Quantitative approach to management.
The school of "management science" was formed in the 1950s. 20th century and exists, improving, to the present.
The main prerequisite for the emergence of a quantitative management school is the complication of the management process itself, which was due to the rapid scientific and technological progress of the post-war years.
Post-war production was first oriented towards satisfying mass needs, and as they were saturated, towards satisfying specific needs that formed small-capacity markets. This was the impetus for the emergence of entrepreneurial structures, the formation of a large number of small and medium-sized enterprises.
Flexibility, dynamism, adaptability to environmental requirements have become key success factors in the market. Scientists began to actively develop the ideas of openness of organizations as systems. The complication of the environment required the development and application of decision-making methods in a situation of uncertainty.
The development of mathematical sciences, statistics, computer science, as well as computer technology was a prerequisite for the emergence of a new scientific school, which was called quantitative, or managerial.
Representatives of this school (R. Ackoff, L. Bertalanffy, S. Beer, A. Goldberger, L. V. Kantarovich, R. Luce, L. Klein, V. V. Novozhilov and others) mastered various aspects, components and elements control object using quantitative methods, developed appropriate economic, mathematical and logical models.
The quantitative approach to management consists in the application of statistical methods, optimization models, information models and computer simulation methods.
During the Second World War, these developments took shape in a management discipline aimed at the effective allocation of resources according to the system of goals - operations research.
Operations research is the application of scientific research methods to the operational problems of an organization.
After the end of World War II, many of the quantitative methods used in solving purely military problems began to be widely applied in business. The focus in management issues since the mid-1960s. paid attention to the problems associated with the use of modern technical means of control, the use of widely implemented computers and various kinds applied programs, economic and mathematical modeling, various methods of system analysis.
A lot of works appeared on these problems, which were combined into the quantitative school, or the school of management science (not to be confused with scientific management). The basis of all methods and approaches in this area are the categories of mathematics or other exact sciences. A fairly large number of scientific papers were based on the methods of operations research, so this direction in management can also bear such a name of the same name.
The problems dealt with in the quantitative school immediately became popular. In the 1970s in the West there were about 100 periodicals on the issues of operations research. More than 20 institutions of higher education in the United States regularly trained specialists in the relevant field, and many large firms had special groups or departments for operations research.
The main impetus for the beginning of these studies was the realization of the need for a comprehensive study and search for a unified solution for complex process with a clearly expressed goal (operation), since the solutions to individual parts of the general problem turned out to be isolated processes, while practice required the unity of all particular solutions.
The quantitative school of management is based on the concept models.
Model is a representation of reality. Typically, a model simplifies reality or represents it in the abstract.
Mathematical model- this is a description of a class of phenomena, expressed with the help of mathematical symbols.
The main stages of building a model are the following steps:
Refinement of the problem statement.
Formulation of laws relating the main parameters of the object.
Recording in mathematical expressions of the formulated regularities.
Study of the model based on a comparison of actual performance indicators with those calculated according to the model (theoretical and / or experimental analysis).
Accumulation of data about the object under study and correction of the model in order to introduce additional factors and data, restrictions, criteria.
Application of the model for solving problems of object management.
Development and improvement of the model.
After the model is created, the variables are set quantitative values.
The most general, non-specific approach to the consideration of the management process was used by Norbert Wiener when he formed the foundations of the so-called "General Science of Management or Cybernetics".
At the heart of cybernetics is the consideration of management as an information process. Since the form of management is indeed a purely informational process, this approach is quite legitimate. However, it assumes a complete abstraction from the content side of management.
The initial premise of the cybernetic approach to control is reduced to stating the fact of the presence of two blocks of an arbitrary nature, between which there is a control relationship (Figure 1). One of the blocks is called manager(regulator, subject of management), and the other - manageable(control object).
Figure 1: Control system as a control loop
From these rather poor prerequisites, however, a number of general conclusions can be drawn:
There is some goal for which the regulator controls. Indeed, if the regulator has no reason to interfere with the functioning of the object, then there will be no control. The nature of this goal, its origin is not considered within the framework of this model.
There is a potential opportunity to achieve this goal through certain activities of the object (or at least the subject of management believes that this is the case). It makes sense to intervene in the functioning of the controlled object only if, as a result of such interference, it can be expected that the goal of the subject of control will be achieved.
Between the controller and the control object there is a connection (CS), which is informational in nature and provides the ability for the controller to influence the behavior of the object. Special attention here one should pay attention to the informational nature of the control connection. If the connection between two blocks is not informational (for example, between a tractor and a trailer), then this is no longer a control.
The object responds to control signals received via the control communication channel, i.e. changes its behavior under the influence of control information coming through this channel. If it does not respond, then control is impossible.
The subject of control has a model that allows him to predict the behavior of the object in response to certain control actions, and choose those that lead to the achievement of the goals set by the subject of control.
As a rule, to ensure effective control between the object and the subject of control, there is another information link designed to transfer information about the actual behavior of the object. This feedback makes it possible to compensate for both the inevitable differences in the behavior of the object from the forecast obtained using the model, and possible deviations in the behavior of the object associated with the presence of uncontrolled external influences and internal fluctuations. Feedback also has another function. It serves as the main source of information for the formation and continuous refinement of the model used by the control system.
The briefly described model of the management process is valid when it comes to management, regardless of the specifics of a particular area. However, the management of organizations is qualitatively different from management in other areas. If the control in technical systems assumes that goals are introduced into the management system from the outside, during its design or in the process of setting up, etc., then when managing an organization, goals are always formed within the management system itself.
This is a fundamental difference. In technical systems, control goals are formed in the master block outside the controller. In organizations, the situation is fundamentally different.
Goals are not directly transferred from organization to organization. External forces can only more or less effectively influence the formation of goals within the organization, but the consequences of such an impact are far from unambiguous.
One of the most important reasons for this ambiguity lies in the fact that the object of control here is an organization, i.e. he also forms his own goals and reacts to control actions based on an assessment of the compliance of incoming commands with his own interests and goals.
Based on this - the main problem management consists in the impossibility of transferring goals from the boss to the subordinate. The most important consequence is that the meaning of managerial influence should be the actions of the leader, aimed at the formation of a subordinate person or organization, goals that correspond to the overall goals of the organization.
The influence of management science or the quantitative approach has been much less than that of the behavioral approach, in part because many more managers deal daily with the problem of human relations, human behavior, than with the problems that are the subject of operations research.
In addition, until the 1960s, very few managers were educated enough to understand and apply complex quantitative methods.
Key Feature
management science (quantitative school) is
replacing verbal reasoning and descriptive analysis with models, symbols, and quantitative values
situational approach
Systems approach
Process approach
Modern approaches in management
Lecture #3
Prevention of poisoning.
1. Strict adherence to instructions for the storage, transportation and use of pesticides and mineral fertilizers.
2. Control for proper preparation feed for feeding.
3. Control of MRLs for pesticides in feed, MPCs in soil and water.
4. Periodically inspect pastures and hayfields for the presence of poisonous plants.
5. Observe the rules for the storage and use of medicines.
Process approach. The basis of this scientific approach laid by A. Fayol, who is called the "father of management." As the author of the "school of administrative management", he considered the main functions of management to be prediction, planning, organizing, disposing, coordinating and controlling. Each of these functions is independent and independent of the others. Developing the views of A. Fayol, the authors of the process scientific approach consider management as the sum of all management functions, i.e. as interrelated and interdependent activities. In other words, management is seen as a continuous process.
