproductive function are completed. The ovulatory cycles in a woman, the rhythm of testosterone secretion and the production of mature sperm in a man are finally established.

Mature, elderly, senile age

In adulthood, the shape and structure of the body change little. Between 30 and 50 years, body length remains constant, and then begins to decrease. In the elderly and senile age, gradual involutive changes in the body occur.

Individual differences in the process of growth and development

Individual differences in the process of growth and development can vary widely. The existence of individual fluctuations in the processes of growth and development served as the basis for the introduction of such a concept as biological age, or developmental age (as opposed to passport age).
The main criteria for biological age are:
1) skeletal maturity - (the order and timing of ossification of the skeleton);
2) dental maturity - (terms of eruption of milk and permanent teeth);
3) the degree of development of secondary sexual characteristics. For each of these biological age criteria - "external" (skin), "dental" and "bone" - rating scales and normative tables have been developed to determine the chronological (passport) age by morphological features.

Factors affecting individual development

Factors affecting individual development (ontogenesis) are divided into hereditary and environmental (influence of the external environment).
The degree of hereditary (genetic) influence is not the same at different stages of growth and development. The impact of hereditary factors on the total body size increases from the period of the newborn (tm) to the second childhood, with a subsequent weakening by the age of 12-15.
The influence of environmental factors on the processes of morphofunctional maturation of the body is clearly seen in the example of the timing of menarche (menstruation). Studies of growth processes in children and adolescents in various geographical areas have shown that climatic factors have almost no effect on growth and development, if living conditions are not extreme. Adaptation to extreme conditions causes such a profound restructuring of the functioning of the whole organism that it cannot but affect the growth processes.

Dimensions and proportions, body weight

Among the body sizes, total (from French total - whole) and partial (from Latin pars - part) are distinguished. Total (general) body dimensions are the main indicators of human physical development. These include body length and weight, as well as chest circumference. Partial (partial) dimensions of the body are terms of the total size and characterize the size of individual parts of the body.
Body sizes are determined during anthropometric surveys of various contingents of the population.
Most anthropometric indicators have significant individual fluctuations. Table 2 shows some average anthropometric indicators in postnatal ontogeny.
The proportions of the body depend on the age and gender of the person (Fig. 4). Body length and its age-related changes, as a rule, are individual. So, for example, differences in the body length of newborns during normal pregnancy are in the range of 49-54 cm. The largest increase in the body length of children is observed in the first year of life and averages 23.5 cm. In the period from 1 to 10 years, this indicator gradually decreases by an average of 10.5 - 5 cm per year. From the age of 9, sex differences in growth rate begin to appear. Body weight from the first days of life until about 25 years of age in most people gradually increases, and then remains unchanged.

Fig. 4 Changes in the proportions of body parts in the process of human growth.
KM - the middle line. The numbers on the right show the ratio of body parts in children and adults, the numbers below show the age.
table 2
Length, mass and body surface area in postiatal orthogenesis



Table 2
After the age of 60, body weight usually begins to gradually decrease, mainly as a result of atrophic changes in tissues and a decrease in their water content. The total body weight consists of a number of components: the mass of the skeleton, muscles, fatty tissue, internal organs and skin. In men, the average body weight is 52-75 kg, in women - 47-70 kg.
In the elderly and senile age, characteristic changes are observed not only in the size and weight of the body, but also in its structure; these changes are studied by the special science of gerontology (gerontos - old man). It should be emphasized that an active lifestyle, regular physical education slows down the aging process.

Acceleration

It should be noted that over the past 100-150 years there has been a noticeable acceleration in the somatic development and physiological maturation of children and adolescents - acceleration (from Latin acceleratio - acceleration). Another term for the same trend is "epochal shift". Acceleration is characterized by a complex set of interrelated morphological, physiological, and mental phenomena. To date, morphological indicators of acceleration have been determined.
Thus, the length of the body of children at birth over the past 100-150 years has increased by an average of 0.5-1 cm, and the weight - by 100-300 g. During this time, the mass of the placenta in the mother has also increased. There is also an earlier alignment of the ratios of chest and head girths (between the 2nd and 3rd month of life). Modern one-year-old children are 5 cm longer and 1.5-2 kg heavier than their peers in the 19th century.
The body length of preschool children over the past 100 years has increased by 10-12 cm, and for schoolchildren - by 10-15 cm.
In addition to an increase in body length and weight, acceleration is characterized by an increase in the size of individual parts of the body (segments of limbs, thickness of skin-fat folds, etc.). Thus, the increase in chest girth in relation to the increase in body length was small. The onset of puberty in modern adolescents occurs about two years earlier. The acceleration of development also affected motor functions. Modern teenagers run faster, jump further from a place, pull themselves up on the crossbar (horizontal bar) more times.
Epochal shift (acceleration) affects all stages of human life, from birth to death. For example, the length of the body of adults also increases, but to a lesser extent than in children and adolescents. So, at the age of 20-25 years, the body length of men increased by an average of 8 cm.
Acceleration covers the entire body, affecting the size of the body, the growth of organs and bones, the maturation of the sex glands and the skeleton. In men, changes in the process of acceleration are more pronounced than in women.
Men and women are distinguished by sexual characteristics. These are primary signs (genital organs) and secondary (for example, the development of pubic hair, the development of the mammary glands, a change in voice, etc.), as well as body features, proportions of body parts.
The proportions of the human body are calculated as a percentage according to the measurement of the longitudinal and transverse dimensions between the boundary points set on various protrusions of the skeleton.
The harmony of body proportions is one of the criteria for assessing the state of human health. With disproportion in the structure of the body, one can think of a violation of growth processes and the causes that caused it (endocrine, chromosomal, etc.). Based on the calculation of body proportions in anatomy, three main types of human physique are distinguished: mesomorphic, brachymorphic, dolichomorphic. The mesomorphic body type (normosthenics) includes people whose anatomical features approach the average parameters of the norm (taking into account age, gender, etc.). In people of the brachymorphic body type (hypersthenics), transverse dimensions predominate, muscles are well developed, they are not very tall. The heart is located transversely due to the high-standing diaphragm. In hypersthenics, the lungs are shorter and wider, the loops of the small intestine are located mainly horizontally. Persons of dolichomorphic body type (asthenics) are characterized by a predominance of longitudinal dimensions, have relatively longer limbs, poorly developed muscles and a thin layer of subcutaneous fat, and narrow bones. Their diaphragm is lower, so the lungs are longer, and the heart is located almost vertically. Table 3 shows the relative sizes of body parts in people of different body types.
Table 3

