Scientists of Byzantium in the Middle Ages briefly. Science and education

Byzantine culture

Goals: to acquaint students with the historical conditions that influenced the development of the culture of Byzantium; to give students an idea of ​​the most important achievements of Byzantine art in architecture, mosaics, and icon painting.
Concepts: icon, iconography, mosaic, fresco, smalt, tempera

Equipment: illustration "St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople", a reproduction of the icon "Our Lady of Vladimir"

During the classes

I. Updating knowledge on the topic "Byzantium under Justinian"

II. Learning new material.
1. Historical conditions for the development of the culture of Byzantium.

2. Education, scientific knowledge.

3. Art: architecture, icon painting, mosaic.

4. Influence of Byzantine culture on neighboring countries.

1. Historical conditions for the development of Byzantine culture.

Think about what historical features of Byzantium could contribute to a high level of cultural development?

Cities remained centers of trade, crafts, strong power and culture.

Byzantium becomes the heir of ancient culture.

Christianity influenced the cultural development of Byzantium.

2. Education, scientific knowledge.

The teacher draws students' attention to what knowledge was needed for construction, the development of crafts, trade, travel, tax collection and government.

The state needed competent officials, educated statesmen. Educated people achieved power, high positions and wealth. The need for literacy and education was not only in the capital of Byzantium, but also in the provinces, among the peasants and artisans there were literate and educated people.

Church, state and private schools were organized. The schools taught reading, writing, counting, church singing. They studied the Holy Scriptures, the works of ancient scientists. In Constantinople in the 9th century, a high school was opened at the court of the emperor. Rhetoric, mythology, history, geography, and literature were taught in higher education.

In the 11th century, the first university in Europe was opened.

Revealing the issue of the development of scientific knowledge, it is recommended to compile a table "Scientific knowledge in Byzantium".

	Scientific knowledge in Byzantium
Mathematics	The medicine	Chemistry	Geography	Story
Introduced beech-	In the 11th century in	invented	Compiled,	historical
venous clothing	Constant-	"Greek	were drawn	essays
value in	nofield at	fire" - mixture	maps, plans	drawn up
algebra.	monastery	from oil and	cities.	based
This knowledge	was opened	resins.	Travel-	documents,
found at	hospital.	Used in	wieners with	personal information
change in	For learning	battles on	put descriptions	observations,
astronomy,	medicine	the sea and	countries and	stories
construction	me-	dry.	peoples.	eyewitnesses.
ve, calculated	dicinskoe
collecting	school.
taxes.	Compiled
	allowances for
	medicine.

The teacher asks the following questions:

What caused the need to know the life and customs of other nations, to draw maps?

What contributed to the development of history as a science in the 5th-61st centuries?

Students can give answers like this:

- Wars, trade, navigation.

- The wars of Justinian, the study of the works of ancient historians.

3. Art: architecture, icon painting, mosaic.

Revealing the question of the features of Byzantine art, the teacher characterizes some of its types - architecture, mosaics and iconography.

Architecture

The teacher draws the students' attention to the illustration of the textbook "The Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople" (p. 64).

What impression does Hagia Sophia make on us living in the 21st century?

Narrator:

From the outside, the temple does not seem large or elegant. But those who went inside, it amazes with its huge space, the majesty of the interior. Why? Christianity changed the purpose of the temple, its architecture and interior. In a Christian church, believers gathered for worship inside. Consequently, the interior decoration of the temple of Byzantium is more elegant than its external appearance.

In the X-XI centuries. instead of an elongated rectangular building, a cross-domed church was approved. In plan, this temple looked like a cross with a dome in the middle, mounted on a round elevation-drum.

Mosaic

An important task of Byzantine architects was the distribution of light and shadow in the temple.

colorful cubes smalts(an alloy of glass and paint) were strengthened into the ground with a different slope, the surface of the smalt was made a little rough.

When the believers moved in the temple, the pieces of smalt flickered, sparkled, shimmered, reflected the incident light with their faces.

The teacher draws the students' attention to the illustration "Byzantine Mosaic" in the textbook (p. 66).

iconography

The most important achievement of the Byzantine culture of this period was icon painting.