Different scientists have their own vision of a set of basic functions (for example, in addition to those proposed by A. Fayol, this can be research, evaluation, etc.). Therefore, to simplify the understanding of the essence of the process approach, it is considered that the main, basic functions of management are: planning; organization; motivation; control (Fig. 1).
Rice. Basic control functions
These functions are in constant interconnection. Between themselves, they are united by the processes of decision-making and information transfer.
Systems approach. The system scientific approach is based on the concept of "system" - a complex of interrelated elements (subsystems) together with their connections and relationships, which has integral properties and is in a special unity with the external environment.
The essence of the systematic approach is as follows. Managers should consider the enterprise as a set of interdependent elements (people, structure, tasks, technology) that are focused on achieving different goals under the influence of external environment.
One of the authors of a systematic scientific approach to management, Ch. Barnard, believed that any enterprise is a social system. He said: "Organization is a complex of physical, biological, personal and social components that are in a specific systemic relationship in connection with the cooperation of two or more individuals to obtain at least one specific result."
The manager needs to know and take into account the unity of formal and informal organizations. At the same time, a formal (official) organization is a system consciously built by management to purposefully combine ideas, resources, and personnel. In turn, an informal (informal) organization is a stable network of interpersonal and social relations that spontaneously arise when people unite in their working environment.
All enterprises and organizations can be considered as open or closed systems. An open system is characterized by maximum interaction with the external environment through the exchange of resources, products, information, etc. Since the survival of such an enterprise depends on the external environment, it is forced to constantly adapt to the constantly changing conditions of its existence. Such enterprises - open systems in the world the vast majority. Closed systems relatively independent of the external environment. A typical example in this respect is subsistence farming in agricultural production, which provides itself with the necessary resources and in which most of the production is consumed locally. Enterprises - open systems in a schematic form can be represented as consisting of three main blocks: entrance; processing; exit (Fig. 2).
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(resources) (products)
Rice. Enterprise as an open system
At the input, the enterprise receives material, labor, financial and information resources. As a result of the processing and transformation of these resources, products (goods or services) are created, which are then sold to consumers. The process of production and management is carried out in continuous interaction with the environment.
situational approach made a great contribution to the theory of management, using the possibilities of direct application of science to specific situations and conditions.
The central point of the situational approach is the situation, that is,
specific set of circumstances that affect
organization at this time.
Using this approach, managers can better understand what techniques
will contribute more to the achievement of the organization's goals in
specific situation.
The situational approach attempts to link specific practices and concepts to
certain and specific situations in order to achieve the goals
organizations most effectively.
The situational approach uses situational differences between
organizations and within organizations. The manager needs
determine what are the significant situation variables and how they affect
organization efficiency.
Methodology of the situational approach to management.
The manager must be familiar with professional management tools that have proven effective. This implies knowledge of process management, individual and group behavior, systems analysis, planning and control methods, and quantitative
decision-making methods;
The manager must be able to anticipate the likely consequences (how
positive or negative) from the application of this technique or
concepts in a given situation.
The manager must be able to correctly interpret the situation
It is necessary to correctly determine which factors are the most
important in this situation and what is the likely effect of
is a change in one or more variables;
The manager must be able to select specific techniques that would cause
the smallest, negative effect, for specific situations, thereby
ensuring that the goals of the organization are achieved effective way.
Quantitative approach. A significant contribution to the theory of control was made by mathematics, statistics, and engineering sciences. Their influence can be seen in FW Taylor's use of the scientific method in job analysis, quantitative methods being most widely used from 1950 to the present. The quantitative method provides for an objective comparison and description of significant variables, the relationships between them, to set quantitative values for these variables.
Key Feature management science is to replace verbal reasoning and descriptive analysis with quantitative values. The greatest impetus to the use of quantitative methods in management came from the development of computers. The computer has allowed operations researchers to construct mathematical models of increasing complexity that are the most accurate. Most managers daily face the problems of human relations, the motives of people's behavior. But the situation is rapidly changing now, as more and more business schools offer the use of computers and the use of quantitative methods.
VOSKRESENSKIY INSTITUTE OF TOURISM
RUSSIAN INTERNATIONAL ACADEMY OF TOURISM
COURSE WORK
by discipline
"Fundamentals of Management"
“The essence of the main approaches in management.
Comparison and characterization of quantitative, process, systemic and situational approaches in the management process”
Completed by: Feoktistov D.A.
course I, gr.104
Head: Yukhimenko N.P.
abstract
There are four main approaches to the management process:
Quantitative approach;
Process approach;
Systems approach;
situational approach.
Quantitative approach
(1950 - present)
Otherwise, the quantitative approach is called operations research - this is the application of methods scientific research to the operational processes of the organization - the application of economic and mathematical methods to solving management problems.
Accuracy.
Allows you to predict.
Allows you to choose the best option possible in solving control problems.
Process approach
(1920 especially 1950–present)
Each managerial function is also a process, because it also consists of a series of interrelated actions. The control process is the total sum of all functions. Management functions in the process approach of planning, organization, motivation and control.
The concept of the process approach still remains unfulfilled. It does not give the manager a clear and precise algorithm for effective management.
Systems approach
has rigid fixed boundaries, its actions are relatively independent of the environment surrounding the system. An open system is characterized by constant interaction with the external environment. It is generally accepted that all organizations are open systems.
the movement of all the constituent parts, the organizational system, then such a management system is ineffective, it contains some kind of defect.
situational approach
(1960 - to the present) The logical continuation of the system. The central moment of the situational approach is the situation, i.e. a specific set of circumstances that strongly affect the organization at that particular time. Using this approach, managers can better understand which techniques will be most helpful in achieving the goals of the organization in a particular situation. The success or failure of the situational approach is largely determined by the extent to which the manager was able to correctly interpret the situation. It is necessary to correctly determine which factors are most important in a given situation and what is the likely effect of changing one or more of them. The situational approach is the most comprehensive and satisfactory system developed to date for making management effective.
I. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………5
II. 1. Quantitative approach
Basic Provisions…………………………………………………………7
Advantages of the quantitative approach……………………………………..7
2. Process approach
Basic provisions………………………………………………………...10
External and internal processes………………………………………...11
Functions of management when considering a process approach………11
3.System approach
The concept of a system…………………………………………………………...16
Two types of systems…………………………………………………………….16
Model of the organization as an open system……………………………..16
The concept of subsystems…………………………………………………...……18
4. Situational approach
Basic provisions…………..………………………………………….20
The Two Environments of an Organization……………………………………………………………………………20
Three main limitations in the situational approach………………….21
Four steps for effective management…………………………….22
III.Conclusion………………………………………………………………………25
List of used literature…………………………………………...27
Introduction
Management in one form or another has always existed where people worked in groups and, as a rule, in three spheres of human society: social, economic, defensive.
Before separating into an independent field of knowledge, humanity has been accumulating management experience bit by bit for thousands of years. In the development of the theory and practice of management, there are several historical periods.
