Basic scientific approaches to organization management. Scientific approach

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INTRODUCTION TO THE DISCIPLINE. OLD RUSSIAN STATE

(IX-XII centuries)

Lecture 1. Introduction to historical science. History as a science.

Plan:

2. Scientific approaches and principles of studying history.

3. Sources and functions of historical science. Auxiliary historical disciplines.

4. Periodization of the history of human society. Periodization of national history.

1. History as a science: formation, subject, methods of study.

The past does not disappear, but continues live in the accumulated experience of social life. Generalization and processing of accumulated experience is the first task of history.

Historia est magistra vitae ("History is the teacher of life") - said the ancients. On historical examples, people are brought up in respect for eternal, enduring values: peace, goodness, justice, freedom.

What is the science of history? What does she teach? To answer these questions, let's look at what is happening to us and around us. We see that we ourselves are changing in many ways over the years, and around us much is changing in the world. Such changes occur not only with individuals, but also with entire cities, states and peoples. History tells about these changes.

History is the science of how the human race lived in the most distant times, how it developed and finally reached what it is now.

An outstanding Russian historian, Professor V.O. Klyuchevsky noted that history has not taught anyone anything, life, however, takes even more revenge on those who do not know history at all: “It is not the flowers that are to blame for the blind man not seeing them. History teaches even those who do not learn from it: it teaches them a lesson for ignorance and neglect.

History is one of the most important forms of people's self-consciousness. Being the social memory of mankind, the treasury of its social experience, history passes it on from one generation to another. And the comprehension of this experience makes it the property of the present. Historical science tries to give a holistic vision of the historical process in the unity of all its characteristics.

A comprehensive scientific study of the material and spiritual culture of the past makes us richer and smarter, more generous and insightful in thoughts and deeds, in plans and accomplishments. All this testifies in favor of the fact that knowledge of history makes it possible to understand the present more clearly.

The word history is of Greek origin - "ἱστορία", "historia", translated into Russian means "a story about events". The first historian is considered the ancient Greek researcher Herodotus (484-426 BC), who in his work "History" for the first time traced the causal relationships of contemporary events and events of the past, that is, he tried to scientifically substantiate historical experience.

Historical science provides a true account of the course of history through stories about events and their impartial analysis.

Researchers have always been interested in the question of whether the history of mankind is a “linear progressive movement”, unidirectional for all peoples, or a multivariate development process. Until the 19th century, history was perceived as the result of a linear development according to a plan determined by the Creator.

A revolution in historical science has taken place in the second half of the 19th century, thanks to German thinkers G. Hegel (1770-1831), K. Marx (1818-1883), F. Engels (1820-1895), American scientist L. Morgan (1818-1881), French and English sociologists O. Comte 1798- 1857) and G. Spencer (1820-1903), Russian researchers S. M. Solovyov (1820-1879) and N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) and others. Their works revealed the patterns of historical progress, contained the idea of ​​universality history, the scope of the subject of historical science expanded.

A great contribution to the scientific understanding of Russian history was made by researchers of the 18th-19th centuries. So, V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750) wrote the first historiographical work on the history of Russia, Russian History from the Most Ancient Times. M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) proved the existence of internal prerequisites for the creation of Russian statehood and refuted the Norman theory of the German scientists G.Z. Bayer and G.F. Miller about the inability of the Eastern Slavs to create a state on their own.

In the "History of the Russian State" N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) emphasized the need for wise autocratic rule for Russia. CM. Solovyov (1820-1879) created the "History of Russia from ancient times", in which he indicated the sequence of the transition of our country from tribal relations to the family and further to statehood under the influence of three factors - the nature of the country, the nature of the tribe and the course of external events.

Student S.M. Solovieva V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911), who created the first scientific periodization of Russian history, developed the ideas of his teacher in the Course of Russian History. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, "human nature, human society and the nature of the country - these are the three main forces that build human community", so it is necessary to identify the totality of facts and factors characteristic of each period of the development of the state.

The subject of the study of history is the laws of the political and socio-economic development of the state and society, that is, socio-political processes and movements, the activities of various parties and organizations, the development of political systems and government structures.

The subject of the study of history is also the process of forming the prerequisites for the emergence and socio-political development of society and the state as part of the world process of human history.

Thus, history explores specific forms of manifestation of historical patterns, expressed in historical events and phenomena.

History Study Methods.

1. Historical (chronological) method reproduces phenomena in their chronological development, with all their inherent features, details, features, through which general patterns are manifested. The historical method relies on primary sources and other evidence found during the study.

2. Benchmarking method consists in a comparative study of the state-historical phenomena of Russia and other countries. At the same time, their common features, differences and features of development are revealed. Individual state-legal institutions of the country in the process of their evolution can also be compared.

3. extrapolation method. Extrapolation involves the dissemination of conclusions obtained during the study of one part of the phenomenon (process) to another part of it. Extrapolation contributes to forecasting, especially when the object of study is a historical process. The conclusions obtained as a result of the study of the completed stage of development help to understand its present and to foresee the boundaries of the future.

4. retrospective method. Allows you to consider historical events from the point of view of the past.

5. System-structural method effective in the study of self-governing systems consisting of many interacting elements. Their analysis involves the study of the structure of elements, their internal and external relations, the identification of backbone elements.

6. Statistical method used in the study of the quantitative aspects of the historical process. Working with numerical indicators allows you to identify the extent, prevalence, pace of development and other aspects of the process.

7. Inference by analogy is a conclusion about the similarity of two or more phenomena in some specific respects, made on the basis of their similarity in other respects. Analogy is used in cases of studying phenomena, information about which is inaccurate, incomplete or fragmentary.

Scientific approaches to the study of history:

1. Formational approach:

The formational approach is an approach based on the idea of ​​the universality and one-dimensionality of history.

The founder of this approach in the 19th century the Marxist school appeared, which attached the main importance in the evolutionary process to the development of productive material forces. According to this concept, the world-historical process is a successive change of socio-economic formations, that is, modes of production and their corresponding social-class forms of human interaction. The productive forces develop as long as their needs are met by the relations of production existing in society. When this condition is violated, the development of the productive forces is retarded, which causes a transition in production relations, and one social epoch is replaced by another. It turns out that the productive forces - the labor force and the means of production - are the foundation of social dynamics, and the forms of ownership determine the contradictions between the exploiters and the exploited.

The authors of the formational approach K. Marx and F. Engels designated five main formations: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist. The latter is classless and is unlikely to become a reality in which everyone will work "according to their abilities" and receive - "according to their needs."

In addition, critics of the formational approach point out that many countries did not consistently go through all the stages of development - the primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal and capitalist formations. In some countries, the stages were superimposed on one another.

2. Civilization approach:

The civilizational approach is an approach according to which the history of mankind is a set of various civilizations acting as independent subjects of history.

A number of scientists believe that civilization should be understood as a high level of development of the material and spiritual culture of society. However, there is also an opposite opinion on this matter. O. Spengler considers civilization as the final moment of the development of society, its "sunset". The methodology of the civilizational approach has its weaknesses and does not provide an answer to the questions that inevitably arise when studying the history of mankind about the direction and meaning of historical development.

3. Stage-technological approach:

As the view of history as a change in the cycles of historical development strengthens, new ideas about what should be understood by civilization appear. The idea of ​​cultural-historical types of civilization as historically established communities that occupy a certain territory and have their own characteristics of cultural and social development is gaining ground. This idea was first put forward AND I. Danilevsky in the book "Russia and Europe". He concluded that in the history of mankind there is no unilinear, unidirectional ascending evolutionary process. All peoples are unique, but some form cultural and historical types, while others remain just "ethnographic material for history." One of these civilizations is, in his opinion, the Slavic (Russian) civilization. Historical development as a whole is determined by laws. Theory of I.Ya. Danilevsky was an important contribution to the development of ideas about the course of world evolutionary processes, anticipating the concepts of O. Spengler and A. Toynbee.