Conclusion

What can be the conclusion of the above?
Human growth is uneven. Each part of the body, each organ develops according to its own program. If we compare the growth and development of each of them with a long-distance runner, then it is not difficult to find that during this many years of "running" the leader of the competition is constantly changing. In the first month of embryonic development, the head is in the lead. In a two-month-old fetus, the head is larger than the body. This is understandable: the brain is located in the head, and it is the most important organ that coordinates and organizes the complex work of organs and systems. The development of the heart, blood vessels and liver also begins early.
In a newborn baby, the head reaches half of its final size. Up to 5-7 years of age, there is a rapid increase in body weight and length. At the same time, the arms, legs and torso grow alternately: first, the arms, then the legs, then the torso. The size of the head during this period increases slowly.
At primary school age from 7 to 10 years, growth is slower. If earlier arms and legs grew more quickly, now the torso becomes the leader. It grows evenly, so that the proportions of the body are not violated.
In adolescence, the hands grow so intensively that the body does not have time to adapt to their new size, hence some clumsiness and sweeping movements. After that, the legs begin to grow. Only when they reach their final size does the torso join in the growth. First, it grows in height, and only then begins to grow in width. During this period, the physique of a person is finally formed.
If we compare the body parts of a newborn and an adult, it turns out that the size of the head has only doubled, the torso and arms have become three times larger, while the length of the legs has increased five times.
An important indicator of the development of the body is the appearance of menstruation in girls and wet dreams in boys, it indicates the onset of biological maturity.
Along with the growth of the body is its development. The growth and development of a person in different people occur at different times, so anatomists, doctors, physiologists distinguish between calendar age and biological age. Calendar age is calculated from the date of birth, biological age reflects the degree of physical development of the subject. The last one is different for each person. It may happen that people who are at the same biological age may differ by 2-3 years on the calendar, and this is completely normal. Girls tend to develop faster.

Literature

1. Medical scientific and educational journal No. 28 [October 2005]. Section - Lectures. Title of the work - PERIODS OF CHILDHOOD. Author - P.D. Vaganov
2. Vygotsky L.S. Collected works in 6 volumes. Volume 4
3. Vygotsky L.S. article "Problems of age periodization of child development"
4. Obukhova L.F. textbook "Children's (age) psychology". Fundamental and clinical physiology / Ed.A.G. Kamkin and A.A. Kamensky. - M.: "Academy", 2004.
5. Schmidt R., Tews G. Human Physiology: Per. from English. - M.: Mir, 1996.
6. Dragomilov A.G., Mash R.D. Biology: Man. - 2nd ed., revised. - M.: Ventana-Graf, 2004.
7. Sapin. M.R., Bryksina Z.G. Anatomy and physiology of children and adolescents: Proc. allowance for students. ped. universities. - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2002.
8. Chusov Yu.N. Human Physiology: Proc. allowance for ped. Schools (special No. 1910). - M.: Enlightenment, 1981.
9. Encyclopedia "Round the World"
10. "Rusmedservice"
11. Encyclopedia "Wikipedia"

A person from birth to death goes through different age periods.

There are several popular scientific approaches considering this issue from a social and pedagogical point of view.

concept

Age periodization- This is a classification of the level of development of a person depending on his age, starting from the moment of birth and ending with death.

This indicator has not only social, psychological, but also legal significance.

So, at a certain age, criminal liability arises, the right to represent one's interests, the right to vote, the right to receive a pension, etc. appears.

Each stage of a person's life has its own characteristics, problems and priorities. Each segment of life corresponds to a certain level of socialization, a specific mental state.

Periodization of mental development

mental development- this is the state of a person by which one can judge the level of maturity of his personality from a psychological point of view. Psychological age consists of the following components:

In reality, the individual components of a person's psychological age may not coincide at all with each other and with the real biological age.

Classification by years

General classification by years in the table:

Principles and approaches

The classification is based on the assessment of the following indicators:

The basis of periodization is determination of the real age of a person which has the above features.

At the same time, an additional analysis of the mental, biological state allows a more individual approach to assessing the personality.

Elkonin

D.B. Elkonin was inclined to believe that age gradation is of great scientific importance. Building a competent classification allows you to determine the driving forces of human development at each stage of his life.

The resulting knowledge contributes to the formation of the most complete pedagogical system, the development of effective rules for educating the younger generation.