The first, simplest, rudimentary forms of streamlining and organizing joint labor existed at the stage of the primitive communal system. The transition to a producing economy became the starting point in the emergence of management, a milestone in the accumulation of certain knowledge in this area by people.
The question of the principles of fair and effective government was the subject of reflection of many great thinkers of antiquity. In particular, Plato considered management as the science of the general nutrition of people and argued that management activity is important element life support systems of society. In turn, Aristotle pointed out the need to develop a "master's science" that teaches slave owners the skills of handling slaves, the art of managing them.
The history of scientific thought shows that the theoretical understanding of managerial processes proceeded unevenly. Moreover, successes in management theory have always overestimated the development of industry, successes in other areas related to management, such as mathematics, engineering, psychology, sociology, anthropology. At the same time, one should remember F. Taylor's remark that the art of scientific management is an evolution, not an invention;
So far, four critical approaches to the selection of scientific areas that have made a significant contribution to the development of the theory and practice of management:
1. Quantitative approach.
2. Process approach.
3. System approach.
4. Situational approach.
Adherents of each of these directions believed at one time that they managed to find the key to the most effective achievement of the goals of the organization. However, management practice has shown that techniques that have been successful in some situations and at a particular time are not always successful in others. Therefore, it is very important to consider each of the approaches in the work and determine which one is the most cost-effective at present in the management process. So the topic term paper is up to date.
The purpose of the course work is to determine the essence and characterize the quantitative, process, system and situational approaches in the management process.
The main task is to study the possibilities of applying process, system and situational approaches to management.
The subject of research is quantitative, process, system and situational approaches to management.
Quantitative approach
- Basic provisions
(1950 - present)
The quantitative approach began to develop in 1950. It was first mentioned by Taylor.
Quantitative approach to management - an approach that consists in the transition from qualitative assessments to quantitative ones using mathematical, statistical methods, engineering calculations, expert assessments, a scoring system, etc. They manage numbers, not words.
The essence of the quantitative approach is to use the method of mathematical and statistical analysis in the process of making managerial decisions.
The quantitative approach is based on operations research - the application of scientific research methods to organizational problems. Modeling. A model is a simplified abstract form of representing reality, showing the mathematical relationship between various parameters of an organization's work.
Otherwise, the quantitative approach is called operations research - this is the application of scientific research methods to the operational processes of the organization - the application of economic and mathematical methods to solving management problems.
- Advantages of the quantitative approach
Advantages of the quantitative approach:
Allows you to present the problem formally.
Accuracy.
Allows you to predict.
Allows you to choose the best option possible in solving problems
management.
Information processing speed and managerial decision making.
The quantitative approach gave impetus to the development of the theory of inventory management, the theory of queuing, the theory of managerial decision making.
In the 60s of the XX century, the development of a management concept based on the use of mathematical tools began.
New elements of intra-company planning have appeared: simulation modeling of decisions, methods of analysis under conditions of uncertainty, mathematical support for optimizing managerial decisions.
The contribution to the management of representatives of the quantitative approach is as follows:
deepening understanding of the complexity of management problems through the use of various mathematical models;
· development and use of quantitative methods to assist managers making decisions in complex crisis situations.
Process approach
- Basic provisions
(1920, especially 1950 - present)
The process approach is one of the management methods, the essence of which is to build a system of organization processes and manage these processes to achieve maximum efficiency work.
This approach is widely used today in the management process.
The introduction of a process approach to management gives the organization the following opportunities:
1. Optimize and automate the system of general corporate governance to the maximum, make it transparent for management and able to respond flexibly to changes in the external environment.
2. Distribute authority and responsibility for the results of the work included in the processes
3. Determine the order of interaction between processes among themselves and with external suppliers and consumers
4. Determine the procedure and forms of reporting - a list of documentation required for the functioning of processes (standards, regulations, methods, instructions, etc.)
5. Establish performance indicators of processes that characterize the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization as a whole and its divisions
6. Constantly improve the efficiency of the management system and take into account the needs of all stakeholders - shareholders, consumers in the market, organization personnel, suppliers and society
7. Effectively use the information system (IS) of the enterprise, making informed, fact-based decisions. If the organization does not information system, then the implemented process management will allow you to choose the optimal IS, avoiding extra costs for the purchase of excess or defective IP.
The course is aimed at company leaders and managers involved in the improvement and development of the organization.
- External and internal processes
Depending on where the consumer is located, processes are divided into internal and external. An example of an internal process is the development and implementation of a quality system in an enterprise. External processes are generated, as a rule, by clients. In all cases, the processes take place within the organization and contain chains of operations. For quality systems, it is extremely important to consider each element of any process as a process that has its customers and suppliers, its inputs and outputs. Let's say that we are machining a part on the machine in order to give it the shape desired by the client. Obviously, this operation brings added value for him. The next operation involves drilling a hole in this part, which is also desirable for the client. But to carry out this second operation, we put the part on a forklift and take it to a neighboring workshop where a drilling machine is installed. There we put the part in the bunker, where it waits for its turn. All these operations are not needed by the client. But to eliminate them, a significant reworking of our process is required. Such an alteration, among other things, also requires an economic justification.
- Functions of management when considering the process approach
Management is seen as a process because working to achieve goals with the help of others is not some one-time action, but a series of continuous interrelated actions. These activities, each of which is a process in itself, are essential to the success of the organization. They are called managerial functions.
Each managerial function is also a process, because it also consists of a series of interrelated actions. The control process is the total sum of all functions.
Henri Fayol, who is credited with the initial development of the concept, believed that there were five original functions. According to him, "to manage means to predict and plan, organize, dispose, coordinate and control." Other authors have developed other lists of functions, which are ultimately grouped planning, organization, motivation, control. These four primary functions of management are united by the connecting processes of communication and decision making.
To analyze the process approach, consider management as a process of planning, organization, motivation and control necessary in order to formulate and achieve the goals of the organization.
Management functions in the process approach have two common characteristics: they all require decision making, and all require communication. Decision making and communication play the role of connecting processes in the implementation of planning, organization, motivation and control.
1.Planning function.
When planning, the leader must first formulate the goals of the organization. Then, having set general tasks, he must determine what specific work (tasks) need to be performed by employees of the organization in a certain period of time. In order for the plans to be real, and not illusory, the manager should take into account the availability of all the resources of both the organization as a whole and each unit individually.
When planning, the manager must always clearly answer three main questions:
1. Where are we currently located?
2. Where do we want to go?
3. How are we going to do it?
In other words, planning is the way in which
the leader tries to set a single direction for the vector of efforts of all members of the organization to achieve its common goals in a certain period of time. In this case, it is necessary to take into account two essential characteristics inherent in organizational structures, namely: horizontal and vertical division of labor.
At the end of the planning process, the manager must organize the implementation of the planned work, since without the implementation of organizational measures, the plans themselves, of course, will not come true.
The manager must distribute structural divisions work, as well as, in accordance with the plan, to bring to the attention of the performers the procedure for their implementation and the procedure for the interaction of departments (horizontal division of labor).
2. The function of the organization.
An important means by which the head performs the function of the organization in the management process is the issuance of tasks to line managers subordinate to him and the delegation of the necessary powers to them (vertical division of labor).