The concept of the English historian has become widespread in the West and in Russia. A. Toynbee set out in his "Study of History". According to this concept, the history of mankind is the history of successive local closed civilizations, causally unrelated to themselves. He identifies 21 local civilizations in the history of mankind, including five "living civilizations" or societies: Western, Orthodox-Christian, or Byzantine, where he includes Russia, Islamic, Hindu, Far Eastern.

Basic principles of scientific research:

1. Objectivity. This principle considers historical reality as a whole, regardless of the desires, aspirations, attitudes and predilections of the subject. It is necessary to study the objective patterns that determine the processes of socio-political development, rely on the facts in their true content.

2. Historicism. Any historical phenomenon must be studied from the point of view of where, when, for what reasons this phenomenon arose, how it was at the beginning and how it then developed in connection with a change in the general situation and internal content. How the role of this phenomenon has changed, what assessments were given to it at one stage or another, what it has become now, what can be said about the prospects for its development. The principle of historicism requires that anyone who studies history should not fall into the role of a judge in assessing certain events.

3. Social approach. This principle implies the manifestation of certain social and class interests, the entire sum of social and class relations: in the political struggle, in the economic field, in the contradictions of social and class psychology and traditions. The social approach provides for the simultaneous observance of subjectivity and historicism, it is especially necessary for studying and evaluating the programs and real activities of political parties and movements, their leaders.

4. Comprehensiveness. The principle implies the need for completeness and reliability of information, taking into account all aspects and all relationships that affect the political sphere of society.

Scientific approaches to management

and their characteristics

Introduction

Management - from English, means management. Management (management process) is the organization of influences aimed at achieving goals. Management is the sphere of human activity and the corresponding field of knowledge, which includes, as a mandatory element, the management of people, social organizations or structures.

There are several definitions of management by various authors: 1) the definition of Parker-Rollet from the school of human relations - "ensuring the performance of work with the help of other persons"; 2) the definition of Mescon, Albert and Hedouri - management - "the process of planning, organizing, motivating, controlling, necessary for the formation and achievement of the organization's goals"; 3) Winan - "the theory and practice of managing a firm and its personnel in market conditions." 4) "a set of principles, methods, means and forms of production management in order to increase its efficiency" - from the dictionary of foreign words in 1988; 5) "the sphere of human activity and the field of knowledge, including as an obligatory element the management of people" - from the American Encyclopedia; 6) "setting and their effective achievement with the help of people" - connects the 3 main factors of management - goals, efficiency, people.

In this paper, the characteristics of the main approaches to the study of control theory will be considered.

I. The concept of management. Approaches to the theory of control.

Management - from English, means management. Management (management process) is the organization of influences aimed at achieving goals. Management is the sphere of human activity and the corresponding field of knowledge, which includes, as a mandatory element, the management of people, social organizations or structures. As a science M. Appeared 100 years ago. The main directions (schools) of management. During this period: 1) the school of scientific management (1885-1920) by Taylor, Gilbert and others - the rationality of labor plus the mat. interest leads to increased efficiency; 2) administrative (classical) school of Fayol, Weber and others (1920-50) - the universal principle of management; 3) school of human relations (1930-50) Maslow and others - interpersonal relations between people; 4) the behavioral school of Argyris, Likert - the maximum use of human potential based on psychology and sociology; 5) quantitative school of Wiener, Ackoff - computer mathematical modeling of situations.

The finances of enterprises, being part of the general system of financial relations, reflect the process of formation, distribution and use of income at enterprises of various sectors of the national economy and are closely related to entrepreneurship, since an enterprise is a form of entrepreneurial activity.

1.1.1. School of Scientific Management (Quantitative Approach)

The concept of scientific management was a major watershed in which management became widely recognized as a field of scientific research in its own right.

The early period of development of the theory of organizations is characterized primarily by the weakness of the organization's management system, the uncertainty of management functions. This is mainly due to the fact that the owner and manager were combined in one person, which resulted in a small number of managers and a lack of specialization in the implementation of managerial tasks.

As a result of the separation of the owner of the enterprise from the process of production management, which occurred after the collapse of the factory system of labor organization and the emergence of large-scale machine production, a specialized management apparatus appeared, whose tasks included monitoring the activities of ordinary members of the organization and taking measures to improve the efficiency of their work.

One of the first theoretical schools that considered the problems of organization theory was the so-called classical school of scientific management. The basis of the organizational theories of this school is the idea of ​​rationalization of all components of the organization, in other words, the orientation of all structural units of the organization towards its goals, general expediency. Achieving the universal expediency of rationality is primarily a rigid hierarchy of management of all organs and positions of the organization, which contributes to the implementation of the most rigorously comprehensive formal control. It is obvious that the creation of a system of such control is possible only under the condition of a clear distribution of functions (rights and duties) between the members of the organization, and therefore requires the development of interrelated role requirements, cutting off unnecessary actions, simplification and maximum rationalization of existing technologies.

The founder of the classical theory of scientific management is considered an American engineer and scientist UGH. Taylor, whose name is given to the direction in the theory of organizations - taylorism. The slogans of this direction were: coordination, integration and control. The followers of Taylorism paid special attention to the problem of workers, the solution of which was to make production operations as easy as possible, to streamline the remuneration system through the introduction of piecework wages and to ensure labor safety. The main principles of Taylorism are:

- application of a scientific approach to each element of the activity of any member of the organization, the search for the most rational, optimal ways to perform production operations;

– scientifically substantiated selection and training of employees;

- interaction between managers and workers, which manifests itself primarily in reasonable remuneration for work based on a piecework wage system.

Taylor admits that his approach does not contain any new fundamental scientific provisions, and believes that the theory of scientific management "collects all the traditional knowledge accumulated by previous generations of managers and reduces it in the form of rules, laws, formulas." Taylor's approach to improving the management of an organization prioritizes engineering solutions. Within the framework of this theory, all deviations from "rationality" are considered as undesirable consequences, errors, inaccuracies that can be eliminated on the basis of calculations and purely engineering solutions.

The idea of ​​rationalizing labor processes in organizations was further developed by F. Taylor's followers of the classics of organization theory F. and L. Gilbreth, whose main merit can be considered the use of scientific methods to find the best way to do the job. In line with the ideas of rationality and the engineering approach, he considered the problems of increasing the efficiency of organizations and the American engineer G.Gant, who developed methods for rational planning of the organization's activities, ensuring the compatibility of actions of various departments of the organization to achieve a common goal.

A great contribution to the development of the classical school of scientific management was made by the French researcher of organizations A. Fayol. In his works, the main attention was paid to the study of the management structures of the organization. Fayol proposed the concept of the organizational structure of management, defined its main types depending on the goals, configuration and degree of centralization. According to Fayol, the activity of any social structure is based on the principle of hierarchy, which not only consolidates relations in the organization, but also ensures their utmost transparency. This means that rights and responsibilities should be distributed from top to bottom - from the highest manager to the lowest, and then to the executor. The clarity of the action of vertical links was achieved by implementing the following principles:

- unity of command (unity of command);

- an exception (only important and non-repeating decisions should remain in the competence of the head);

- rationalization of the sphere of control (a strictly defined number of subordinates from one leader);

- organizational specialization (clear division of management functions in the organization), etc.

Representatives of the classical school of scientific management organization was considered as a hierarchy of positions and divisions, each of which corresponds to strictly defined rights, duties, powers in accordance with the status of the body, position, and not the specific person who occupies this position.

The classical school of scientific management advanced the study of organizations to a great extent. Its main points are still relevant today. Thus, the concept of rational organization was reflected in the works of contemporary researchers of organizations D. March and G. Simon, who “showed that the organizational structure determines not so much the rules as the prerequisites for decision-making”, considered the main task of the organization to achieve maximum efficiency in controlling the actions of employees and making managerial decisions to optimize their actions, ensuring a minimum of time costs and maximum coordination of their efforts.