Icons appeared in temples and houses - images of Jesus Christ, the Mother of God, scenes from the Holy Scriptures.

The teacher must explain to the students the main differences between the icon and the picture.

Icon	Painting
The icon is a revelation of God. The worldview of an icon painter is the worldview of the Church. The icon is out of time, it is a symbol of otherness in our world. The authorship of the icon painter is deliberately hidden, since the icon is a conciliar creation.	A painting is a creative image created by the artist's imagination, it is a form of conveying his own worldview. The picture is characterized by the individuality of the author, a characteristic color scheme, a peculiar pictorial manner.

The icon painter's brush is impassive:	Painting	emotional, she
personal emotions should not have	belongs	spiritual world hu-
places.	rainmaker.
The icon is a means to communicate with	Painting -	- a place to communicate with
God and saints.	the author and his	ideas.
The icon is characterized by the reverse	Painting	built according to the laws
perspective.	direct perspective.

The teacher should explain the following: the main difference between the style of an icon and a realistic painting is principle of depicting space. (For an example, you need to show students a reproduction of any picture.) For a better understanding of forward and reverse perspective, you need to draw or show students an image of a railway track.

Students see that the rails converge at one point located on the horizon line. This is direct perspective.

On the icon, the vanishing point is located not in the depths of the picture plane, but in the person standing in front of the icon, and the parallel lines on the icon do not converge, but, on the contrary, expand in the space of the icon. This is reverse perspective.

Icons were written on a wooden basis - a board. Basically, cypress was used for this, as well as other types of wood - birch, pine, oak, aspen, spruce.

If you make a cross section of the icon and look at it from the side, you can find 4 layers on it.

The first layer is an icon board. Sometimes a fabric was applied to the icon board - pavoloka.

The second layer is the primer, that is, the base for the paint. The ground base is white and is called gesso.

Layer three is colorful. Tempera paints are used to paint icons.

Tempera - paint made on the basis of powdered colored pigments, the binder of which is an emulsion composed of water and egg yolk.

Layer four - protective - natural drying oil.

Having introduced students to the main features of icon painting, it is advisable to present a reproduction of the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God.

This icon was created in Constantinople in the first third of the 12th century and brought to Russia in 1131-1132, and in 1155 it was transferred to Vladimir, from where its name comes from. In Byzantine iconography, she is called “Our Lady of Eleusa”, that is, merciful, in Russian - “Our Lady of Tenderness”. Our Lady of Tenderness is the most lyrical image of the Virgin.

The teacher draws the attention of students to the following: The Infant Christ in the arms of the Virgin Mary trustingly wraps her arms around her and gently presses his cheek to her cheek. This is connected with the tragic fate of God's son and his mourning mother.

The teacher, showing the icon, focuses the students' attention on the fact that the icon is located in Moscow in the Tretyakov Gallery.

The surface of the icon is heavily distorted by numerous restorations, but the faces of the Mother of God and the Child have been preserved, and this gives an idea of ​​the content of the images and the style of painting.

The eyes of the Virgin are covered with sadness; her image is written in dark colors. Her whole appearance is filled with great human sorrow and therefore is so spiritually close to everyone.

The figure of the Infant is bright, touching and helpless, as he is at the dawn of his life.

The icon still excites us, since it embodies a universal feeling - great maternal love.

4. Influence of Byzantine culture on neighboring countries.

The states that adopted Christianity from Byzantium - Bulgaria, Serbia, Kievan Rus, Armenia, Georgia - were largely influenced by Byzantine culture. These countries and peoples applied the achievements of Byzantine culture and art creatively, combining them with their own national traditions.

III. Consolidation of what was learned in the lesson.

Explain why educated, literate people were in demand in Byzantium?

Indicate the directions in which scientific knowledge has developed.

What was the canon in the design of the Christian church?

IV. Summary of the lesson.

D.z. §7, tpo §7 all tasks p.23-24.