Line managers organize the fulfillment of assigned tasks in departments. Ordinary performers receive instructions and the necessary tools to perform a specific job (task) in accordance with the plan adopted by the manager.
3.Monitoring function
Control is a daily ongoing process designed to ensure
implementation of the organization's plans.
There are three aspects of managerial control:
1. Setting standards - precise definition specific
intermediate goals that must be achieved in the period of time indicated during planning.
2. Measuring what has actually been achieved and
comparison of what has been achieved with the expected results.
3. Determination of deviations from the original plan and identification of the causes of deviations in order to correct it.
4.Function of motivation.
The task of the motivation function is to ensure that the members of the organization perform work in accordance with the duties delegated to them and in accordance with the plan. Managers have always carried out the function of motivating their employees, whether they themselves realized it or not. In ancient times, the whip and threats grieve for this, for the few chosen ones - rewards. From the late 18th century into the 20th century, there was a widespread belief that people would always work harder if they had the opportunity to earn more. Motivation was thus thought to be a simple matter of offering appropriate monetary rewards in return for effort.
Research in the behavioral sciences has shown the failure of a purely economic approach. Managers have learned that motivation, i.e. the creation of an internal motivation for action is the result of a complex set of needs that are constantly changing.
We now understand that in order to motivate their employees effectively, a manager must identify what those needs really are and provide a way for employees to meet those needs through good performance.
Each of these management functions must be carried out either
by the head of the enterprise or division, or with the help of a planned service, but under the careful and constant supervision of the head. In fact, detailed planning and constant monitoring are integral components of the full-fledged work of any leader.
If, heading the organizational structure, the head does not bother planning the current operational activities of the enterprise or department, leaves the solution of organizational issues to chance and does not pay enough attention to control, we can safely say that the head does not manage the organization. In this case, it makes little sense to expect its effective functioning.
In themselves, such important management procedures as
planning, organization and control are not particularly difficult. However, the management process as a whole remains complex and, as a result, highly inefficient. The concept of the process approach still remains unfulfilled. It does not give the manager a clear and precise algorithm for effective management. The number of main functions included in the management process is not strictly defined. Hence, there is no consensus on which of them should be considered essential in the management process, and which are not. Obviously, the reason for this is the same unpredictability human behavior.
Systems approach
- The concept of the system
(1950 - present)
A system is a kind of integrity, consisting of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole.
Cars, computers, televisions are all examples of systems. They are made up of many parts, each of which works in conjunction with the others to create a whole with its own specific properties. These parts are interdependent.
- Two types of systems
There are two types of systems: closed and open. closed system
has rigid fixed boundaries, its actions are relatively independent of the environment surrounding the system. A clock is a familiar example of a closed system.
An open system is characterized by constant interaction with
external environment. It is generally accepted that all organizations are open systems.
- Model of the organization as an open system
Represents a simplified representation of an organization as an open system. At the input, the organization receives information, capital, human resources and materials from the environment. These components are called inputs. In the process of transformation, the organization processes these inputs, transforming them into products or services. These products and services are the organization's outputs that it releases into the environment. If the management organization is effective, then in the course of the transformation process an additional
entry cost. As a result, many possible additional outputs appear, such as profit, increase in market share, increase in sales (in business), implementation of social responsibility, satisfaction of employees, growth of the organization, etc.
The survival of any organization depends on outside world. Therefore, organizations must adapt to its impact.
Moreover, since people as components of an organization (social
components) are used to perform work along with machinery,
organizational systems are sociotechnical. It doesn't matter how hard the RCA national sales manager works to attract new buyers of VCRs, if the designs developed by the technical department are not perfect, the people on the RCA assembly lines refuse to assemble the equipment that is being produced, or the company does not can pay for the supply of components.
Realizing this fact, management researchers in search of ways
effective management came to the idea of transferring the provisions of systems theory to management practice. Thus, the concept of a systematic approach was born.
The systems approach is purely a way of thinking about organization and management, but is by no means a set of guidelines or principles for managers. It allows only speculative representation of the organization in the unity of its constituent elements.
From the point of view of a systematic approach, when exposed to any element
system, the organization is always changing in all relationships and becomes some other integrity, located in a different position on the way to achieving its goals than it would be if the changes had not occurred.
- The concept of subsystems
The large components of complex systems, such as organizations, people, or machines, are often systems themselves. These parts are called subsystems.
Subsystem is an important concept in the systems approach. Subdivisions,
departments, workshops are subsystems, each of which plays important role in the organization as a whole. Subsystems can be composed of smaller subsystems. Since they are all systemically interconnected, the malfunctioning of the smallest subsystem can adversely affect the functioning of the system as a whole.
So, the work of each department, each employee in the organization is very
essential to the success of the organization as a whole.
Despite the fact that the systems approach postulates the need
consider the organization as a whole, it does not in itself indicate
to the leader which elements of the organization as a system are especially important, since he considers people only as an equal element among others. The system approach is, therefore, another attempt to get closer to the effective management of the organization without taking into account the main factor influencing its effectiveness - the human one. Hence, the inability of the approach itself to have a constructive influence on the effectiveness of management, which was originally incorporated in the approach itself.
At the same time, in the systemic approach as such, unfortunately, there was no
one identified; essential rationale. Its essence is that
effective management of organizations as systems is possible only if there are effective systems management.
If the management system does not allow effective coordination
the movement of all the constituent parts, the organizational system, then such a management system is ineffective, it contains some kind of defect. A good example of this is the bureaucratic system of managing organizations, justified by Max Weber. In its "classical" form, it turned out to be ineffective due to the fact that within the framework of this system there was no place for a person as a primary object of control.
Thus, we can come to the conclusion: from the control system to
to a large extent depends on the effectiveness of the management process.
situational approach
- Basic provisions
(1960-present)
The situational approach suggests that additional factors may play a decisive role in the effectiveness of leadership. These situational factors include the needs and personal qualities of subordinates, the nature of the task, and the demands and influences of the environment. The main idea of the situational approach was the assumption that the leader's behavior should be different in different situations.
The success or failure of the situational approach is largely
determined by the extent to which the leader was able to correctly interpret the situation. It is necessary to correctly determine which factors are most important in a given situation and what is the likely effect of changing one or more of them. The situational approach is the most comprehensive and satisfactory system developed to date for making management effective.
- Two organization environments
The situational approach also focuses managers' attention on the relationship between the organization's internal and external environments.
The external environment consists of social, political and economic factors that can affect the organization.
The internal environment is the environment within the organization.
According to the situational approach, managers need to be aware of the interaction between these two environments. A car manufacturing plant has an internal environment made up of all the departments involved in assembling a car. But the manager may also be connected to the external environment that affects the production of cars. For example, society's need for environmental protection has necessitated the invention of safe and efficient fuel exhaust systems. The external environment is certainly not limited to “environment views”? It includes all factors (excluding those involved in the internal activities of the company) that can affect the firm, including a variety of government influences.
- Three main limitations in the situational approach
Managers who use the situational approach need to be aware of the limiting or constraining factors that exist within their own organizations. The situational approach recognizes three major limitations: technological, human and limitation in the formulation of the problem.