1.1.2. Administrative (classical) school

The administrative school deals with the improvement of the organization as a whole, in contrast to the scientific management school, which studied individual production operations.

In many ways, this difference was determined by the personality of the school developers. Taylor began his career as a worker.

Henri Fayol, whose name is associated with the emergence of an administrative school of management, and who is called father of management, ran a large coal mining company. The goal of the administrative (classical) school was to create universal principles of governance.

Practically all scientific directions of management were engaged in the development of general principles of management. However, the development of the principles of management of the administrative (classical) school of management has become most widespread. Formulated by Henri Fayol 14 principles of management have the following content:

1. Division of labor - specialization of work necessary for the efficient use of labor.

2. Authority and responsibility - each worker must be delegated authority sufficient to be responsible for the work performed.

3. Discipline - workers must obey the terms of the agreement between them and management, managers must apply fair sanctions to violators of the order.

4. Unity of command - the employee receives an order and reports to only one immediate superior.

5. Unity of action - all actions that have the same goal must be combined into groups and carried out according to a single plan.

6. Subordination of interests - the interests of the organization take precedence over the interests of individual employees.

7. Remuneration of personnel - the receipt by employees of a fair remuneration for their work.

8. Centralization - the natural order in an organization that has a control center. The best results are achieved with the right proportion between centralization and decentralization. Authority (power) should be delegated in proportion to responsibility.

9. Scalar chain - an inextricable chain of commands, through which all orders are transmitted and communications are carried out between all levels of the hierarchy ("chain of chiefs").

10. Order - a workplace for each employee and each employee at his workplace.

11. Fairness - established rules and agreements must be enforced fairly at all levels of the scalar chain.

12. Stability of staff - installation of employees on loyalty to the organization and long-term work, as high staff turnover reduces the efficiency of the organization.

13. Initiative - encouragement of employees to develop independent functions, within the boundaries of the powers delegated to them and the work performed.

14. Corporate spirit - the harmony of interests of the personnel and the organization ensures the unity of efforts (in unity - strength).

These principles cover two main aspects. One of them was the development of a rational system for managing the organization, in particular, determining the best way to divide the organization into departments or work groups.

The main contribution of the administrative school to management theory is that it considered management as a universal process, consisting of several interrelated functions, such as planning and organization.

The second category of classical principles concerned the structure of the organization and the management of workers. An example is the principle of unity of command, according to which a person should receive orders from only one boss and obey only him alone.

1.1.3. School of Human Relations

This scientific direction in management theory arose after it was discovered that well-designed work operations and good wages did not always lead to increased labor productivity, as representatives of the scientific management school believed. Sometimes employees reacted much more strongly to peer pressure than to management desires and material incentives. The motives of people's actions, as it was found, are not only economic factors, but also various needs that can only be partially and indirectly satisfied with the help of money.

Based on these results, it was concluded that if the management takes more care of their employees, then the level of satisfaction should increase. This in turn will lead to improved performance. This school recommends the use of human relations management techniques, including more effective actions of direct superiors, consultation with employees and providing them with greater opportunities for communication at work.

Even F. Taylor in his works wrote about the need to study the human factor in the organization. He pointed out that the organization will work effectively only when all the most important needs of employees are taken into account, when the organization is not only a mechanism for generating profit, but also a close-knit team whose members treat each other kindly.

But representatives of the school of scientific management practically did not consider the relationship between members of the organization. Moreover, they actually denied the significance of horizontal connections, considering exclusively vertical, power connections in the direction only from top to bottom - from leaders to subordinates. Inattention to the human factor had the most negative impact on the work of "rational organizations", which failed to improve performance despite the availability of resources. The problem of alienation and anomie has come to the fore again.

These circumstances prompted a number of researchers of organizations to conduct comprehensive studies of human relationships in the team. The main idea that they were guided by was the following: social organization is not a mechanism and not a biological organism, therefore it is impossible to ignore the relations between people that arise in the course of production, their communication with each other. An organization that does not attach importance to horizontal connections seems incomplete, its members are isolated, which reduces their interest in the work performed. Establishing contacts and relationships between members of the organization's team is a significant reserve for increasing the efficiency of activities and improving the organizational structure.

In 1924-1932. A group of sociologists and researchers at Harvard University, led by E. Mayo, conducted a social experiment at the Western Electronics Company. This experiment was called the Hawthorne experiment. During the experiment, it turned out that labor productivity, interest in the results of activities, labor discipline in teams largely depend on management methods (the relationship between the leader and subordinates) and the relationship between employees.

The Hawthorne experiment, with all its methodological shortcomings, admitted in the formulation of conclusions and identified later, served as the basis for the formation of a powerful scientific school that built its theory on the concept of human relations. This concept became in turn the cornerstone for one of the most influential and rapidly progressing trends in the study of organizations, known as the "psychological direction".

The concept of human relations was originally directed against the main tenets of Taylorism and the school of scientific management. In contrast to the approach to the employee from the standpoint of biologism (when such resources of the employee as physical strength, skills, intelligence are mainly exploited), the member of the organization began to be considered as a sociopsychological being.

Such theorists of the school of human relations as E. Mayo, W. Moore, F. Roethlisberger, based on experimental data, they argued that the increase in labor productivity in an organization depends not only on the abilities, knowledge and skills that Taylorism focused on, but also on factors such as employee satisfaction with their work, the influence of group opinion, informal relations between the leader and subordinates, favorable atmosphere in the team, etc. Continuous work aimed at developing the positive impact of these factors, according to the authors of the concept, could significantly increase labor productivity, integrate employees in relation to achieving the most important goals of the organization, increase the authority of the manager, etc.

As the domestic sociologist A.I. Kravchenko, the emergence of the concept of human relations in the sociology of organizations is due to technical progress in a modern enterprise. The complication of professions, a sharp increase in the requirements for the quality of complex and super-complex products brought to the fore the task of educating a worker who is highly conscious in relation to work, interested in the final result of his work, observing and consciously maintaining the norms and rules of the organization. In the concept of human relations, a person is considered not just as a functionary doing some work, but also as an individual with certain social interests.

The management policy, according to the concept of the school of human relations, provided for a set of measures to meet many of the most important needs and needs of the members of the organization: improving working conditions, conditions for relaxation (rest and recuperation), spending free time, and also greatly contributed to the democratization of relations between leaders and subordinates, forced managers to take into account the personal qualities of employees.

One of the most important merits of the creators of the concept of human relations can be called the fact that they assigned the informal organization (or informal organizational structure) an important, and sometimes decisive role in organizational activity.

F. Roethlisberger believes, in particular, that an informal organization is “actions, values, norms, beliefs and informal rules, as well as a complex network of social ties, types of membership and centers of influence and communication that have developed within and between the groups that make up the organization during formal structures, but specified by them. But at the same time, informal relations in the organization and the role of the psychological factor were given exaggerated importance to the detriment of all others. Representatives of the school of human relations denied the need for strict control, which limited the capabilities of managers and had a negative impact on the management process in the organization.

1.1.4. School of Behavioral Sciences

The focus is primarily on the methods of establishing interpersonal relationships. This approach seeks to assist the worker to a greater extent in realizing his own capabilities. The main goal of the school of behavioral sciences was to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of human resources, the full use of the potential of each employee.

From the beginning of the 50s. the school of human relations has been transformed into the school of "behavioral sciences", or "behaviorist", the main postulate of which is not methods for establishing interpersonal relationships, but increasing the efficiency of an individual employee and the organization as a whole based on behavioral spiders. The new approach sought to assist the worker to a greater extent in understanding his own capabilities through the application of the concepts of the behavioral sciences to the construction and management of the organization. In the most general terms, the main goal of this school was to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources. This approach advocated the "single best way" to solve managerial problems. His main postulate, as already mentioned above, was that the correct application of the science of behavior will always increase the efficiency of both the individual employee and the organization as a whole. However, techniques such as changing the content of the work and the participation of the employee in the management of the organization are effective only for some employees and in some situations.