The proverb “Learning is light, and ignorance is darkness”, which has long become familiar, is placed with great solemnity by the “father of Byzantine scholasticism”, the theologian and philosopher John of Damascus (VIII century) at the very beginning of his work “The Source of Knowledge” and is accompanied by a lengthy proof. The Byzantines treated all education, knowledge and science with extraordinary respect, although they understood science somewhat differently than we do. They retained the ancient perception of science as purely speculative knowledge, as opposed to experimental and applied knowledge, which was considered more like a craft. In accordance with a long tradition, all sciences in the proper sense of the word were united under the name of philosophy; these were theoretical sciences: theology, mathematics and natural sciences - and practical ones: ethics and politics. The sciences also included grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, or logic, astronomy, music, and jurisprudence, which reached an unusual flowering precisely in Byzantium.

The education system has retained continuity from antiquity. Children six or seven years old were sent to elementary school, where they learned to read, write and count for two or three years; only the Psalter became the book by which they learned to read, displacing Homer from elementary school to the school of grammar, where those who wished to continue their education entered. Primary schools could be private, paid, or they could be maintained by a monastery, church or city community, so that education in them was available to all segments of the population. Compared with the states of Western Europe, the network of schools in Byzantium was wider, and the general level of elementary literacy was higher. For the continuation of education and the development of schools of higher levels, there was another important incentive here: in an empire with centralized administration and a developed bureaucracy, without sufficient education it was impossible to achieve any serious position.

In grammar schools, they studied mainly ancient Greek authors and taught to speak in the Attic dialect according to all the rules of rhetoric. So from the VI-VII centuries. the gradual divergence of the developing spoken Greek language and the language of written culture begins, which - ideally - and two thousand years later should not have differed from the language of Demosthenes and Thucydides.
Those who wished to devote themselves to science or were prepared by wealthy parents to occupy high positions continued their education, studying rhetoric, philosophy, and jurisprudence. In the early period in Byzantium, the old centers of ancient education were preserved - Athens, Alexandria, Antioch, Beirut, Gaza. Over time, some of them fall into decay (the world-famous Library of Alexandria perishes from a fire; the famous Platonic Academy in Athens, which by the 6th century became the largest school of pagan Neoplatonism, is closed by decree of Emperor Justinian); new educational and scientific centers are gradually taking shape. in Constantinople in the ninth century. the Magnavra High School was created, and in 1045 - a kind of university, which had two faculties - law and philosophy; there is also a higher medical school.

With the victory of Christianity, theology occupied a prominent place in the system of knowledge. In Byzantium, the ancient philosophical tradition was not interrupted; Byzantine theologians adopted and preserved the richness of thought and the refinement of the dialectic of the Greek philosophers. In the early period, their efforts were directed towards the development of a system of Orthodox dogma and the fight against heresies, as well as against the last adherents of paganism. Church teachers, the so-called "Great Cappadocians" (Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa), as well as the Patriarch of Constantinople John Chrysostom in the IV-VBB., John of Damascus - in the VIII century. in their numerous treatises, sermons, and letters they systematized Orthodox theology. True, not all branches of knowledge that were part of ancient philosophy were developed by the Byzantines to the same extent. The dominance of the dogmatic worldview fettered the development of the sciences, especially the natural ones, in which the predominant method of cognition was not experience, but rethinking, systematization and interpretation of the ancient heritage. But in those areas of knowledge that were necessary to solve theological issues proper, the Byzantines made an outstanding contribution. They, in the fight against various heresies, developed a Christian ontology, or the doctrine of being; anthropology and psychology - the doctrine of the human personality, the soul and body; unique aesthetic theory. Finally, the construction of a dogmatic system required extraordinary knowledge of logic and, starting from the 6th century. logic is experiencing an extraordinary flowering. Byzantine philosophy, as opposed to Western European scholasticism, was based on the study and commenting on the ancient philosophical teachings of all schools and trends, and not just Aristotle alone. In the XI century. in Byzantine philosophy, the influence of the idealistic system of Plato is increasing, which, however, is used by some philosophers to justify the right to a critical attitude towards church authorities.