Technological limitations determined by the type and flexibility of the organizational means of producing goods or services. Various types organizations require various kinds technological resources. Machinery and equipment in steel production, for example, is very expensive. Such huge capital expenditures make it difficult for these companies to quickly change technology to meet new needs.
Technology largely determines the degree of interdependence among different segments of the organization. The higher the degree of interdependence, the more coordination is required and therefore the more managerial skill.
Restriction in the formulation of the problem arises from the actual nature of the work performed by the workers. Some workers may work in a methodical manner with little variation in their actions. As in cases of the assembly line. Others may be involved in more complex and less routine work, such as performing TV inspections, where workers must fix a wide variety of defects in products.
human limitations reflect the levels of competence of the people working in the organization. One of the random factors here is to determine the motivation of groups of workers. Are they interested in wages and job security? Or are employees more interested in advancement, personal development and in relation to their personality?
The systems approach emphasizes the unification of links between different organizations. Focusing on the nature of these connections, the situational approach actualized this problem. As a result, the situational approach is today the cutting-edge approach in managerial thought. However, this approach is also subject to criticism. Some believe that it does not have enough theoretical justification, which manifests itself in the absence of a basis for knowledge, insufficient predictive ability and initiative. On the other hand, its advocates argue that one of the most useful answers to the questions “How are we going to do this?” and “What are we going to do next?” is: “It all depends on…”. In the situational approach, each situation is considered so that it has a certain unique property before making a managerial decision. This contrasts markedly with earlier approaches, which tended towards universal principles that were often inapplicable to particular situations. Before adopting any approach, modern managers must analyze the situation and then, after looking at all the various schools of managerial thought, determine which combination of managerial methods is most appropriate.
- Four steps for effective management
Situational management theories provide guidance on how to act in specific situations. This highlights four mandatory steps, which must be implemented by the manager in order to achieve effective management in each specific situation:
First, the Manager must be familiar with professional management tools that have proven effective. This implies an understanding of the management process, individual and group behavior, systems analysis, planning and control methods, and quantitative decision-making methods.
Secondly, each of the management concepts and techniques has its own strengths and weaknesses, and comparative characteristics when they are applied to a particular situation. The leader must be able to anticipate the likely consequences, both positive and negative, from the application of this methodology and concept. I will give a simple example. A proposal to double the wages of all employees in response to extra work is likely to cause a significant increase in their motivation for some time. But, comparing the increase in costs with the benefits received, we see that this path can lead to the ruin of the organization.
Thirdly, the leader must be able to correctly interpret the situation. It is necessary to correctly determine which factors are most important in a given situation and what is the likely effect of a change in one or more variables.
Fourthly, the manager must be able to link specific techniques that would cause the least negative effect and would conceal the fewest shortcomings with specific situations, thereby ensuring that the goals of the organization are achieved in the most effective way under the existing circumstances.
Situational theories, describing how to adjust an organization to specific requirements, how to make changes and rearrangements in the most rational and painless way, how to create and develop adaptive capacity, deny the existence of universal approaches to management. The presence of generalized, all-encompassing principles for the construction and implementation of any management. From the point of view of these theories, management is, first of all, the art of managers to understand the situation, reveal its characteristics and choose the appropriate management, and only then follow scientific recommendations in the field of management, which are of a universal and generalizing nature.
In the situational approach, the firm is viewed as an "open system". The main prerequisites for its success lie not inside, but outside of it. Success is associated with how well the company fits into the external environment (economic, scientific, technical, socio-political) and adapts to it. The situational approach to management means that all the internal construction of the management system
is a response to environmental influences.
Under the conditions of the situational approach, the forms, methods, systems, leadership style should vary significantly depending on the objective conditions of the organizational context, approaching either the ideals of the rationalist model (under conditions of a high degree of certainty and stability), or the principles of a behavioral direction (under conditions of a high degree of uncertainty). ).
Conclusion
The work done by me convinced me as a researcher that the topic "The Essence of the Basic Approaches in Management" is relevant. The most important thing to be revealed in this study is the existence of four main approaches to managing organizations:
Quantitative approach;
Process approach;
Systems approach;
situational approach.
The essence of the quantitative approach is to use the method of mathematical and statistical analysis in the process of making managerial decisions.
The essence of the process approach: management is considered as a process, for example: "setting goals-planning-organization of work-motivation-control". The development of a process - an algorithm for managing an organization, is put in the forefront.
The essence of the system approach: the organization is considered as a system, with its own input (goals, objectives), output (results of work on indicators), feedback (between staff and management, external suppliers and managers, external distributors and managers, buyers and internal distributors, etc.) .d.), external influences ( tax law, economic factors, competitors, etc.).
The essence of the situational approach: management methods can change depending on the situation; in practice, the results of the organization's activities are analyzed in various practical situations; the most significant situational factors influencing the indicators are searched for economic activity in dynamics, consequences are predicted; Based on the data obtained, it is planned future activities organizations.
From the point of view of the economics of the organization, the most significant results in the scientific and methodological terms were obtained within the framework of the situational approach. The situational approach has made a great contribution to the development of control theory. It contains specific recommendations regarding the application scientific position to the practice of management, depending on the complexity of the situation and the conditions of external and internal environment organizations. Using a situational approach, managers can understand what methods and tools will the best way contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the organization in a particular situation.
However, by applying the situational approach to management, the company ensures the correspondence between the internal and external environment of the organization only for a short period of time. It is possible to establish such correspondence for a long period with the help of strategic planning. The use of these two methods is a modern direction in the development of management.
Currently, the most productive is the so-called situational approach, which has absorbed all the positives achieved by management. The situational approach does not override anything that has been done before. There are no bad or good methods of management, there is only the appropriateness or inconsistency of the method of a particular situation. Therefore, do not rush to completely abandon traditional methods and approaches. Their disadvantage lies primarily in their absolutization, one-sidedness. But in combination with other approaches, in particular those described in this article, they can still be very useful.
List of used literature
1. Management is a science and an art: A. Fayol, G. Emerson, F. Taylor, G. Ford. M., Prospect, 2002
2. Strategic management. Thematic collection. Issue 6. M.: Main edition
3. Kravchenko A.I. History of Management M., Academy, 2000.
4. State standard of the Russian Federation GOST R ISO 9000-2001 "Quality management systems. Basic provisions and vocabulary" (adopted and put into effect by the resolution of the State Standard of the Russian Federation of August 15, 2001 N 332-st).
5. Ansoff I. New corporate strategy. - St. Petersburg: Peter Kom, 2003.
6. Bir S. Management Science (translated from English). - M.: Energy, 2001.
7. Bogdanov A. A. Tectology: general organizational science. M., DiS, 2001.
8. Bowman K. Fundamentals of strategic management. M., 1997.
9. Vikhansky O.S. Strategic Management: Textbook. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Gardarika, 2003.
10. Vesnin V.N. "Fundamentals of Management". Moscow. 1992.
11. Meskon M., Albert M., Hedouri F. "Fundamentals of Management". "Case". Moscow. 1993
12. Vikhansky O.S., Naumov A.I. Fundamentals of Management: Textbook, 3rd ed. - M.: Gardarika, 1998.
13. Kabushkin N.I. "Fundamentals of Management". "Econopress". Moscow. 1997.
14. Radushin A.A. "Fundamentals of Management" M .: Center. 1998.
15. Smirnova V. "Formation of the concept of entrepreneurial management." Problems of the theory and practice of management. 1998. No. 4. p. 55
EVALUATION SHEET AND REVIEWS OF THE MANAGER
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Schools of Human Relations and Behavioral Sciences
Classical School in Management
The evolution of scientific management ideas
1. Evolution of scientific management ideas
Management in one form or another has always existed where people worked in groups. Mainly in three areas of human society:
1) political (the need to establish and maintain order in groups);
2) economic (the need for the production and distribution of resources);
3) defensive (protection from enemies and wild animals).