The largest representatives of this direction are Likert, MacGregor, Maslow- studied various aspects of social interaction, motivation, nature of power, authority, organizational structure, communications in organizations, leadership, etc.

According to McGregor's theories "X" and "Y", there are two types of management, reflecting two types of employees or, rather, two types of attitude towards employees due to the fact that "in the jungle of management theory" he identified two well-recognized and fundamentally different models in American management: theory "X" and theory "Y". He identified the first model with the provisions of the classical school, the second - with the provisions of the school of human relations. The main differences between these models saw:

In views on the nature of a person acting as an object of control: in the first case - a passive, lazy, uncreative being; in the second - an active, interested, striving for responsibility and creative being;

In the ideas about the methods and methods of management: in the first case - a rigid division of labor, programming of activities, enhanced external control by managers and hierarchy; in the second - the saturation of the executive activity with intellectual functions, the emphasis on self-organization, self-control and stimulation of motivation, the involvement of employees in the preparation of decisions.

McGregor considered the first concept as unscientific and inconsistent with human nature, and the second as scientifically substantiated.
Likert in his concept of organization was based on the provisions of the school of human relations. He viewed the management of an organization as an interrelated and situational process in which the leader must adapt to the situation and the behavior of the people he manages. The ability to understand the specifics of the behavior of subordinates considered the most important quality of a manager.

Likert proposed four models of organization management (“X1”, “X2”, “U1”, “U2”), differing in the method of control, the degree of concentration of power, the distribution of responsibility and the distance of the leader from subordinates. Each model was considered as adequate to the specific situation in which the organization operates. He developed an original behavioral-cybernetic theory in which he identified three types of variables that affect the effectiveness of an organization:

Causal (structure, strategy, social policy, professional and qualification composition of employees);

Intermediate (characteristics of employees - their skills, attitude to work, relationships with management, practiced methods of making decisions and stimulating motivation);

Resultant, i.e. dependent (labor productivity, profit, quality of services).

Likert presented the effective management model as the impact of incentives (the first type of variables) on resources (the second type) with an effect (the third type) at the output. He pointed out that the inefficiency of an organization is often associated with an attempt by managers to act on intermediate variables instead of causal ones.
A great contribution to the development of the behavioral direction in the theory of organization and management was made by Maslow, who developed the theory of needs, known as the "pyramid of needs".

According to this theory, a person has a complex structure of hierarchically located needs, and the manager must identify these needs and use appropriate methods of motivation. Maslow divided these needs into basic (the need for food, security, positive self-esteem, etc.) and derivatives (the need for justice, well-being, order and unity of social life). In his opinion, the basic needs of a person are constant, and derivatives change. The value of derived needs is the same, so they do not have a hierarchy. Basic needs, on the contrary, are arranged according to the principle of hierarchy in ascending order from “lower” (material) to “higher” (spiritual). Basic needs are motivational variables that phylogenetically, that is, as a person grows up, and ontogenetically, that is, as they are realized as necessary conditions for the social existence of an individual, follow each other.

It should be noted that the behavioral approach to the theory of organization is associated with the concept of "organizational behavior". Although the problems of organizational behavior permeate the entire period of the existence of managerial sciences (starting with Taylor and Weber), the separation of organizational behavior into a separate area of ​​​​research occurred only in the 50-60s. of the last century in connection with the need to shift the emphasis from the system of organizational incentives to the individual or group as carriers of a certain type of behavior.

Organizational behavior is a concept widely used in modern psychological, sociological and economic concepts of organization and management. It was introduced in connection with the need to designate a variety of behavioral reactions of an individual or group to organizational influences (incentives, role and administrative requirements, prescriptions and sanctions), as well as in connection with the variability of the types of these reactions. The emergence and widespread use of the term organizational behavior, as well as the formation of the theory of organizational behavior as a special scientific direction, are associated with the realization by representatives of management sciences that:

- behavioral responses to homogeneous external influences are diverse;

- the behavior of people in the organization and outside it is different;

- behavioral reactions of one person (group, organization) are different in different periods and in different situations.

In modern organizational theory, a wide variety of types of organizational behavior are studied, as well as the mechanisms that provide them:

- according to the degree of awareness of human behavior, purposeful rational (conscious) and unconscious are distinguished;

- by goals: aimed at solving individual, group, corporate goals;

- by the type of subject-bearer: individual, group, role-playing and organizational;

- by the type of impact on the subject-carrier: reactive (reaction to appropriate sanctions from the leader, group, organization); conformal or similar (reproduction of the behavior of the leader, group); role-playing (response to the impersonal requirements of official and professional regulations);

- according to the consequences of the implementation of this type of behavior for groups (social system): constructive (focused on strengthening the unity or increasing the efficiency of the group, social system); destructive (leading to disintegration and decrease in the effectiveness of the group, organization);

- according to the form of flow: cooperative (focused on maintaining cooperation); conflict.

No less diverse are the versions of the variability of organizational behavior. The mechanisms and ways of explaining various types of organizational behavior are largely determined by the variety of approaches to organizational behavior in the psychological, sociological and other behavioral sciences. In addition, in the theory of organizational behavior, the influence of interdisciplinary methodologies (systemic, situational approaches), as well as the developments of a number of practical managers, is noticeable.

2. Process approach to management

With the process approach, management is considered as a process - a series of interrelated continuous actions. These activities are called managerial functions.

Each management function also represents a process, because it also consists of a series of interrelated actions. The control process is the total sum of all functions.

There are several views on the composition of management functions, the most recognized are the following functions - planning, organization, motivation and control. These four primary functions of management are united by the connecting processes of communication and decision making.

The planning function involves deciding what the goals of the organization should be and what needs to be done to achieve these goals. At its core, the scheduling function answers three main questions:

1. Where are we currently located? Managers must evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the organization in such important areas as: finance, production, marketing, research and development, labor and other resources. All this is done to determine the real capabilities of the organization. On the other hand, it is necessary to study the state at the moment and make a forecast of possible states of the external environment of the organization.

2. Where do we want to go? By assessing the opportunities and threats in the organization's environment, such as competition, customers, laws, economic conditions, technology, procurement, social and cultural change, management determines the organization's goals.

3. How are we going to do it? Leaders must decide, both broadly and specifically, what needs to be done to achieve their goals.

Thus, planning is one of the ways in which management ensures the unified direction of the efforts of all members of the organization towards the achievement of its common goals. (It should be noted that this definition of scheduling is given in terms of management functions. There are other more general definitions of scheduling.) Planning in an organization is not a one-time event. First, having solved the task of this stage, which corresponded to this plan, the organization moves on to the next stage and planning continues. The second reason why planning must be carried out continuously is the constant uncertainty of the future. Due to changes in the environment or errors in judgment, events may not turn out the way management foresaw when making plans. Therefore, plans must be revised to be consistent with reality.

Motivation is the process of inducing oneself or others to a certain activity aimed at achieving personal or organizational goals. 2 main types of motivation theory: content, process.

process theory analyzes how a person distributes efforts to achieve various goals and how he chooses the type of behavior (Victor Vroom's expectation theory, Porter-Lawler model).

The leader must always remember that even the best plans and the most perfect organizational structure are useless if someone is not doing the actual work of the organization. The task of the motivation function is to ensure that the members of the organization perform the work in accordance with the duties assigned to them and in accordance with the plan.

Managers have always carried out the function of motivating their employees, whether they themselves realized it or not. In ancient times, the whip and threats served for this, and for the few chosen ones - rewards. From the late 18th century into the 20th century, there was a widespread belief that people would always work harder if they had the opportunity to earn more. Thus, motivation was considered to be a simple process, reduced to the offer of appropriate monetary rewards in exchange for the efforts made. This was the basis of the approach to the motivation of the school of scientific management.