The scientist attached particular importance to the early stages of a person's life, when the basic system of values ​​is laid and the worldview is formed. Standard age phases Elkonin divided into periods:

Each period is evaluated on four indicators:

• social impact- the influence of society on the formation of the child's personality;
• leading activity- the type of activity that has a priority effect on the mental state;
• a crisis- a negative period within each phase that must be overcome in order to move to the next level.
• neoplasms- knowledge, skills and abilities that have appeared at a new stage.

Erickson

E. Erickson identified 8 stages of personality development, each of which corresponds specific task.

According to the scientist, at each stage, when a person achieves a task, priority strengths and weaknesses appear.

Vygotsky

L.S. Vygotsky paid special attention to childhood, because he believed that understanding the specifics of each stage of a child's development gives parents the opportunity to correct their behavior and better understand the child.

Periods allocated by Vygotsky:

Vygotsky and his periodization of the development of the psyche:

Freud

Z. Freud believed that human behavior is the result of the work of his unconscious. The main driving force is sexual energy.

The scientist identified the following stages in the development of sexuality:

Periodization issues

Not always the actual age of a person coincides with the level of his mental development, with the degree of socialization.

Most of the outlined boundaries can shift in any direction, taking into account the characteristics of a particular individual. The most vague boundaries periodization in relation to adolescence.

In any case, one period gives way to another, when qualities and properties appear that were not there before.

Transition to the next stage of development and attitude automatically signifies a change in life.

Thus, at each stage of life, a person is characterized by certain features emotional, mental, intellectual development.

The issue of age periodization worried many famous scientists and continues to arouse interest in modern science.

A taxon is a classification unit in the taxonomy of plant and animal organisms.

The main evidence of the origin of man from animals is the presence in his body of rudiments and atavisms.

Rudiments are organs that have lost their meaning and function in the process of historical development (evolution) and remain in the form of underdeveloped formations in the body.

They are laid down during the development of the embryo, but do not develop. Examples of rudiments in humans can be: coccygeal vertebrae (remains of the skeleton of the tail), appendix (process of the caecum), body hair; ear muscles (some people can move their ears); third eyelid.

Atavisms are a manifestation, in individual organisms, of signs that existed in individual ancestors, but were lost in the course of evolution.

In humans, this is the development of the tail and hair on the whole body.

The historical past of people

The first people on earth. The name of the ape-man - Pithecanthropus was given to one of the earliest finds made in the 19th century in Java.

For a long time, this find was considered a transitional link from apes to humans, the first representatives of the hominin family. These views were facilitated by morphological features: a combination of modern-looking bones of the lower limb with a primitive skull and an intermediate mass of the brain. However, the Pithecanthropes of Java are a fairly late group of hominids. From the 1920s to the present, an important discovery has been made in southern and eastern Africa: the remains of bipedal Plio-Pleistocene primates (from 6 to 1 million years ago) have been found.

years). They marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of paleontology - the reconstruction of these stages of hominin evolution on the basis of direct paleontological data, and not on the basis of various indirect comparative anatomical and embryological data.

The era of the bipedal apes australopithecines.

The first Australopithecus of East Africa, the Zinjanthropus, was discovered by the spouses L. and M. Lika. The most striking distinguishing feature of Australopithecus is upright walking. This is evidenced by the structure of the pelvis. Bipedal locomotion is one of the oldest acquisitions of man.

The first representatives of the human race in East Africa. Along with the massive Australopithecus, other creatures lived in East Africa 2 million years ago. For the first time, this became known when the following year after the discovery of Zinjanthropus, the remains of a miniature hominid were discovered, whose brain volume was no less (and even more) than that of Australopithecus.

It was later revealed that he was a contemporary of the Zinjanthropus. The most important discoveries were made in the lowest layer dating back 2-1.7 million years. Its maximum thickness is 40 meters. The climate, when this layer was laid, was more humid and its inhabitants were zinjantrop and prezinjantrop. The latter did not last long. In addition, stones with traces of artificial processing were also found in this layer.

Most often it was a pebble ranging in size from a walnut to 7–10 cm, with a few chips of the working edge. Initially, it was assumed that Zinjantrops were able to do this, but after new discoveries it became obvious: either the tools were made by a more advanced prezinjantrop, or both inhabitants were capable of such initial stone processing. The emergence of a clamp with a full opposition of the thumb must have been preceded by a period of predominance of a forceful grip, when the object was raked in a handful and clamped in the hand.

Moreover, it was the nail phalanx of the thumb that experienced especially strong pressure.

Prerequisites of anthropogenesis. The common ancestors of great apes and humans were gregarious narrow-nosed monkeys that lived on trees in tropical forests. The transition of this group to a terrestrial way of life, caused by a cooling of the climate and the displacement of forests by steppes, led to upright walking.

The straightened position of the body and the transfer of the center of gravity caused the replacement of the arched spinal column with an S-shaped one, which gave it flexibility.

A vaulted springy foot was formed, the pelvis expanded, the chest became wider and shorter, the jaw apparatus was lighter, and most importantly, the forelimbs were freed from the need to support the body, their movements became freer and more varied, their functions became more complicated. The transition from the use of objects to the manufacture of tools is the boundary between ape and man. The evolution of the hand followed the path of natural selection of mutations useful for work. Along with upright walking, the most important prerequisite for anthropogenesis was the herd way of life, which, with the development of labor activity and the exchange of signals, led to the development of articulate speech.