In the periodization of management, one can single out 4 stages:
1) ancient (initial)(from 9-7 thousand BC to the 18th century) - the emergence of managerial thought (Hammurabi, Socrates, Plato, etc.). rudimentary, most simple shapes streamlining and organizing joint labor existed at the stage of the primitive communal system. Management was carried out jointly, by all members of the clan, tribe or community. Elders and leaders of clans and tribes personified the guiding principle of all types of activity.
Key provisions of this stage:
Form classification government controlled and an attempt to delineate the functions of its organs;
Accumulation of experience in managing the state economy;
Characterization of management as a special field of activity.
2) industrial (1776-1885)
Key provisions:
The division of labor and a description of the economic benefits resulting from this organization and society;
Ideas and practical skills for the humanization of production management;
Recognition of the need for training, improvement of working conditions and living conditions of employees;
Development of the "analytical engine" project - a prototype of modern digital computing technology.
3) period of systematization (1885-1950)
This stage includes the creation of several management schools that laid the foundation for its development:
BUT) school of scientific management(F. Taylor, the Gilbreths' spouses - Frank and Lilean, G. Ford, etc.).
Key provisions:
Using scientific analysis to determine the best ways to solve problems;
Selection of employees most suitable for solving problems, and their training;
Awareness of the need to stimulate employees in order to create interest in high labor results.
B) administrative (classical) school(A. Fayol, M. Weber and others)
Key provisions:
Recognition of management as a universal process, consisting of several interrelated functions;
Separation of administration into a separate function;
Development of universal management principles for effective organization management.
AT) school of human relations(E. Mayo, M.P. Follet and others).
Key provisions:
The team represents a special social group;
Interpersonal relationships act as a factor in the growth of the efficiency and potential of each employee;
Informal relations in production are a significant organizational force;
Employees need to be given more opportunities to communicate at work.
G) behavioral school(using the science of human behavior) (A. Maslow, D. McGregor).
Main conclusions:
The need to create a psychological climate that promotes the disclosure of the abilities of employees of the organization;
The correct application of the science of behavior, which contributes to improving the efficiency of both the individual employee and the organization as a whole.
4) information stage (from 1950 to the present).
This stage is characterized by the creation of the following management approaches:
BUT) quantitative approach(use of economic and mathematical methods, computer technology in management, development and application of models for decision-making in difficult situations and etc.)
B) systems approach considers the organization as a set of interrelated elements focused on achieving various goals in a changing environment.
AT) process approach considers management as a continuous series of interrelated managerial functions (planning, organizing, coordinating, motivating and controlling), united by connecting communication and decision-making processes. The control process is the total sum of all functions.
G) situational approach links specific concepts and techniques to specific situations.
2. Classical school in management
The classical school of management had two directions:
- school of scientific management, the founder of which is F. Taylor,
- school of administration headed by Henri Fayol.
Scientific management dealt with the problem of increasing the productivity of individual workers. Administrative management focused on managing the entire organization as a whole.
The main provisions of the Taylor concept:
1. The division of production operations into constituent elements, the study of each of them. Development of standard methods for performing each operation and replacing them with old, established methods of work.
2. Selection of workers for each operation, taking into account the necessary abilities; teaching them new ways of working for best performance operations.
3. Establishment of differentiated wages depending on the implementation of established norms.
4. Cooperation between management and workers in the implementation new organization labor.
5. Equal distribution of labor and responsibility between the administration and workers.
F. Taylor advocated the separation of managerial functions of thinking and planning from the actual performance of work. He believed that the manager should think and the worker should work. The main task management of the enterprise, he considered the provision of maximum profit for the entrepreneur in conjunction with the maximum welfare for each employed worker. F. Taylor emphasized that the true interests of both are not opposite, but coincide. The well-being of one in the long run cannot be without the well-being of the other.
Weak sides his theories:
1) F. Taylor saw in an employee only a performer of simple operations and functions, a means to an end;
2) he did not take into account the social context of the work and the higher needs of workers, other than material ones;
3) did not recognize disagreements, contradictions, conflicts between people;
4) was inclined to treat the workers as uneducated people, ignored their ideas and suggestions.
So, F. Taylor dealt mainly with the issues of production management in the shop, the rationalization of the labor of an individual worker. Alexander Bogdanov, Alexei Gastev, Osip Yermansy, Platon Kerzhentsev and others made a great contribution to the development of the issues of organization of labor and production in relation to Russia.
But from the 1920s, the development of more general principles of organization, approaches to enterprise management as a whole began. A. Fayol is considered the founder of this direction in the classical school. His main work is General and Industrial Administration (1916). In it, A. Fayol develops general principles of administration. According to him, administration is component management, which covers the broader activities of the enterprise and includes the following functions: production, commercial, financial, insurance, accounting and administrative. Analyzing the administrative function, A. Fayol identifies 5 of its elements: foresight, organization, command, coordination and control.
A. Fayol developed the principles of management, which he considered universal, applicable to any administrative activity. However, in practice, the application of these principles should be flexible, depending on the situation in which management is carried out. These principles are:
1) division of labor;
2) power (the right to give orders and the force that compels them to obey);
3) discipline (following certain rules, principles in the organization);
4) unity of management (unity of command);
5) unity of leadership (one boss - one program);
6) subordination of private interests to the general;
7) remuneration of personnel (it should stimulate work with the highest return);
8) centralization;
9) hierarchy (building a chain of commands from the leader to the subordinate);
10) order (everyone should know their place in the organization);
11) justice (equality);
12) the constancy of the staff;
13) initiative (the ability to create and implement a plan. The initiative of all, attached to the initiative of the authorities, is a great strength for the enterprise);
14) unity of personnel (harmony and corporate spirit).
The further development of the classical school took place in two directions: the rationalization of production and the study of general problems of management. Here you can highlight the work of Harrington Emerson, Lindell Urvik, Max Weber.
3. Schools of Human Relations and Behavioral Sciences
The School of Human Relations, which is also called the neoclassical school, was founded by G. Munsterberg, M. Folett and E. Mayo. The formation of this school was due to the fact that the principles of Taylorism could not satisfy the needs of developing capitalism: they did not take into account the personality of a person.
Supporters of the psychological approach believed that the main focus in management should be shifted to the person and human relationships. They proceeded from the indisputable fact that human activity is controlled not by economic forces, but by various needs, and money is by no means always able to satisfy these needs.
Representatives of the school of human relations explored management processes using methods developed in sociology and psychology. In particular, they were the first to apply tests and special forms job interviews.
Representatives of the school of human relations argued that effective management can only be if the leaders are sufficiently aware of the personal characteristics of their subordinates, their strengths and weak spots. Only in this case, the leader can fully and effectively use their capabilities.