Research in the behavioral sciences has shown the insufficiency of a purely economic approach. Leaders have learned that motivation, that is, the creation of an internal drive to act, is the result of a complex set of needs that are constantly changing. It has been established that in order to motivate their employees effectively, the manager should determine what the needs really are, and provide conditions for employees to satisfy these needs through good work.

Control is the process of ensuring that an organization actually achieves its goals. In the control functions diagram, from the control block, the arrow returns the control process to planning, providing feedback. There are three aspects of managerial control.

Standard setting is the precise definition of goals to be achieved within a given time frame. It is based on the plans developed during the planning process. The second aspect is the measurement of what has actually been achieved over a certain period of time and the comparison of what has been achieved with the expected results. If both of these phases are performed correctly, then the management of the organization can formulate (describe) the problem quite accurately. This, in turn, is necessary for the successful implementation of the third phase - the stage at which actions are taken to correct deviations from the original plan. One possible action is to revise the targets to make them more realistic and appropriate to the new situation.

Linking processes. The four functions of management—planning, organization, motivation, and control—have two common characteristics. All of them require decision-making, and for all, communication, information exchange is necessary in order to obtain information for making the right decision and make this decision understandable to other members of the organization. Due to the fact that these two characteristics link all four management functions, ensuring their interdependence, communication and decision making are often referred to as connecting processes.

Management work is basically intellectual work. It resembles an attempt to put together a mosaic pattern from separate pieces. At the same time, managers have to go through numerous combinations of possible actions in order to find the right action for a given situation at a given time and in a given place. Choosing one of the alternatives is a decision. Therefore, decision making is a choice of how and what, plan, organize, motivate and control. In the most general terms, this is the main content of the leader's activity.

Having accurate information is a basic requirement for making an effective objective decision or even understanding the true extent of the problem. Communication is the only way to obtain such information. Communication is the process of exchanging information, its semantic meaning between two or more people.

Information in the process of communication is conveyed not only so that intelligent decisions can be made, but also so that they can be carried out. For example, until employees understand what reward an organization can offer them for a job well done, they may not be motivated enough to perform well for it. Communication is also important in the control function. Managers need information about what has been accomplished in order to properly assess the achievement of the organization's goals.

The main goal of the communication process is to ensure the understanding of the information that is the subject of the exchange, that is, the message. However, the very fact of information exchange does not guarantee the effectiveness of communication between people participating in the exchange. In order to better understand the process of information exchange and the conditions for its effectiveness, it is necessary to consider the main stages of the process, in which two or more people participate.

In the process of information exchange, four basic elements can be distinguished.

1. Sender - a person who generates ideas or collects information and transmits it.

2. Message - the actual information, encoded using symbols.

3. Channel - means of information transmission.

4. Recipient - the person to whom the information is intended and who interprets it.

When exchanging information, the sender and recipient go through several interrelated stages. The task of these stages is to compose a message and use a channel to transmit it in such a way that both parties understand the outgoing idea (information). This is difficult, since each stage is at the same time a point at which the meaning of information can be distorted or completely lost. There are usually four interrelated stages of communication:

1. The birth of an idea (gathering information).

Although the entire communication process may take a few seconds, various problems may occur during the passage of individual stages that reduce the effectiveness of communication.

The exchange of information begins with the formation of an idea or the selection of information. The sender decides what meaningful idea or message should be exchanged. Without the necessary elaboration (thinking) of this stage, the communication process may not take place. It must be borne in mind that the idea has not yet been transformed into words or has not acquired another such form in which it will serve the exchange of information. For example, a manager who wants to share information about performance evaluation should clearly understand that the idea is to communicate specific information to subordinates about their strengths and weaknesses and how their performance can be improved. The idea cannot be purely emotional approval or criticism of the behavior of subordinates.

When the manager is about to communicate upcoming changes to the workers, the communication process will be effective if the information conveyed contains specific instructions - what changes are needed, why these changes are needed and how these changes should be implemented.

2. Encoding and channel selection.

Before conveying an idea, the sender must encode it using symbols, using words, intonation and gestures for this. This coding turns an idea into a message. The sender must also select a channel compatible with the character type used for encoding. Some well-known channels include the transmission of speech and written materials, as well as electronic means of communication, including computer networks.

Often several means of communication are used - the order on the information board can be supplemented by verbal explanations from the leader.

3. Transfer.

In the third step, the sender uses channels to deliver the message (encoded idea) to the recipient. Here, the physical transfer of information takes place, which is often mistakenly considered communication.

After the message is transmitted by the sender, the receiver decodes it. Decoding is the translation of the sender's characters into the recipient's thoughts. If the characters chosen by the sender have exactly the same meaning for the receiver, then he will understand the sender's idea. If no reaction to the idea is required, the communication process may end there.

3. System approach to management

In accordance with the general theory of systems, a system is understood as some complex whole that has pronounced boundaries and relatively independent components interconnected so that a change in the position or state of one part inevitably leads to a change in the state of other parts.

Thus, the basis of the systematic approach is the recognition of the integrity of complex objects, its boundaries and the presence of internal and external connections. General systems theory extends these basic features to all system objects of the real world. The presence of similar properties in all system objects is called isomorphism.

Summarizing all the theoretical concepts put forward in the framework of the general systems theory, we can formulate a series fundamental principles .

1. A necessary condition for the existence of an operating system is the existence of links between individual system units, which allows these units, under certain conditions, to enter into relationships. From this position it follows that the system is a complex (in terms of internal structure) whole, which cannot be divided into completely independent elements.

2. The properties of the system as a whole differ from the properties of its individual elements, but are determined (determined) by these properties.

3. The system as a whole can influence the properties and positions of individual elements, changing them in a certain direction.

4. A significant change in the properties of a number of system elements can lead (after the accumulation of changes and the transition of the number of accumulated changes through a certain limit) to a qualitative change in the entire system. The result of such a qualitative change can either be a regression - a simplification of the internal structure, or the emergence of a higher level system, i.e. complication of the structure of system units.

5. Any system creates boundaries in relation to its own system units, thus separating itself from the external environment.

6. In relations between the system and the external environment, the principle of entropy operates (within the framework of I. Newton's second law), according to which the system seeks to equalize its state (energy, resources, etc.) with the external environment.

7. Any system is hierarchical, i.e. it has system units of different levels. At the same time, it is impossible to talk about a system of the highest level (limiting system) and a system of an extremely small level.

The principles on which the general theory of systems is built describe only the most general properties and principles for constructing systems, regardless of their nature and purpose. With a system-wide approach, there is no fundamental difference between a biological organism, technical, personal, information or organizational systems. The substantiation of the general system principles does not yet provide the researcher with a tool for the practical application of the system approach in managing a particular system.

In the course of studying organizations within the framework of a systematic approach, it turned out that a social organization as a system has a number of specific properties that distinguish it from other systems (biological, technical, etc.). But system-theoretical studies of organizations and management processes from the standpoint of general systems theory turned out to be ineffective due to the abstract nature of system-wide concepts.

Considering the organization as a whole with the involvement of a systematic approach, we can really say that it, like any system, is an order due to the systematic, correct arrangement of parts as a whole, certain interconnections of parts. However, the organization has specific properties inherent only to it. In this regard, it became necessary to develop a special theory of systems in relation to organizations. The American scientist J. Miller identified the following main elements of the system model of the organization:

- the organization is represented as "the ordering of subsystems and components in three-dimensional space at a given time";

- the organization can be considered as a complex process, the basis of which are all changes in material objects and information;

- in organizations there are subsystems that are components of the system (managerial, economic, technological, etc.);

- organizational relations arise in organizations (about goals, interpersonal, power, information, etc.);

- in organizations, systemic sub-processes (power, material and energy, etc.) take place.

Miller believes that the main differences between an organization and other systems (for example, from biological ones) are the presence of independent goals of the system and a complex management subsystem, which is presented as a multi-level and organized according to a hierarchical principle.

Miller describes the main, managerial subsystem as some kind of decisive device, which consists of individuals who are at the highest level of power and make decisions responsible for the organization.