In cosmography and astronomy, there was a sharp struggle between the defenders of ancient systems and the supporters of the Christian worldview. In the VI century. Cosmas Indikoplios (i.e., "sailing to India") in his "Christian topography" set the task of refuting Ptolemy. His naive cosmogony was based on the biblical notion that the Earth is a flat quadrilateral surrounded by an ocean and covered by a vault of heaven. However, ancient cosmogonic ideas are preserved in Byzantium until the 15th century. Astronomical observations are carried out, although they are still very often intertwined with astrology, in the XIII-XIV centuries. astronomical writings and tables of Arab scientists are translated and studied.
Byzantines achieved significant success in the field of medicine. Byzantine physicians not only commented on the works of Galen and Hippocrates, but also generalized practical experience and improved diagnostics. The needs of medicine, as well as handicraft production, stimulated the development of chemistry. Ancient recipes for the manufacture of glass, ceramics, mosaic smalt, enamels and paints, which Byzantium was famous for, were preserved here. In the 7th century In Byzantium, "Greek fire" was invented - an incendiary mixture that gives a flame that cannot be extinguished by water. The composition of the "Greek fire" was kept in deep secrecy; later it was only established that it contained oil mixed with quicklime and various resins. The invention of "Greek fire" for a long time provided Byzantium with an advantage in naval battles, and especially in the fight against the Arabs.

The wide trade and diplomatic relations of the Byzantines contributed to the development of geographical knowledge. Kosma Indikopl, mixing truth with colorful fiction, tells about the animal and plant world, and the population of Arabia, East Africa, and India. Valuable geographical information contains the writings of Byzantine travelers and pilgrims of later times. The most interesting monument summarizing the achievements of ancient and early medieval agronomy is Geoponics, compiled in the 10th century. agricultural encyclopedia.

In the 7th-8th centuries, when the possessions of Byzantium were reduced, the Greek language became the state language of the empire. The state needed well-trained officials. They had to competently draw up laws, decrees, contracts, wills, conduct correspondence and court cases, answer petitioners, and copy documents. There is a need for a system of school and higher education, which for the first time in the world arose precisely in Byzantium (the first university also appeared here). Not only in the capital, but also in small towns and large villages, children of ordinary people who were able to pay for education could study in primary schools. Therefore, even among the peasants and artisans there were literate people. Often educated people reached high positions, and with them came power and wealth.

In higher education, along with church schools, public and private schools were opened in the cities. They taught reading, writing, counting and church singing. In addition to the Bible and other religious books, the schools studied the works of ancient scholars, the poems of Homer, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles, the writings of Byzantine scholars and writers; solve complex arithmetic problems. In the 9th century in Constantinople, at the imperial palace, a higher school was opened. It taught religion, mythology, history, geography, literature.

The Byzantines preserved ancient knowledge of mathematics and used them to calculate the amount of tax, in astronomy, in construction. They also made extensive use of the inventions and writings of the great Arab scientists - physicians, philosophers and others. Through the Greeks, these works were also known in Western Europe. In Byzantium itself there were many scientists and creative people. Leo the Mathematician (9th century) invented sound signaling for transmitting messages at a distance - automatic devices in the throne room of the imperial palace, set in motion by water - they were supposed to amaze the imagination of foreign ambassadors. Prepared medical textbooks. To teach medical art in the XI century, a medical school (the first in Europe) was created at the hospital of one of the monasteries in Constantinople.

The development of crafts and medicine gave impetus to the study of chemistry ; ancient recipes for the manufacture of glass, paints, and medicines were preserved. "Greek fire" was invented - an incendiary mixture of oil and resin that cannot be extinguished with water. With the help of "Greek fire", the Byzantines won many victories in battles at sea and on land.

The Byzantines accumulated a lot of knowledge in geography . They knew how to draw maps and city plans. Merchants and travelers made descriptions of different countries and peoples.

Historiography developed especially successfully in Byzantium. Bright, interesting writings of historians were created on the basis of documents, eyewitness accounts, personal observations. Because in Byzantium, as in no other country of the medieval world, the traditions of ancient historiography were stable. The works of most Byzantine historians, in terms of the nature of presentation, language, and composition, are rooted in the classics of Greek historiography - Herodotus, Thucydides, Polybius. From the VI-VII centuries. the works of Procopius of Caesarea, Agathias of Mirinea, Menendros Theophylact, Samokatta are known, Procopius of Caesarea occupies a special place among them. His main works are "The History of Justinian's Wars with the Persians, Vandals, Goths", "On the Buildings of Justinian". XI-XII centuries - the heyday of Byzantine historiography proper. Authorial, emotionally colored writings by Michael Psellos, Anna Komnina, Nikita Khotiata and others appear, where historians turn from registrars of facts into their interpreters. Historical chronicles acquire the features of a historical novel, which corresponded to the new aesthetic tastes of readers. The boundaries between historical writings proper and historical prose are blurred.