Concrete ideas about the surrounding objects and phenomena were generalized into abstract concepts, mental and speech abilities developed. Higher nervous activity was formed, and articulate speech developed.

Stages of human development. There are three stages in human evolution: ancient people, ancient people and modern (new) people.

Many populations of Homo sapiens did not replace each other sequentially, but lived simultaneously, fighting for existence and destroying the weaker ones.

Modern people.

The emergence of people of the modern physical type occurred relatively recently (about 50 thousand years ago), who were called Cro-Magnons. Increased brain volume (1,600 cm3), well-developed articulate speech; the construction of dwellings, the first rudiments of art (rock painting), clothing, jewelry, bone and stone tools, the first tamed animals - all indicate that a real person finally separated himself from his animal-like ancestors.

Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and modern humans form one species - Homo sapiens. Many years passed before people moved from the appropriating economy (hunting, gathering) to the producing economy. They learned how to grow plants and tame some animals. In the evolution of the Cro-Magnons, social factors were of great importance, the role of education and the transfer of experience grew immeasurably.

Races of man

All modern humanity belongs to one species - Homo sapiens.

The unity of mankind follows from the common origin, the similarity of the structure, the unlimited interbreeding of representatives of different races and the fertility of offspring from mixed marriages. Within the species - Homo sapiens - there are five large races: Negroid, Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Australoid, American.

Each of them is divided into small races. Differences between races are reduced to the features of skin color, hair, eyes, the shape of the nose, lips, etc. these differences arose in the process of adapting human populations to local natural conditions. It is believed that the black skin absorbed ultraviolet rays. Narrow eyes protected from sharp solar exposure in open spaces; a wide nose cooled the inhaled air faster by evaporation from the mucous membranes, on the contrary, a narrow nose warmed the cold inhaled air better, etc.

But man, thanks to labor, quickly got out of the influence of natural selection, and these differences quickly lost their adaptive significance.

Races of man began to form began to form, as is believed, about 30-40 thousand years ago.

years ago, in the process of human settlement of the Earth, and at that time many racial characteristics had an adaptive value and were fixed by natural selection in a certain geographical environment.

All races of man are characterized by common species features of Homo sapiens, and all races are absolutely equivalent in biological and mental relations and are at the same level of evolutionary development.

There is no sharp border between the main races, and there are a number of smooth transitions - small races, whose representatives have smoothed out or mixed the features of the main masses.

It is assumed that in the future the differences between races will completely disappear and humanity will be racially homogeneous, but with many morphological variants.

Human races should not be confused with the concepts of nation, people, language group.

Different groups can be part of one nation, and the same races can be part of different nations.

The emergence of ancient people

Human Origins

The emergence of ancient people

occupations of ancient people. hunting, gathering

Glossary

Personalities

Additional Information

Used literature and sources

What does the history of Kazakhstan study in grade 6

Dear friend, today we will begin to study the history of mankind, its first stage - the history of ancient Kazakhstan.

In ancient times, primitive people lived on the territory of ancient Kazakhstan, after several thousand years they were replaced by various tribes and tribal unions: Saks, Uysuns, Huns, Sarmatians and other tribes.

We will make a journey in the footsteps of the material culture of people, visit ancient caves, dwellings.

Consider the tools of labor, the main occupations, art and religion of ancient people.

Let's fast forward on our journey through the centuries, when people learned to make weapons and tools not only from stone and wood, but also mastered copper, bronze, and later iron.

Our ancestors made a very long way in their development from humanoid apes to highly organized tribes with a rich history and original culture.

We learn about the life of people in the past by the traces they left, which are called historical sources.

Historical sources are of three types: material, written, ethnographic.

We will get acquainted in the 6th grade with the history of ancient Kazakhstan according to material sources - the remains of ancient people, tools, dwellings, which were obtained during archaeological excavations.

Written sources - left ancient signs, writing on stone, paper.

Ethnographic - the spiritual heritage of the people: myths, legends, proverbs, sayings, passed from mouth to many generations.

We are connected with distant ancestors by an invisible, but continuous thread of time, penetrating the destinies of hundreds of generations.

Recall that the countdown of years BC. is carried out in reverse order in descending order, the counting of the years of the new era is in ascending order. The thread of time is stretched from the past, through the present, into the future. As in the life of every person, in the history of peoples and states there are periods of growth: birth, youth, prosperity, fading, old age and death.

But in the fading period, new forces ripen, which, in turn, having passed all the stages of development ( evolution), will make room for their successors. And so it is forever, as long as humanity exists.

Peoples and states in each subsequent cycle of development are very different from their predecessors in terms of features and social life, in terms of the level of knowledge. Therefore, society does not stand still, it is constantly evolving.

The history of ancient Kazakhstan in the 6th grade can be conditionally divided into three eras:

• The first era - the era of stone
• Second Age - Bronze Age
• The Third Age - The Age of Iron

People in each historical era went through their stages of development (evolution) in three directions: the evolution of the formation and development of a person, his physical appearance; the evolution of the development of tools used by man; evolution of human social relations .

Human Origins

Mankind has always been concerned about the mystery of its origin.

The most ancient people found a simple answer: they traced their genealogy from some animal of the world around them (bear, snake, eagle, fish, etc.). But, beginning with early civilizations, the religious point of view prevailed, according to which the first people either appeared from the parts of some deity, or were created by the creativity of some divine force. Not without the influence of pottery, earth or clay was considered the most suitable material for the creation of man.

From the point of view of scientists, the answer given by religion to the question of the origin of man is not convincing.