Thus, any organization consists of subsystems, each of which can be considered as a system of a lower level. At the same time, the organization itself, having a certain number of levels of subsystems, in turn can be considered as a subsystem in a system of a higher order (for example, an enterprise, acting as an independent system, is divided into a number of workshops-subsystems and at the same time, as a subsystem, is included in a production association) . The property of an object to be both a subsystem and a complex system with elements of subsystems is defined as the property of recursiveness.

So, when studying an organization from the standpoint of a systematic approach, the following come to the fore: a) division of the organization into subsystems; b) vertical and horizontal communications of the organization.

The application of a systematic approach to the study of organizations is possible in two different ways, when the organization is considered as a closed or as an open system.

Usually, researchers consider the organization to be a closed system, although they declare the need to study the organization in close interaction with the external environment. As a rule, researchers and practitioners, considering individual structural units of the organization, dealing with the problems of management and the application of the power influence of managers and subordinates, etc., only partially take into account the influence of the external environment, without thinking about the fact that the organization is an integral part of the external environment. But in the case of an approach to the organization as a closed, self-sufficient system, the influence of the external environment is taken into account in the form of the action of individual factors that disturb and even change the internal structure of the organization.

If the organization is considered as an open system, it organically fits into the external environment and is considered its subsystem. At the same time, the boundaries of the system are a closed curve passing along the perimeter of the objects under study (along the perimeter of the organization) so that it delimits the area with a lower intensity of interactions outside this curve from the area with a high intensity inside it. Here, the environment of the organization is not passive and can be defined as a set of objects external to the organization that are associated with one or more system units of the organization so that a change in one or more properties of external objects changes the behavior of the system, which in turn leads to a change one (or more) properties of external objects.

4. Situational approach to management

The practical application of the systems approach in the theory of organization was hampered by the fact that the systems in this approach are frozen, often abstract models that are difficult to adapt to changes both within the organization and in its external environment; in addition, there were difficulties in using specific knowledge about the specifics of organizations and their development. This circumstance gave rise to the situational theory, or situational approach, to the study of organizations and management processes.

In the 1940-1950s. developed empirical school in management theory. Representatives of this school P. Drucker, A. Chandler, R. Davies special importance was attached to the dissemination of specific experience in managing firms. At the same time, existing organizational structures were adjusted on the basis of empirical research, depending on the field of activity, the geographical location of the company, market conditions, etc.

The impetus for the creation of the situational theory was the research of T. Burns and G. Stalker, conducted by them in 1960-1961. at 20 engineering, electronic and textile firms in England and Scotland. The main result of their research was the assumption that, depending on the type of environment (stable or changeable), the most effective organizational structures can be "mechanistic" or "organic".

"Mechanistic" structure most effective in a relatively stable external environment, a predictable market situation. It is a bureaucratic model with a high degree of centralization and formalization. The main distinguishing feature of such a structure can be considered the exact specialization and strict compliance of each employee with the requirements of the role he performs on the basis of strict adherence to organizational norms. By configuration, such a structure can be multi-level, linear-functional with an unchanged system of goals and a strict hierarchy. As an example of such an organization, Berne and Stalker cite textile enterprises.

"Organic" structure by its nature, it is focused on constant changes in the external environment in conditions of market uncertainty. Such a structure is characterized by: a fuzzy system of powers, extended role requirements; lack of a hierarchical system of control, power and communications; the desire to harmonize the tasks and goals of the organization at the interpersonal level; minimal focus on rigid rules, guidelines and instructions; flexibility to change organizational norms. These characteristics indicate the possibility of constant adaptation of the organization to a changing external environment.

The main merit of Burns and Stalker is not that they declared these two types of organizations, but that they put forward the idea that "mechanistic"> and "organic" structures can simultaneously coexist in one organization. For example, the production department in an organization operates in a “mechanistic” structure mode, producing fairly homogeneous products, while the sales department, focused on a changing market, has an “organic” structure, constantly changing the methods of promoting goods to the market, segment orientation, changing the price, applying new means of advertising influence on the consumer, etc.

However, Burns and Stalker did not point out the obvious difficulties of coexistence of these two forms of organizational structure. An organization that simultaneously has two different social structures with different types of corporate culture is literally divided into two parts that not only have different goals, but also require different types of control over the activities and motivation of employees, different methods of recruiting and training personnel, etc. . This can lead to conflict situations and lack of communication within the organization.

American researchers became the true founders of the situational approach to the study of organizations. P. Lawrence and J. Lorsch who developed the model of Burns and Stalker. The model they developed is based on specific characteristics that describe the situation in detail; at the same time, the external environment can be considered as homogeneous or heterogeneous, aggressive or neutral, cohesive or disunited, etc. Based on the study of the activities of 10 American organizations, Lawrence and Lorsch came to the conclusion that the characteristics of the external environment (market, production, information, scientific and other areas) determine such components of the internal structure of the organization as goals, structure, technologies and personnel. Their conclusions confirmed the results of the study of organization technologies conducted by J. Thompson and D. Woodward.

The main idea of ​​managing organizations within the framework of the situational approach is related to the identification of typical situations in the external environment and the combination of these situations into blocks based on similar strategies and actions of managers. With this approach, the main task is to recognize the situation, identify it with a typical block and foresee, on this basis, the subsequent development of events. To train managers in actions within the framework of this model, the so-called case method was used - the method of individual situations and their typing (i.e., assignment to a specific block).

An important milestone in the development of the situational approach was the application of game theory, especially the developments of J. von Neumann and O. Morgenstern, who, based on the study of the actions of players in the market, were able to mathematically calculate possible options for optimal actions for specific situations (corporate actions, actions of market entities with a constant amount resources, actions of market entities in conflict, etc.).

A new stage in the development of situational theory was the scientific and practical research of P. Lorange and M. Morton, who were mainly engaged in studying the external environment of organizations. They identified four types of organization depending on their relationship with the external environment:

1) organizations operating in conditions of constant variability of the external environment. They are characterized by horizontal differentiation of the management structure and a weak technological commonality, since each division of the organization seeks to adapt to changing conditions as much as possible, while at the same time having its own technological features;

2) organizations that produce a variety of goods according to fairly stable technologies and standards, which leads to a high technological commonality of departments. The slogan of this type of organization is: "Sustainability, reliability, immutability, adherence to traditions." The main task of such organizations can be considered the coordination of the goals of numerous departments for the production of complex products of different assortments. The necessary moments for the functioning of such a complex system are a matrix structure (i.e. a structure built on the development of projects) and a clear system of information and relations with the external environment;

3) organizations that produce fairly homogeneous products, characterized by stable technologies and easily predictable (albeit changing) market situations, as they control their niche in the market and are not afraid of expansion from competitors. For an organization of this type, the main points of survival and successful activity are the retention of prestige, the clarity and uninterrupted supply of resources from the external environment, and the reliability in working with clients and consumers. Within the organization, the most appropriate are linear-functional structures, a detailed system of norms, an established control system, and a constant replenishment of the portfolio of orders. Planning and control should be recognized as the main functions of management;

4) organizations characterized by a completely stable market and products that can be produced almost unchanged for many years. The influence of competitors on the organization is very small.

One of the theories characteristic of the situational approach is the theory of "7-S" - all the main components of the organization begin with "S" (T. Peters, R. Waterman, R. Pascal, E. Athos). The meaning of the theory is that any effectively operating organization is based on seven components: strategy (plans); organization structure; system (intraorganizational processes); staff (personnel); leadership style; personnel qualification; values. Moreover, a change in one component leads to a change in the rest. Thus, if managers harmoniously combine all seven components, then the effective operation of the enterprise is guaranteed.

Bibliography.

Armstrong M. Fundamentals of Management - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1998.

Boddy D., Peyton R. Fundamentals of Management. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.

Mescon. M. and others. Fundamentals of Management - M .: Delo, 2000.