The Eastern Roman Empire was a predominantly Greek state, overwhelmingly Christian, and outlived the Western Empire for a long time.

The name of the empire "Byzantine" (from the name of the city of Byzantium, on the site of which Emperor Constantine I the Great founded Constantinople) was introduced into use by Renaissance humanists after its fall, who did not dare to call it Roman. Despite the rather dubious choice of name, the term "Byzantine Empire" is widely used in modern historical science.

The inhabitants of the eastern Roman Empire themselves called themselves "Romans" (ρωµαίοι), that is, "Romans", and the empire - "Romean" or "Romania" (Ρωµανία). Western contemporaries called it the "Empire of the Greeks" because of the decisive role of Greek population and culture. In Russia, it was also usually called the "Greek Kingdom".

Byzantine science had a powerful impact on many neighboring countries and peoples. Spiritual life in Byzantium was of a complex, contradictory nature, combining ancient pagan traditions and Christian worldview, which was reflected in the development of Byzantine science.

Despite the fact that Christianity in the empire of the Romans was recognized as the state religion, a deep respect for the knowledge of ancient philosophy remained, since in the minds of the Byzantines the most important role was played by their connection with the Greco-Roman ancient world.

At a time when barbarian Western Europe entered the "dark night of the Middle Ages", the Eastern Roman Empire turned out to be the only center of civilization and culture in all of Europe, providing a higher socio-economic and cultural level in the territories that fell into its sphere of influence.

Science in Byzantium was intricately interconnected with Christian teaching. At the same time, special interest was directed to ancient philosophy, and an attempt to develop it.

Byzantine scientific thinking took shape in a contradictory atmosphere of the assertion of the Christian worldview on the basis of the ethical and natural-scientific views of antiquity.

Thus, science was based on two different pictures of the world: pagan Hellenism, on the one hand, and official Christian doctrine, on the other.

Byzantine culture as a whole is characterized by the desire for systematization, which is characteristic of the Christian worldview in general, and also due to the influence of ancient Greek philosophy, primarily Aristotle, who set the trend towards classification.

In Byzantium, works of a generalizing nature are being created, in which there is a classification and systematization of everything that has been achieved by that time in science. The main intellectual efforts of Byzantine scholars consisted in the formal study of newly rewritten texts, their compilation, fixation of what had already been achieved, which led to encyclopedia.

A lot of work was done to systematize and comment on ancient authors. Encyclopedias on history, agriculture, medicine are compiled, and rich ethnographic material is collected about the inhabitants of neighboring countries.

Science in Byzantium was understood in accordance with the ancient tradition as speculative knowledge, as opposed to practical, empirical knowledge, which was considered a craft.

Following the ancient model, all sciences were united under the name of philosophy - mathematics, natural science, ethics, grammar, rhetoric, logic, astronomy, music and jurisprudence, etc. John of Damascus divided philosophy into theoretical, relating to knowledge, and practical, relating to virtues. In the theoretical section, he included physics, mathematics, and theology, and in the practical section, ethics, economics (household ethics) and politics. He considered logic to be an instrument of philosophy. John of Damascus gave a systematic presentation of philosophical and logical concepts, as well as cosmological, psychological and other scientific information based on ancient writings.

It cannot be said that Byzantine scholars were engaged only in the passive processing of the ancient heritage. Not limited to the simple assimilation of knowledge acquired in previous centuries, the Byzantines made certain steps forward in a number of industries. For example, John Philopon came to the conclusion that the speed of falling bodies does not depend on their gravity; Leo the Mathematician was the first to use letters as algebraic symbols. With the growth of provincial cities, the rise of handicraft production, greater importance began to be given to the development of knowledge aimed at solving practical problems in the field of medicine, agriculture, and construction. Shipbuilding, architecture, mining industry successfully developed. There is an accumulation of practical knowledge caused by the needs of navigation and trade.