However, science managed to offer its own version of the answer only in the 19th century. Thanks to the courage of the mind and genius Charles Darwin, who formulated the law according to which, under the influence of the environment, small changes can occur in animals, sometimes completely imperceptible, which, helping to survive and being passed on to descendants, through hundreds and thousands of generations, can lead to very strong transformations.

Therefore, man was not created as he is, but passed, step by step, a long path of evolution.

The emergence of ancient people

The era of the ancient Stone Age is the time of the formation of mankind. Man was formed, like all living beings, as a result of a long evolutionary development. Archaeologists have determined the stages of human development based on the remains found. There are three stages in human development:

1. The most ancient people, which include the "southern monkey", "handy man", Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus.

Ancient people are Neanderthals.

3. Modern people, including fossil Cro-Magnons and modern people (the species is a reasonable person - Homo sapiens).

Mankind is always interested in the question, when and where did man arise?

About 3 million years ago, in the wide expanses of African shrouds, in Taung, fossil human beings lived.

This fossil man was called the "southern ape", which became the link between the ape and the most ancient man.

Skeleton remains australopithecine found in South and East Africa, in Australia. Australopithecus lived about 2.6 million years ago.

Australopithecus looked like a monkey: the body is covered with thick hair, the lower limbs are longer than the front ones, he walked on two legs. With his hands he collected fruits and roots, held objects, performed the simplest movements.

The first tools of labor of the most ancient man were digging stick, pointed stone, cudgel. With their help, he earned his livelihood.

Man made the first tools of labor mainly from stone. They were very rude and primitive. Since the tools of labor were made mainly of stone, scientists call this period the "Stone Age".

Scientists call the first man a "skillful man." His earliest remains were found in Africa, in Kenya. He lived 1 million 750 thousand years ago.

One of the oldest people was Pithecanthropus.The Pithecanthropus skeleton was first found on the island of Java (Southeast Asia) in 1891.

He lived about 1 million years ago.

The first finds of Pithecanthropus date back to the end of the 19th century, when in 1891-1892.

Dutch doctor Eugene Dubois during excavations on the island of Java discovered ancient human remains (cranial cover and long bones of the lower extremities).

The skull is characterized by a primitive structure and the preservation of a number of simian features: protruding superciliary ridges, lack of a chin, and a low skull height. Height - 1.5 m.

Straightened position, although less stable gait on half-bent legs. There is no direct evidence that Pithecanthropus made tools, since no remains of the stone industry were found with it.

The next step in human development was synanthropus. In view of the fact that his first remains were found in China, he was called "Chinese man" (from the Latin "Sina" - Ki-tai and the Greek "anthropos" - a man).

Sinanthropes lived 500-200 thousand years ago.

Discovered in 1927 in Zhoukoudian Cave near Beijing, China. After the first find, large-scale studies were carried out in the cave, as a result of which bones of about 40 individuals were discovered over 10 years.

The value of the find is that the remains of both adult men and women, and children were found.

Height is about 1.5 m, the structure of the limbs and torso is similar to modern. The straightened position of the body when walking.

Stone products are made mainly of sandstone, quartz, and partly quartzite, volcanic rocks, hornfels and flint.

Sinanthropus hunted mainly deer.

Of the animal bones found in the cave, deer belong to 70%. He widely used and knew how to maintain fire - a powerful layer of ash was found in the cave, up to 6-7 m thick.

Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus received the name "upright people" in science.

The next type of ancient man is called Neanderthal. His remains were first found in Germany in the Neandertal area. Where the remains were found: Europe, the Middle East, the Caucasus, Crimea, Central Asia.

The extreme eastern habitat of the Neanderthals is the Teshik-Tash cave in Uzbekistan.

His height was average, his build was dense, his body was slightly stooped, his forehead was steep, and his eyebrows protruded. Neanderthals lived 200-35 thousand years ago. They knew how to make tools from stone, wood, bone, they could make fire and use it for their own needs.

scientific Library. dissertations in social psychology

The appearance of man.

Man belongs to a group of animals called primates. Our earliest ancestors were small arboreal animals, a bit like modern tupai. They lived on Earth about 65 million years ago, during the era of the extinction of the dinosaurs. About 50 million years ago, more highly organized animals of the same type, such as monkeys, appeared.

Over time, the development of some groups of primates took a special path, and this path led about 25 million years ago to the emergence of the first great apes.
Today, most of the 180 different species of primates live in typical or subtropical regions, but this has not always been the case.

50 million years ago, the climate on Earth was much warmer, and the ancestors of modern monkeys lived on a much larger territory. Their fossils have been found in the British Isles, in North America, and even far south, at the very tip of South America.

Chimpanzee-like creatures once lived in Europe and Asia. However, when the climate on Earth began to change, the primates that inhabited these territories gradually died out.

Modern tupai give us some idea of ​​what early primates might have looked like.
Life in the trees.

Early primates quickly became adept poison dart frogs.

To live in trees, you must first of all correctly judge the distance and cling firmly to the branches. The first problem is solved by forward-facing eyes: this gives the animal binocular vision.

To solve the second problem, tenacious fingers are needed. Both of these properties are the most important distinguishing features of primates. They all have fingers
tsy on the hands are mobile, and the thumbs give proper tenacity. Some great apes, like humans, are also able to connect the tips of the thumb and forefinger, forming the letter "o".

Such a grip is used for very subtle manipulations. More importantly, primates have evolved a large “thinking” part of the brain, which is in charge of coordinating vision and hand movements.