Prytkin B. V., Prytkina L. V., Eriashvili N. D., Usman 3. A. General management course / Textbook. - M.: UNITI, 2008.

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Conclusion

The history of management cannot be considered without linking the socio-economic conditions for the development of world society. Each new stage of technical and economic development, together with the achievements of scientific management theories, offered more and more new theories.

It is customary to distinguish five main stages of such development.

industrial revolution(from the 20-30s to the 80-90s of the 19th century): technical base: steam and cotton gins, rubber vulcanization and other new industrial technologies; infrastructure for the development of industry, the national railway system, canal system, telegraph, etc.; formation of a nationwide market; emergence of enterprises and competition.

The era of mass production(10-30s of the 20th century): introduction of a conveyor system, mass production, a sharp decrease in the cost of goods; low-saturated market; competition as offering a standardized product at the lowest price; clear differentiation of industries; weak government intervention in business.

The era of mass marketing(30-50s of the 20th century): saturation of demand for goods and services; transition from standard products to differentiated; change of production orientation to the market one; strengthening the role of the external environment in the activities of the enterprise; state regulation of the economy.

post-industrial society(60-90s of the 20th century): a new quality of life: a high level of well-being of citizens, high-quality goods, the leisure industry; new conditions of production: rapidly changing technical solutions, significant capital investment in research and development, increased uncertainty in the external environment; growing restrictions from the state: dissatisfied consumers, the intrusion of foreign competitors, changing work morals; shifting social priorities and focusing on such negative phenomena as environmental pollution, consumer deception through dishonest advertising, manipulation of public opinion.

Post-economic era(since the beginning of the 21st century): new economy: from wastefulness of resources to resource saving; reasonable limitation of production growth; the growth of the service sector; transition to the information society: progress in information and telecommunication technologies; globalization of the economy: the development of transnational companies; transparency of political borders; world markets; integration through information networks; changing life priorities: self-limitation of material consumption; orientation to non-economic and non-material values; healthy ecology.

There are several scientific approaches to management:

1. Approach from the standpoint of identifying scientific schools;

2. process approach;

3. systematic approach;

4. situational approach.

School of Scientific Management (1885-1920). F. Taylor, F. and L. Gilbert, G. Emerson, G. Ford, and G. Gunnt belonged to this school. Its founder was F. Taylor, whose book "Principles of Scientific Management" is considered the beginning of the recognition of management as a science and an independent field of study.

In general, the merit of Taylor et al. lies in the approval of the following principles of scientific management:

− using scientific analysis to determine the best ways to accomplish a task;

- selection of workers most suitable for certain tasks and their training;

− providing employees with the resources required for the effective performance of tasks;

- systematic and correct use of financial incentives to increase productivity;

− separation of planning into a separate process;

− approval of management as an independent form of activity, science.

Administrative (classical) school of management (1920-1950). Representatives: A. Fayol, L Urvik, D. Mooney. The goal of the administrative school was to create universal principles of government. A. Fayol formulated 14 principles of management: division of labor; power and responsibility; discipline; unity of command; unity of leadership; subordination of private interests to common ones; remuneration; concentration or dispersion of power; scalar chain; order; justice; stability of the workplace for staff; initiative; corporate spirit; identified 6 groups of operations: technical, commercial, financial, insurance, accounting, administrative; divided operations into functions: planning, organization, motivation, control, coordination.

School of Human Relations and Behavioral Sciences (1930-1980). Representatives: G. Munsterberg, M. Follet, R. Likert, E. Mayo, A. Maslow. The transfer of the center of gravity in management with the distribution of functions and tasks to relationships between people is the main distinguishing characteristic of the school of human relations. The researchers of this school used the achievements of psychology and sociology in management.

The art of communicating with people, Mayo concludes, should be the main criterion for selecting administrators, starting with the master. Appeal to the human factor is a revolutionary coup in the science of management. The “human factor” in psychology is understood as the inner world of people, their needs, interests, attitudes, experiences, etc.

From the end of the 50s. the school of human relations to be transformed into the school of "behavioral sciences". The largest representatives of this direction: R. Likert; D. McGregor; A. Maslow. Representatives of this direction no longer occupied the methods of establishing interpersonal relations, but increasing the efficiency of the work of an individual employee and the organization as a whole. The main goal of the "behavioral" school was to help the employee to realize their personal capabilities and unlock their creative potential.

The School of Quantitative Methods (1950 - to the present) arose as a result of the rapid development of the exact sciences, which created a favorable environment for using the latest achievements in the field of computerization, mathematics, physics, etc. in management science. The essence of the quantitative scientific approach is as follows. To solve the problem of managing an object, a model of the management process is being developed. The model is a schematic representation of the future real situation.

Process approach. The basis of this approach was laid by A. Fayol, who is called the "father of management". Developing the views of A. Fayol, the authors of the process scientific approach consider management as the sum of all management functions (organization, motivation, planning, coordination, control), i.e., interrelated and interdependent actions. Management is seen by them as a continuous process.

The system approach is a multifaceted phenomenon that is associated with the external and internal environment of the organization. Therefore, all the doctrines of management are characterized by the following: 1) the activities of the enterprise are affected by many factors of the external and internal environment, which have both direct and indirect effects; 2) most exercises contain a systemic effect.

P. Drukker is the founder of a systematic approach to management. He put forward many ideas in the field of management, but the main one is the theory of management by goals, i.e. management should begin with the definition of goals, and then form the functions of the activity. The main task of management is to organize the productivity of people. Drucker believed that the manager should be highly qualified and play a major role in the organization, and his activities should be aimed at achieving the economic goals of the organization. The manager also has to take care of the clients. At the same time, relations between staff should be based on mutual respect.

The situational approach is that the use of the same managerial measures in different situations leads to different results, so managers must first assess the situation, and then make decisions. For effective management in an organization, in accordance with situational theories, managers must do the following: 1) analyze the situation; 2) choose an appropriate management approach; 3) choose flexible management; 4) adjust to the situation with the help of management. Management is the art of managers to approach a situation. Situational theories deny universal approaches to management.

The approach to management as a process defines management as a process in which activities aimed at achieving the goals of the organization are considered not as a one-time action, but as a series of continuous interrelated actions - management functions. Different authors offer different lists of features. The optimal set includes the following functions: strategic marketing, planning, organization of processes, accounting and control, motivation, regulation. In the center - the coordination of work. (SEE APPENDIX B).

Let's consider the brief content of management functions. The process starts with strategic marketing.

Strategic marketing is a set of works on the formation of a portfolio of innovations and innovations, the company's market strategy based on strategic market segmentation, forecasting strategies for improving the quality of goods, resource saving and integrated production development aimed at maintaining or achieving the company's competitive advantages and stable receipt of sufficient profit. The standards of competitiveness of goods materialize in the sphere of production, and are realized in profit but at the stage of tactical marketing as a set of works on tactical segmentation of the market, advertising and sales promotion of goods. Tactical marketing functions are performed at the production stage.

Planning is a function of management, a set of works on: analysis of situations and environmental factors; forecasting, optimizing and evaluating alternative options for achieving goals; choosing the best plan. Plans can be problematic, local or complex, strategic, tactical or operational. Strategic plans, as specific, binding documents, are developed on the basis of strategies in the relevant direction.

The organization of processes is a function of management, a complex of managerial and production processes for the implementation of plans. Processes can be main, auxiliary and service. The main principles of the rational organization of processes are: proportionality, continuity, parallelism, direct flow, rhythm, specialization, universalization, etc.

Accounting is a management function for fixing time, resource consumption, any parameters of the management system on various types of media.

Control is a function of management to ensure the implementation of programs, plans, written or oral assignments, documents that implement management decisions.

Motivation is a function of management, the process of encouraging oneself and others to act in order to achieve the goals of the company and (or) personal goals.

Regulation is the function of management to study changes in environmental factors that affect the quality of managerial decisions and the effectiveness of innovative management, taking measures to bring (improve) the parameters of the "input" of the system or processes in it to the new requirements of the "output" (requirements of consumers).