The natural sciences are developing, which is accompanied by an expansion of ideas about nature. The rise of scientific knowledge is associated with the birth of rationalism in the philosophical thought of Byzantium. Representatives of the rationalist trend in Byzantine theology and philosophy tried to reconcile faith and reason, just like the Western European scholastics. In an effort to combine faith with reason, they stated that in order to approach the comprehension of God, it is necessary to study the world around him, which is why they introduced natural science knowledge into theology. Rationalism was accompanied by a new stage in the comprehension of the ancient heritage. Blind faith based on authority is being replaced by the study of the causality of phenomena in nature and society.

One of the most striking figures of the rationalist trend is Michael Psellos. The writings of Psellus are permeated with the desire to master and use the ancient heritage, to provide it with a worthy place in the system of the Christian worldview. Even describing the world of the spiritual essences of Christian teaching, Psellus uses statements about the nature of the soul of Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus. Psellos dealt with the problems of natural science and cosmology. Moreover, theology almost does not interfere in the questions of natural science in Psellos. In his opinion, the sciences should take from mathematics its numerical method and geometric proof, which have the property of logically forcing the recognition of propositions as true or false.

The ideas of the rationalists were condemned by the church, and were not widely adopted in Byzantium. Unlike Western Europe, rationalism did not become the leading trend in Byzantine theological and philosophical thought.

Despite the general speculative tradition dating back to antiquity, practical science in Byzantium managed to achieve certain results in solving many utilitarian problems, which for a long time ensured the material and technical superiority of the empire. The most famous example in the literature is the so-called "Greek fire" used in military affairs, which was a mixture of oil and sulfur. Mining was actively developing in the empire as a branch of science and technology, covering a complex of processes of exploration, extraction from the bowels and primary processing of minerals. Using the experience gained in the ancient period, building, finishing and semi-precious stones, sulfur, saltpeter, iron, copper, lead ores, silver, gold, mercury, and tin were mined in Byzantium. The degree of development of metallurgy is an important indicator of the technical and economic level of the country, since it is a very extensive area of ​​economics, science and technology, covering the processes of obtaining metals, changing their chemical and physical composition and giving certain forms. Byzantium produced copper, tin, lead, mercury, zinc oxide, silver and gold. Non-ferrous metals and their alloys were used in shipbuilding, agriculture, handicrafts, and military affairs. The production of ferrous metals - cast iron, steel, iron, was the leading branch of the Byzantine economy, along with agriculture.

A characteristic feature of Byzantine production, urban crafts was a comprehensive state regulation. On the one hand, state support ensured the protection of handicraft corporations, the availability of state orders, safety on the roads and in the cities of the empire, on the other hand, the workshops lost their independence and fell under the strict control of the central government, which led to a loss of initiative and stagnation in development.

The attitude of the Byzantines to the preservation of the ancient heritage also had contradictory consequences for the development and implementation of practical knowledge. Initially, it allowed Byzantium to remain the most advanced state in Europe until the 12th century in the production of ceramics, glass, construction, shipbuilding, and so on. But over time, a rigid focus on the preservation of ancient traditions inevitably became a brake on technical development, and the majority of Byzantine crafts gradually lagged behind Western European ones.

Education in the empire was given special importance. The reign of Justinian I was marked by a struggle against paganism, in particular, in 529 he closed the Platonic Academy in Athens, where the pagans studied and taught classical Greek philosophy. Pagans, Jews and heretics were forbidden to teach. But, despite the persecution of pagan teachers, the loss of their pre-existing privileges, educational institutions continued to work.

The University of Constantinople occupied a key place in the cultural life of the state, representing the largest educational and scientific center. Throughout the history of Byzantium, its inhabitants, in comparison with the inhabitants of medieval Western Europe as a whole, were significantly more educated. Byzantine schools were the most important source of knowledge about antiquity. Of course, church literature gradually penetrated the educational programs of secular educational institutions. But, despite the teaching of some church disciplines, the schools remained secular, and the education system itself, especially in elementary school, was very close to the ancient one. Not only the Psalter was studied, but also the works of Homer, Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, the works of Plato and Aristotle. For a better understanding of ancient works, students were given information on ancient history and mythology.