How it all began

Today there is only one kind of people: homo sapiens ("homo" in Latin "man", and "sapiens" - "thinking").

However, scientists today believe that since the appearance of the first hominids (humanoid animals), several different species of such creatures have lived on Earth at different times. Between 15 and 7 million years ago, the Ramapithecus lived in Africa, Europe and Asia. They were ape-like animals about 1.2m tall, with a flat face and human-like teeth. Perhaps they spent part of their lives on the open plains, getting their food with sticks and stones.

Ramapithecus is probably one of the first hominids, however, apparently, he was not our direct ancestor. Today, scientists find in it more similarities with orangutans.

Our closest living relatives are the great great apes.

Gorillas and chimpanzees live in the forested regions of West and East Africa. Gibbons are found in the rainforests of Southeast Asia, and orangutans inhabit the humid jungles of Kalimantan and Sumatra. Of these, gibbons are the least human-like.
Very useful thumbs.

Why are thumbs needed? Have a friend attach your thumbs to your palms with duct tape so that you can't move them.

Now try to take an object with one hand, say, a pencil or a cup. Or try to hold on to as many items as possible. You will quickly see how important it is for all these manipulations to have a thumb that is separated from all the others.

"Southern Monkeys" from Africa

One of the earliest fossil finds associated with the "ape-man" is the skull of a child. It was dug up in 1924 near Taung, in what is now Botswana.

This skull had both simian and human features, and its owner was named "Australopithecine Afarensis". Since then, many other fossil remains of australopithecines ("southern monkeys") have been found. All findings indicate that the brain of these animals was not very large (about 500 cm '), and large molars served to grind plants and fruits.

Australopithecus were short (about 1.2 m in height).’ Some were of a dense and stocky build, others were fragile and graceful. Some scholars believe that they were
males and females of the same species. Some attribute them to various types of Australopithecus. "Southern monkeys" are the subject of much debate, and their origin is still unclear.

"Lucy", "southern monkey", found in 1974
These are some fragments of the bones of the skull of Sinanthropus - one of the "straightened people".

Scientists managed to put these fragments together and restore the complete skull of Sinanthropus. It had a supraorbital fold, like apes, and a protruding jaw. A bony protrusion stretched along the upper part of the skull, and behind it there was a thickening in the form of a kind of ridge. Both the cranium and the brain of Sinanthropus are larger than those of homo habilis.
History of Lucy.

American anthropologist Doi Johansen made an outstanding discovery by digging up the remains of a young female "southern monkeys" just over 1 m tall in Ethiopia. They named her "Lucy". The brain and teeth of "Lucy" were similar to those of a monkey, but she probably moved on her crooked legs in a straightened position. Before this discovery, scientists believed that the "southern monkeys" lived on Earth about 2 million years ago. However, the age of the remains of "Lucy" was determined to be approximately 3-3.6 million years.

This means that the "southern monkeys" appeared on the planet more than a million years earlier than previously thought.

"Man of skill"

At the same time that the "southern apes" roamed Africa, another group of homipids developed side by side with them.

They appeared somewhat later, about 2 million years ago. These were already the first real people, or "habilides". Perhaps their ancestors are more slender Australopithecus. Homo haoilis ("handy man") was about the same height as the "southern monkeys", but had a larger brain - about 700 cm '.

We know that a "handy man" used a whole range of tools, which included fragments of stones, cutting and chopping tools (like knives), scrapers, as well as "tools" for making new tools.

Lost Sinanthropus.

Sinanthropus is a kind of homo erectus.

He lived in China about 500,000 years ago. In the 30s. 20th century scientists have discovered a rich collection of fossil remains of this ancient man in a cave near Beijing.

In total, fragments of 45 skeletons were found, including pieces of 14 skulls, 14 lower jaws, 150 teeth, and bones of 14 children. In 1941, shortly before the war between America and Japan, it was decided to send these finds to America. Scientists did not want such a valuable cargo to fall into the hands of Japanese soldiers.

However, the bones never arrived at their destination. They disappeared without a trace on their way to the ship that was supposed to deliver them to a safe place. The location of the remains of Sinanthropus 110 is unknown to this day.

Before you is a photograph of the skull of the "Piltdown Man", discovered in Sussex, England, at the beginning of the 20th century.

Today it is recognized as one of the greatest hoaxes in the history of science.
Neanderthals.

Even before the last "rectified people" disappeared from the face of the Earth, another kind of human beings appeared on it.

Homo sapieps ("thinking man") first appeared about 250,000 years ago. After another 180,000 years (that is, 70,000 years ago), Neanderthal man settled in Europe.

Compared to their predecessors, the Neanderthals were larger in every respect, behind a wide convex forehead, the brain was hidden, like that of a modern person - 1330 cm '. We know a lot about Neanderthals.

They lived in a great era. th glaciation, so they had to wear clothes made from animal skins and hide from the cold in the depths of the caves. The average life expectancy for men was about 30 years, and for women 23 years. Many of them suffered from arthritis. Most were right-handed.

There are some indications that Neanderthals believed in an afterlife: they solemnly buried the dead and even laid flowers on their graves.

hunters of the ancients
Louis Leakey (1903-1972), Mary Leakey (b.

1913) and their son Richard (b. 1944) discovered many fossils of ancient people in the Oldowai Gorge in Tanzania. Their first important discovery was the Australopithecus, nicknamed the "Nutcracker". Subsequently, they discovered the first “handy man”, and also found the remains of several “straightened people”.