The merits of the supporters of the school of human relations are very great. Before them, psychology had practically no data on how the human psyche is connected with his work activity. It was within the framework of this school that studies were carried out that significantly enriched our understanding of mental activity.
The traditions of the school of human relations were continued within the framework of the school of behavioral sciences (R. Likert, D. McGregor, K. Argyris, F. Herzberg), whose ideas later formed the basis of such a section of management as personnel management.
At the heart of this concept were the ideas of behaviorism - psychological direction who considered human behavior as a reaction to stimuli from the outside world. Proponents of this approach believed that production efficiency can only be achieved by influencing each specific person through various incentives.
At the heart of the views of the representatives of this school lay the judgment that prerequisite the effectiveness of the work of an individual worker is his awareness of his own capabilities. A number of methods have been developed to help achieve this goal. For example, in order to increase the efficiency of work, it was proposed to change its content or involve an employee in the management of the enterprise. Scientists believed that with the help of such methods it is possible to achieve the disclosure of the capabilities of the employee.
However, the ideas of the school of behavioral sciences proved to be limited. This does not mean that the developed methods are completely unsuitable. The fact is that they act only in some cases: for example, involving an employee in the management of an enterprise does not always affect the quality of his work, since everything depends primarily on the psychological characteristics of a person.
4. Quantitative, process, system and situational approaches to management
In the 1950s there was quantitative approach to management , or operations research.
He continued the direction of F. Taylor, but based on new achievements in mathematics, statistics, and computer technology. This direction developed decision-making models in the most difficult situations, where direct cause-and-effect relationship cannot be limited. Quantitative values of the studied variables were substituted into the finished model and calculated best option problem solving.
Process approach was first proposed by adherents of the school of administrative management, who tried to describe the functions of a manager. However, these functions were considered as independent of each other. The process approach, in contrast, considers management functions as interrelated.
Management is seen as a process because working to achieve goals with the help of others is not some one-time action, but a series of continuous interrelated actions - managerial functions. Each managerial function is also a process, because it also consists of a series of interrelated actions.
Systems approach considers the organization as an open system consisting of several interconnected subsystems. System is a set of interdependent elements, each of which makes a certain contribution to the characteristics of the whole. Open systems (as opposed to closed ones) interact with the external environment. The organization receives resources from the external environment, processes them and issues goods and services to the external environment. Systems theory helps managers understand the interdependence between separate parts organization and between the organization and the environment.
In the late 1960s, development began situational approach to management. It became a logical continuation of systems theory. The situational approach does not reject the above theories. It uses the possibilities of direct application of science to specific situations and conditions. The central point of this approach is the situation. A situation is understood as a specific set of internal and external circumstances (factors) that affect the organization at a given time. It is the situation that determines the functions of management, the choice of methods, styles, structures, principles of management to achieve the goals of the organization in the most effective way. In terms of the situation better way control does not exist. The situational approach attempts to determine which variables are significant and how they affect the performance of the organization.
That is, the situational approach attempts to link specific techniques and concepts (in particular, the systems approach) to specific situations in order to achieve the goals of the organization most effectively. He identified the main internal and external variables that affect the organization. Internal: goals, structure, tasks, technology, people. External: suppliers, customers, competitors, trade unions, politics, economics, culture, etc.
5. "New management philosophy"
In a complex combination of different approaches and schools of management, a “new philosophy of management” took shape, it is also called the policy of post-Fordism, which characterizes the current stage in the development of management science. The New Management Philosophy has three components.
1. The concept of group cooperation which involves improving labor interaction, focusing on work in teams, project and target groups, creating a favorable climate in the team, and cooperation with the administration.
2. The concept of labor humanization associated with the adaptation of technology to the worker, the improvement of working conditions, the enrichment of the labor process, and the strengthening of creative elements in its content.
3. Democratization of governance, which consists in the transition from rigid hierarchical structures to flat ones, flexible structures; in delegating down part of managerial powers, expanding the independence and responsibility of performers in solving problems that arise in the workplace.
The democratization of management by the use of more flexible systems wages and the participation of employees in the profits and property of the organization. These three components are necessary due to the fact that the organization operates in an uncertain environment and must develop the ability to adapt to changes in the environment. It must produce a variety of goods in small batches using multi-purpose equipment and skilled labor, whereas Fordism is characterized by mass production standardized goods based on the use of special (designed for one task and tied to one product) equipment and semi-skilled labor.
Topic 3. Organization and its living environment
Basic approaches to management
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article subject: | Basic approaches to management |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Management |
In the second half of the XX century. in connection with the acceleration of the pace of scientific, technical and socio-economic development, the strengthening of elements of uncertainty and unpredictability of the external environment, the intensification of competition, most of the leading companies in the developed countries of the world were forced to restructure management in order to increase the level of organizational activity. New independent approaches to management have appeared, to a certain extent complementary to each other: quantitative, process, systemic and situational. Each of these approaches gave a new vision of management problems and ways to solve them.
For example, from the 50s to the 70s. 20th century dominated quantitative approach. The starting point for the application of mathematical methods in management was education in 1930 ᴦ. in Cleveland (USA) the association ʼʼInternational Society for the Development of Economic Theory in Connection with Statistics and Mathematicsʼʼ, which included well-known economists I. Fisher, I. Schumpeter, R. Frisch and others.
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The Association published the journal ʼʼEconometricsʼʼ. The developers were tasked with studying the processes of making managerial decisions based on mathematical methods and with the help of electronic computers. Management problems gradually began to be investigated in specialized areas: operations research, econometrics, decision theory, and others. At its core, operations research is the application of scientific research methods to the operational problems of an organization. After the problem is formulated, the operations research team develops a model of the situation. Typically, a model simplifies reality or represents it in the abstract. A model is a representation of an object (system or idea) in some form other than the integrity itself. The main idea of modeling is the creation of a model similar to the object itself and preserving its properties. In management, modeling is extremely important due to the complexity of problems, the difficulty, and sometimes even the impossibility of conducting experiments in real life, and also as a way to see the future.
A key characteristic of the quantitative approach is the replacement of verbal reasoning and descriptive analysis with models, symbols, and quantitative values. The biggest impetus to the use of quantitative methods in management was the advent of computers. The computer has allowed operations researchers to construct mathematical models of increasing complexity that come closest to reality and are therefore more accurate.
Speaking about the importance of the quantitative approach, two points should be noted:
1) the approach deepened the understanding of complex management problems through the development and application of models;
2) the approach made it easier for managers to make decisions in difficult situations.
However, the influence of management science or the quantitative approach has been much less than that of the behavioral approach, in part because many more managers deal daily with problems of human relations, human behavior, than with the problems that are the subject of operations research. However, until the 60s. 20th century very few managers were educated enough to understand and apply complex quantitative methods.
It was the ʼʼquantitative schoolʼʼ in world management thought that stimulated the involvement of the provisions of systems theory, cybernetics - areas of science that synthesize, integrate complex phenomena in management, which contributed to overcoming the conflict between the rationalism of the supporters of the ʼʼscience of managementʼʼ and the romanticism of enthusiasts of establishing harmony in human relations.