In the treatise “For Young Men on How to Usefully Read Pagan Writers,” Basil of Caesarea, although he calls for caution in reading the works of ancient authors and interpreting them in the light of Christian morality, he considers these works unconditionally useful. Interestingly, the notebooks of Byzantine schoolchildren show a certain similarity with ancient textbooks. The students rewrote the same excerpts from ancient myths, the same maxims as the ancient Hellenes. The only differences are that in Byzantine notebooks, in addition to the usual exercises, verses from the Psalter sometimes appear, as well as in an appeal to God at the beginning of the first sheet and a drawn cross at the beginning of each page.

The school course consisted of the study of grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics, law and music. The inclusion of music, or harmony, in school programs was explained by the fact that harmony was considered a science, which, along with mathematics and astronomy, helped to learn the eternal laws of the Universe. At the same time, not only the quantitative properties of sounds were studied, but also their physical nature. In the study of mathematics, the "Introduction to Arithmetic" by Nicomachus of Gerasa was used as the main tool. Diophantus' Arithmetic, Euclid's Elements, Heron of Alexandria's Metrics were used as educational guides. In the study of astronomy as a science of numbers applied to moving objects, Claudius Ptolemy's Almagest was used. His own work "Tetrabook" was used as a manual on astrology, which was also included in the teaching program. In the 7th century the textbook of Paul of Alexandria "Introduction to Astrology" became more popular.

Rhetoric played an important role. It was considered a means of development and improvement of the personality. There were no class restrictions on obtaining a rhetorical education, but only those who were able to pay for the rather expensive education in rhetoric schools could master it. The standard of style was Gregory the Theologian, who was placed above other speakers. Primary schools in the empire functioned not only in cities, but also in rural areas. Higher education could be obtained only in large cities. The main center of education in the state was Constantinople.

In 425, by decree of Emperor Theodosius II, a university was established in Constantinople. The number of teachers in it was determined - 31 people, of which 20 were grammarians, 8 orators, 2 teachers of law and 1 philosopher. They were considered government officials and received a salary from the imperial treasury.

Theodosius secured the task of state control over students by special state acts. Each student was required to provide documentary evidence of the origin, the state of his parents, it was required to indicate the sciences in which he intended to study, the address of residence in Constantinople.

Often the emperors not only assisted in the development of education, but were themselves fond of the sciences. Leo VI the Wise is known as a scholar who wrote a large number of secular and theological works. Caesar Varda founded a school in Magnavra, the leading scientist of his time, Leo the Mathematician, was appointed head. The school was located in the palace and taught philosophy, grammar, geometry and astronomy.

Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus was distinguished by versatile knowledge. By his order and with direct participation, many encyclopedias (about fifty) were compiled on various branches of knowledge.

Emperor Constantine IX Monomakh created two schools: philosophy and law. The emperor personally attended classes, listened to and took notes of lectures. Michael Psellos was appointed head of the philosophical school. He began his lectures with Aristotle's "Logic", after that he moved on to his "Metaphysics", and completed the course with an interpretation of the works of Plato, whom he considered the most significant thinker and even put on the same level with Gregory the Theologian.

The patronizing attitude of the emperors towards education and science was explained not only and not so much by their love for knowledge, but by practical considerations, since the successful functioning of the Byzantine state apparatus required the presence of literate and educated people in the administrative management structure.

Education served not to obtain certain knowledge and information, and, in the future, to generate new knowledge, but, first of all, to take a place in the bureaucratic structure corresponding to a certain qualification.

Cognitive motivation in Byzantine society was weak, knowledge was not an end in itself, they were subordinated to the principles of the functioning of the bureaucratic machine. The high qualification of civil servants for a long time ensured the advantage of Byzantium in comparison with Western Europe.

Not only the secular, but also the church administration was largely composed of those who successfully completed school. School graduates, regardless of the social status of their parents, could become officials of the imperial or church office. Parents spared no expense in order to pay teachers for their children. (At the same time, the teachers themselves usually also received a salary from the state.) Theoretically, there was free access to the highest positions of the state apparatus, so everyone who had the money to study studied.