Recently, Richard Leakey has been excavating in other parts of Africa.
These unique fossil prints were discovered by Mary Leakey in 1978 in Tanzania. Their age is estimated at 3.75 million years, and they were imprinted in a layer of volcanic mud and ash, which later hardened. The result was something like a "gypsum cast" of the feet of our distant ancestors who went out for a walk - a kind of prehistoric "family picnic".
The man who never was.

at Piltdown in Sussex, England, several fragments of the skull and a broken jawbone of an ancient man were found. At that time, the find became a real sensation, but soon doubts began to overcome some experts. In 1953, the Piltdown bones were carefully examined to determine their age.

The result was unexpected. It turned out that the jawbone belonged to a 500-year-old orangutan, and the skull belonged to an ordinary modern person. The bones were covered with a special coating, and the teeth were neatly filed to give them a prehistoric look. All this turned out to be a clever forgery. Piltdown Man entered the history of science as a hoax, exposed only 40 years after it took place. The “joker” himself was never found.

Head of a Neanderthal man.
A look into the future.

At first, human evolution was very slow.

It took almost 7 million years that have passed since the appearance of our most ancient ancestors for humanity to reach the stage at which it learned to create the first rock paintings.

But as soon as the “thinking man” firmly settled on Earth, all human abilities began to develop rapidly. For some 100,000 years separating us from the first rock paintings, man has become the dominant form of life on Earth. We even managed to leave our home planet and begin space exploration.
It is difficult to say what people will become after 10,000 years, but you can. uve-
to say that they will change a lot. In general, we have changed a lot over the past 400 years, and even since the beginning of this century.

Today's soldier would hardly fit in the knight's armor of the 15th century. The average height of a medieval warrior was 16^ cm. Today, the average height of British military personnel is 172 cm.

The current supermodel would never fit into the dress worn by her great-great-grandmother. Even if she managed to bring her waist to 45 cm, like her relative of the Victorian era, she would still be 30 cm taller! If our evolution continues in the same direction as it has been going so far, our faces will become more and more flat, and the lower jaw will become smaller.

Our brain will become larger, and we ourselves, apparently, will grow up even more. Well, since many of us. prefer a sedentary lifestyle, it is possible that our, so to speak, the lower part of the body will also increase!
When the era of the great glaciation came to an end, modern people began to move to a new way of life. Over time, they began to establish settlements where large communities arose.

The dawn of civilization was approaching. 10,000 years ago, there were only about 10 million people in the world. However, about 4000 years ago, their number began to increase rapidly. By 55 BC, when Julius Caesar invaded the British Isles, the world's population had reached 300 million. Today it is already 4 billion and continues to grow.

"Southern monkeys" may have already used stones and bones as tools, but "skillful people" were the first to learn how to make these tools.

A piece of stone, sandwiched between the thumb and all other fingers, served as a good cutting tool. The flatter stones were probably used to scrape meat from bones.

Tools with sharp edges were made using stone chippers. Homo erectus invented more modern tools: they were made from fragments of flint. Even more subtle "tools" were created by Neanderthals. They processed flint fragments with the help of other stone tools, which they already held with two fingers - thumb and forefinger.
"Head up."

Recent studies have shown that our ancestors switched to upright walking, that is, walking on two legs, probably in order to not overheat.

On the sultry African plains, 4 million years ago, walking on two legs gave them a number of advantages. For a man in a straightened position, the sun's rays fell vertically on his head, instead of "roasting" his back. Since the top of the head has much less sun exposure than the back, our ancestors must have been less likely to overheat.

This means they sweat less, which means they need less water to survive. This allowed ancient people to become “head and shoulders above” other animals in the struggle for existence.

This is how, according to scientists, our long-disappeared relatives looked like.

As you can see, our ancestors gradually became taller and the further they went, the less they looked like monkeys.
Where should the hair be?

The transition to upright posture had other important consequences. For example, a bipedal animal no longer needed the thick coat of hair that protected other savannah dwellers from the relentless sunbeams that rained down on their backs. As a result, except for the hair that covered the part of the body of our ancestors most exposed to solar heat - namely the head - they turned into the notorious "naked monkeys."

beneficial coolness

Having started to move on two yogas, the ancient people, as it were, opened one more extremely important “evolutionary door”.

In a straight posture, a much larger part of the animal's body moves away from the red-hot soil, and therefore from the heat that it emits.

As a consequence, the body and head, with the brain it contains, overheat much less than if they were located closer to the ground. A cool wind, usually 1-2 m above the ground, provided additional cooling of the body.
When scientists created powerful supercomputers, they had to equip them with a special cooling system. After all, large computers work very intensively and at the same time a huge amount of heat is released.

It must be removed so that the computer does not overheat. The same thing happens with the brain. By moving upright, our ancestors moved their own brains to a cooler environment, and this, combined with a very effective "cooling system", allowed the brain to develop into a larger and more active brain.

The man who came in from the cold
September 19, 1991

a man whose age is 5300 years has returned to our world. Two tourists walking in the Austrian Alps suddenly came across the body of a man sticking out of the ice.

Scraps of clothes were preserved on the body, shoes were on the legs, next to it were a quiver with two arrows, an ax, a flint for striking a fire, a small flint dagger, something like a bag or backpack, a set of needles and a lot of hunting equipment.