Concept process approach, which developed in the same period (50–70s of the XX century), considers management as a process. Work to achieve goals - ϶ᴛᴏ is not a one-time action, but a series of continuous and interrelated actions - management functions. Each management function also consists of a series of interrelated procedures, operations, actions. The management process is the total sum of all these stages of the management cycle.
In modern theory, there is no unity regarding the list of management functions. As you know, A. Fayol, who originally developed this concept, had five functions. Other authors have developed other feature lists. In fact, almost every management publication contains a list of management functions that will be at least slightly different from other similar lists. In modern management literature, the following functions are most often distinguished: planning, organization, leadership, coordination, control, motivation, decision making.
Systems approach(60 - 90th gᴦ.XX century) - the direction of methodology scientific knowledge and social practice, which is based on the study of objects as systems. A. A. Bogdanov made a great contribution to the development of the systems approach, as we have already said. L. von Bertalanffy, K. Bolding, S. Wier, N. Winer and others also dealt with the principles of the general study of systems.
The systems approach was one of the most significant trends in the development of management in the second half of the 20th century. It served as a general methodological basis for the basic national schools management. The role and importance of a systematic approach in various fields of knowledge, incl. and in management, it is difficult to overestimate. Managers always deal with objects that are a set of various interrelated elements that are considered not in isolation, but in connection with many objects and phenomena.
The literal meaning of the term ʼʼsystemʼʼ is ʼʼa whole made up of partsʼʼ, a complex of elements that are in interactionʼʼ. This term is used to describe a wide variety of phenomena and is interpreted as the correctness in the arrangement of parts (elements), a specific order, form of device, organization of activities. Most characteristic features systems are:
‣‣‣ the complexity of the object and its integrity;
‣‣‣ ability to divide into subsystems;
‣‣‣ be an element of a higher order system;
‣‣‣ form a special unity with the environment.
The most important integrative feature of the system is the effect of integrity or, according to the definition of W. Ashby, ʼʼemergenceʼʼ, that is, the appearance in a given set of objects of such properties that each of them individually does not have. In relation to management activities, a system is understood as an organized set of structural elements that are interconnected and perform certain functions. The whole (system) is not only not determined by the properties of its elements and is not reduced to them, but, on the contrary, the elements themselves are determined by the whole and only within the framework of this whole receive their functional explanation, that is, the "right to exist".
The systematic approach, first applied in the United States to achieve military goals (the creation of an atomic bomb), has received wide recognition and distribution in various fields of activity, incl. in management. The system approach is used in solving problems involving the study or creation of system objects of high complexity, as well as managing them. In each specific case, it should be implemented in the form of a certain system method, that is, a set of rules, procedures, instructions, standards and methods for studying these specific objects, taking into account their quantitative originality.
A systematic approach contributes to the adequate formulation of problems in management and the development of an effective strategy for their study. The most important principles of a systematic approach:
‣‣‣ The decision-making process should begin with the identification and clear formulation of specific goals;
‣‣‣ It is extremely important to consider the whole problem as a whole, as a single system and to identify all the consequences and interconnections of each particular decision;
‣‣‣ it is necessary to identify and analyze possible alternative ways to achieve the goal;
‣‣‣ the goals of individual subsystems should not conflict with the goals of the entire system;
‣‣‣ ascent from the abstract to the concrete;
‣‣‣ unity of analysis and synthesis, logical and historical;
‣‣‣ identification of heteroqualitative links and their interaction in an object.
A systematic approach in relation to management makes it possible to:
‣‣‣ taking into account the totality of economic and socio-political conditions, clearly formulate goals and learn their hierarchy before starting any activity related to management;
‣‣‣ establish specific, interrelated tasks for each level and link of management, based on its planned contribution to the achievement of a common goal, with the coordination of deadlines, required and available resources on a single information, methodological and procedural basis;
‣‣‣ prepare and comprehensively evaluate alternatives management decisions to obtain maximum effect in the sense of achieving the set goals with minimal cost;
‣‣‣ carry out the allocation and distribution of material and financial resources;
‣‣‣ evaluate the management potential of the system and find out the possibilities of delegation of authority by levels of the management hierarchy.
The application of a systematic approach to management ensures not only the timely formulation of the goal, the availability of clear ideas about the scope of the tasks to be solved and the nature of the work to be done, but also the establishment of a hierarchical order of subordination and responsibility within the subsystem, the definition of duties and decision-making rights.
The systems approach was methodological basis for the emergence modern system management - strategic management.
In the 70s. XX, another approach entered the theoretical and practical management - situational. The first attempt in the field of the situational approach was the findings of T. Burns and G.M. Stalker, which were based on a study they conducted at 20 enterprises that produce and sell a variety of products. The authors considered the work of these enterprises in stable and changing conditions and came to the conclusion that for different conditions different organizational structure of management is acceptable. It is important to note that for stable conditions - a mechanistic structure, for changing conditions - an organic structure.
The situational approach is more of a way of thinking than a set of specific actions. The case study method was developed at Harvard Business School. It offers future managers to quickly solve problems in a particular situation, and is aimed at developing a person's situational thinking and direct application of the theoretical knowledge gained to practice. The essence of the situational approach is the understanding and ability to act in a particular situation. The situation is a generalized characteristic of the state and interaction of the environment and the subject of control in a specific historical time interval. Each situation requires appropriate methods, forms and technologies of management. In management, one cannot look for a universal technology for getting out of any situation. It is always specific, unique, although it contains some general techniques, forms and procedures.
One of the lessons of modern management is the idea that all principles and recommendations in management have only relative importance. Situational factors are becoming increasingly important, and management theory itself is relative. the path - ϶ᴛᴏ not the search for a mystical optimal way to achieve the goal, but flexibility, the ability to analyze and adapt to changing circumstances.
The meaning of the situational approach can be reduced to two positions:
1. Uncertainty of management conditions is the most important determinant, predetermining the choice of methods and forms of management;
2. It is necessary to correlate the "contextual" variables of circumstances (a clearly defined set) with the main internal characteristics of the organizational system (principles, structure, processes, behavior, leadership, leadership style, etc.).
The main constructive position of the situational approach is the design (formation) of such an environment in which people working together in organizations can achieve their goals.
The situational approach orients the subject of management:
‣‣‣ to search for the driving force of the situation;
‣‣‣ to identify the relationship of a given situation with previous circumstances (historical method) and forecast the development of the situation in the future. Otherwise surface solution- another ʼʼinvention of the bicycleʼʼ;
‣‣‣ on the ratio of the managerial situational task to the tasks of the global level. Otherwise - ʼʼsituational captivityʼʼ, ʼʼturnoverʼʼ;
‣‣‣ on the justification and use of optimal methods, forms, technologies, solutions to management problems in a given situation. Otherwise, an aggravation of the situation;
‣‣‣ on the formation of an adaptive management style: new tactics in new circumstances. Otherwise - lag, stagnation, regression, collapse.
For the manager, the mechanism for implementing the situational approach is extremely important. In this regard, the question arises: is a standard procedure for making managerial decisions possible in various circumstances? Most likely, no. At the same time, a certain algorithm (set of rules) that allows solving a specific problem from a class of tasks of the same type is possible.
The main approaches to management - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Basic approaches to management" 2017, 2018.