An extensive bureaucratic apparatus for its successful functioning needed educated and literate people, in connection with which, secular education acquired a special significance. This explains why the Byzantine schools, unlike those in Western Europe, were not subordinate to the church.

Of course, along with secular schools, there were also church educational institutions. Since the 9th century, for example, there has been a theological school (patriarchal academy), the curriculum of which was focused on the interpretation of sacred texts. But students also studied rhetoric and other secular sciences.

Science (as well as other spheres of public life) in Byzantium was subjected to stateization, and the bureaucracy took over organizational and managerial functions. Administrative prescriptions in the field of science and the production of information become one of the criteria for truth, which must comply with formal requirements controlled by the bureaucracy.

Bureaucratization and state regulation had dual consequences, and, in some cases, contributed to the development of Byzantine science and education, while in other conditions they became an obstacle to their development. Excessive formalization became a characteristic feature of Byzantine science, bureaucratization led to its ossification.

A utilitarian attitude to science dominated: its goal was to educate students and process previously acquired knowledge. The prevailing attitude was that scientific wisdom can be found in the ancient past, the direct heirs of which the Byzantines considered themselves to be.

As a result, the formalized ancient heritage turned into the cause of stereotypical thinking, which did not give development to original scientific creativity. The ancient classics, as well as the Bible, constituted the totality of all the necessary knowledge.

The basis of knowledge was tradition, which, according to the Byzantines, turned to the essence, while experience made it possible to get acquainted only with superficial manifestations of the surrounding world.

Experiment and scientific observation were poorly developed. Ideas that could not be confirmed by bookish authority were perceived as rebellious.

Since the XIV century, pressure on the Byzantine Empire of the Ottoman Turks has been constantly increasing. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople fell. This rainy day marked the end of Byzantium, where for eleven centuries the science of the ancient past was carefully studied and protected.

The political decline of Byzantium led to an active transmission of scientific experience to the West, which became the most important factor that prepared the Western European Renaissance.

Questions

1. Ancient heritage and Christian ideology in Byzantium.

2. Features of Byzantine science.

3. Works on the systematization and commenting of ancient authors. John of Damascus.

4. Rationalist trend in Byzantine theology. Michael Psell.

5. Material and technical achievements of Byzantium.

6. Education in Byzantium.

Education in Byzantium. The state language in Byzantium was Greek: it was taught at school, documents were drawn up, officials, soldiers, and residents of cities spoke. Children of 6-7 years old entered primary schools, where they learned to read, write and count for 2-3 years. Primary education was free. Those who dreamed of becoming an official continued their studies in school grammar.

Each official had to write down the orders of his superiors without a single mistake, and write reports in refined language. Therefore, at the grammar school, the writings of ancient historians and writers were diligently studied.

Higher schools prepared high-ranking officials; children of nobles, future scientists, were educated here. There were similar schools in Constantinople, Athens, Alexandria and other large cities. Emperors patronized higher schools: teachers received good salaries, food, silk clothes and gifts for religious holidays. material from the site

Byzantine scholars. The Byzantines, who considered themselves the heirs of the Romans, honored their history. The works of famous historians of antiquity were a model for Byzantine authors. The most famous of them was a contemporary of Emperor Justinian Procopius of Caesarea. His main work "History of the wars of Justinian with the Persians, Vandals and Goths" glorifies the emperor and the military victories of Byzantium. In deep secrecy, Procopius wrote another work. It was preserved and named "Secret History". In it, the author denounces Justinian, his imperious wife Theodora, and the manners of the court. Byzantine scientists created works on geography, astronomy, and mathematics. The writings were distinguished by extraordinary scholarship. Leo Mathematics who lived in the ninth century. He was the first to use letter designations to express arithmetic operations. Therefore, he is considered the founder of a new science - algebra. Leo the Mathematician became famous for many inventions, among which was, for example, a light telegraph designed to transmit messages over long distances. He was also the author of the amazing mechanisms arranged in the throne room of the imperial palace.

Throughout the Middle Ages, the Byzantines had great respect for education, knowledge, and science.

On this page, material on the topics:

• Why did the Byzantines strive to get a good education?

• Famous scientists of Byzantium

• Why did many in Byzantium strive to get a good education

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