The Iceman is the oldest corpse ever found. He lived on Earth almost 1,000 years before the Egyptians started building their pyramids, and 3,000 years before the first Romans.

| Origin and development of man |
Today in the world people do not have a single opinion about the origin of man. Some, including teachers at the school of the lesson of natural history, tend to trust Darwin's assumptions that man descended from our smaller brothers, primates, and, accordingly, his physical and psychological development is similar to that of representatives of primates.

Some believe that man was created by God in his own image and likeness, and his development takes place at the behest and understanding "from above".

And there are those who are inclined to assume that the birthplace of man is the universe. In this short article, we will try to consider the most common versions today about the origin and development of man.

So according to the first, and quite common today theory, the origin and development of man originates from anthropoid primates, or, more simply, from monkeys.

This theory, known to everyone from school, was created and voiced for the first time by the great Darwin.

According to him, thanks to the natural mutation of Australopithecus, or, in other words, the southern upright monkeys, the development of their brain, the ancestor of modern man, the Neanderthal, appeared. Who subsequently, thanks to his work and the development of his brain, reached the stage of modern man.

This theory can be confirmed by various archaeological finds, and modern scientific understanding of the development of the human brain.

There are many such people today who associate the origin and development of man with the Almighty God. According to their assumption, as mentioned earlier, mankind was created by God, and its development takes place according to the laws of God and according to his understanding.

In support of their version, these people cite various miracles that, in their opinion, occur due to the intervention of God.

Of the most famous such evidence cited by adherents of this theory, one can cite the convergence of the Holy Fire in Jerusalem, various bleeding icons in different temples of the world, and others.

To prove their theory, they often cite various “miraculous” healings of seemingly hopelessly ill people. The highest degree of human development, in their opinion, can be considered his entry into the kingdom of God.

There are quite a few people at the present time who firmly believe that the origin and development of man is inextricably linked with UFOs.

According to the adherents of this theory, man owes his appearance on earth to aliens from other planets. According to the simplest, from their theory, option - a person is a descendant of aliens who flew to our earth in prehistoric times. And they watch its development from above, sometimes correcting what is happening on earth.

Well, and, perhaps, the most fantastic of the versions given here will be the theory that the origin of man is associated with a spatial anomaly and is subject to its law of existence.

According to this hypothesis, intelligent beings, like humans, can appear and develop on any of the planets suitable for life, thanks to the cosmic laws of existence, which have not yet been explored by us.

Finally, it is worth saying that the most, in my opinion, proved and worth studying further is the theory of Evolution, or in other words, Darwin's theory, despite all the arguments given by its opponents and, as it seems to them, evidence.

What do you think?

The article “The origin and development of man” from the rubric | Human development |

Historical periods and eras

Primitive society

up to approx. 3000 BC uh. (unification of Upper and Lower Egypt)

Paleolithic and Mesolithic

Neolithic

Bronze Age

iron age

Ancient world

3000 BC e. - 476 AD e.(fall of the Roman Empire)

Hellenism

Ancient Rome

Middle Ages

476 - late 15th century(beginning of the Age of Discovery)

Early Middle Ages (late 5th - mid-11th centuries)

High (classical) Middle Ages (mid-11th - late 15th centuries)

Early Modern (or Late Middle Ages)

end of the 15th century - 1789(beginning of the French Revolution)

Renaissance (Renaissance)
The beginning of the Renaissance is considered the beginning of the XIV century in Italy, the XV-XVI century in other European countries.
Historians consider the last quarter of the 16th century and, in some cases, the first decades of the 17th century to be the end of the era.

Revival is divided into 4 stages:
Proto-Renaissance (2nd half of the 13th century - 14th century)
Early Renaissance (early 15th - late 15th century)
High Renaissance (late 15th - first 20 years of the 16th century)
Late Renaissance (mid-16th - 1590s)

The era of great geographical discoveries (XV century - XVII century)

Reformation I (XVI century - beginning of the XVII century)

Part of the Enlightenment

new time

1789 - 1918 (end of World War I)

Part of the Enlightenment
There is no consensus regarding the dating of this worldview era. Some historians attribute its beginning to the end of the 17th century, others to the middle of the 18th century.
In the 17th century, the foundations of rationalism were laid by Descartes in his Discourse on Method (1637). The end of the Enlightenment is often associated with the death of Voltaire (1778) or with the start of the Napoleonic Wars (1800-1815).
At the same time, there is an opinion that the borders of the Enlightenment are tied to two revolutions: the Glorious Revolution in England (1688) and the Great French Revolution (1789).

industrial revolution (second half of the 18th century - 19th century)

19th century

recent history

1918 - present day

Historical eras in art

Approximate designation of eras in chronological order

Timekeeping and chronology

The generally accepted chronology in most countries is based on the Christian era ("our era" - from the moment of the alleged birth of Jesus Christ).
Our era, n. e. (also called "new era") - the current period of time, starting from year 1 in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The period preceding it (ending before the beginning of the first year) is the period BC, BC. e.
The name is often used in the religious form "from the Nativity of Christ", the abbreviated record is "from R. X.", and, accordingly, "before the Nativity of Christ", "before R. X.".

The zero year is not used in either secular or religious notations - this was introduced by Beda the Venerable at the beginning of the 8th century (zero was not common in culture at that time). However, year zero is used in Astronomical year numbering and in ISO 8601.

According to most scholars, when the Roman hegumen Dionysius the Small calculated the year of the Nativity of Christ in the 6th century, an error of several years was made.

Centuries to millennia

Ages and years BC

Which years belong to which centuries

Ages and years AD

Which years belong to which centuries

see also