Coordination is the central function of management in establishing links, organizing interaction and coherence in the work of system components, and operational dispatching of the implementation of plans and tasks. This is one of the most complex functions usually performed by managers. Coordination can be carried out on the performance of any functions, any work, between any components of the system or the external environment.

The systems approach assumes that managers should consider the organization as a set of interdependent elements, such as people, structure, tasks and technology, which are focused on achieving different goals in a changing external environment.

The situational approach assumes that the suitability of different management methods is determined by the situation. Since there are an abundance of factors both in the organization itself and in the environment, there is no single best way to manage an organization. The most effective in a particular situation is the method that is most appropriate for this situation. The situational approach has made a great contribution to management theory, since it contains specific recommendations regarding the application of scientific provisions to management practice, depending on the situation and conditions. A situation is a specific set of circumstances that affect the functioning of an organization at a given time. Using the situational approach (situational thinking), managers can understand what methods and means will best contribute to the achievement of the organization's goals in a particular situation. The situational approach focuses on the fact that the suitability of different management methods is determined by a particular situation. Since there is such an abundance of factors both within the firm and in the external environment, there is no single best way to manage an object. The most effective method in a particular situation is the method that most of all corresponds to the bottom situation, is maximally adapted to it.

The application of the situational approach is based on the alternativeness of achieving the same goal during the adoption or implementation of a management decision (plans, etc.), taking into account unforeseen circumstances.

Specific situations may vary in the following ways:

b) the type of management decision in time - strategic, tactical, operational;

c) resources and ways to ensure the implementation of management decisions;

d) methods of implementation of managerial decisions.

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The main scientific approaches to the study of professional mobility of the individual

Piletskaya Lubomira Sidorovna

Formulation of the problem

Professional mobility becomes a characteristic, without which the full realization of the individual in society is impossible. A modern person, in order to feel successful, must be professionally mobile. The theoretical and methodological analysis of the problem carried out allows us to assert that professional mobility as a subject of psychological analysis is carried out within the framework of three areas: personality traits, characteristics of the process of activity, dynamics of the processes of self-improvement of a specialist. Despite the fact that the professional mobility of the individual is widely and thoroughly covered in the pedagogical sciences, the socio-psychological aspect of this problem is not covered enough.

Purpose of the article: highlight the methodological problems of studying the professional mobility of a person from the standpoint of various scientific approaches, determine the general concept of the study.

Presentation of the main material

The main idea of ​​the concept of understanding the essence of the psychological foundations of professional mobility of a person combines three interrelated concepts: methodological, meaningful (socio-psychological), instrumental.

The methodological concept accumulates philosophical background, representing the relationship and interaction of scientific approaches to solving the problem under study, namely:

Axiological, actualizes the motivational-value sphere of the individual as the driving force behind the formation of personal and professional qualities, where professional mobility is an element of the internal structure of the personality, which expresses its subjective attitude to the socially significant values ​​of professional activity;

Competency-oriented, focused on the formation of activity-role characteristics (knowledge, abilities, skills, relationships, experience) and the professional position of a specialist as an integrative personal education, reflects the readiness of the individual for professional growth, mastering the methods of self-realization for new types of professional activity;

Personal activity, based on a dialectical combination of the tasks of professional training of a specialist with his individual trajectory of self-realization and development of personal and professional qualities, among which professional mobility is integrative.

The content (socio-psychological) concept includes a system of philosophical, sociological, psychological, cultural, socio-psychological definitions that underlie the disclosure of the content of the phenomenology of professional mobility, understanding this category as a kind of personal resource that underlies the effective transformation of the environment and the personality itself ; a systemic multilevel phenomenon that requires an integrated, interdisciplinary approach to research; internal (motivational-intellectual-volitional-adaptive-communicative) potential of the individual, which underlies flexible orientation and active response in dynamic social and professional conditions in accordance with life positions, ensuring readiness for changes and the implementation of this readiness in one's own life; determining professional activity, subjectivity, creative attitude to professional activity, personal development, contributing to the effective solution of professional problems.

The instrumental concept provides for the development of organizational and methodological support for the formation of professional mobility of a specialist at the stage of his retraining, socio-psychological technologies aimed at ensuring the positive dynamics of a certain process, substantiation of criteria, indicators and the degree of formation of professional mobility of students in the context of their professional retraining.

The main methodological theses of the study of the psychological foundations of the professional mobility of the individual can be the following: professional mobility personality

The combination of the subjective approach with the demands of society (the model of the picture of the world is designed should not contradict social needs and models);

Professional mobility as an integrative quality of a person can manifest itself in behavioral, cognitive and integrative-personal components;

It is expedient to study professional mobility in connection with professional identity;

Professional mobility acts as a mechanism for the socio-psychological adaptation of the individual.

The strategy of theoretical and methodological research of the professional mobility of a person is based on methodology and methodological approaches that focus on a certain conceptual base.

In the study, we proceeded from the fact that the systemic, multi-level nature of the phenomenon itself, which is mobility, due to economic, political, socio-cultural factors, is associated with the life-sense interests and values ​​of the individual and the needs of society, requires an integrative (from Latin integratio - replenishment, restoration - combining separate parts into a single whole; transferring knowledge from one field to another), an interdisciplinary approach to its formation in the process of vocational education and at the same time motivates the choice of "system methodology" (G. Shchedrovitsky) as the conceptual dominant of the study. The expediency of such a choice is also confirmed by the fact that the system approach is a universal tool of cognitive activity: any phenomenon can be considered as a system, although, of course, not every object of scientific analysis needs it. The experience of modern knowledge, researchers note, shows that the most capacious and economical description of an object is obtained when it is presented as a system. Information obtained on the basis of a systematic approach has two fundamentally important properties: firstly, the researcher receives only the necessary information, and secondly, it is sufficient to solve the problem. This feature of the system approach is due to the fact that the analysis of an object as a system means considering it only in a certain respect, in that in which the object is a system. Systemic knowledge is the result of cognition of an object not as a whole, but of a certain "cut" from it, carried out in accordance with the system's "object characteristics". In addition, the system method is indispensable in the cognition and construction of complex dynamic wholes, which gives it the status of a general scientific principle (V. Tyukhtin). The legitimacy of our research position is confirmed by the fact that in modern psychological theory there are practically no studies devoted to a comprehensive, systematic consideration of the problem of the formation of professional mobility of a future specialist, which is carried out inseparably from the learning process, is its integral part and is built on the basis of the principles of a systematic approach as a unifying, integrative methodological principle.

A systematic approach to the process of professionalization is represented by the theory of systemogenesis, developed by V. Shadrikov, it is quite legitimate to attribute it to holistic concepts of professionalization, since practical research based on it covers almost all stages of the educational and professional activities of future specialists. We are impressed by the position of the scientist regarding the allocation of subsystems and, accordingly, the levels of analysis of activity in the system of any (including professional) activity, namely: motives, goals, program, information basis of activity, decision-making, personal and professional qualities of a specialist. Note that each block of this system is filled with specific content at each stage of the personal and professional development of the future specialist.

An important basis for our study is the concept of the formation of a competitive personality, developed by scientists (Z. Egorova, K. Ovchinnikova), which is based on the idea of ​​the formation of a dynamic personality. Consequently, the essence of the approach to a dynamic personality is revealed through the prism of the ability to think flexible, which is interpreted as interpenetration, mutual negation of opposing tendencies towards stability and variability, as a solution to these contradictions, which manifests itself in unity with a tendency towards stability. The conceptual provisions of the formation of a professionally mobile specialist are based on the idea of ​​the formation of systemic thinking, taking into account the laws of dialectics for the development of personality in the pedagogical process, on the requirements of the dialectical method as an integral system.

An essential provision for substantiating the system of formation of a dynamic personality is the theory of reflection, based on the doctrine of the variability and stability of matter, their dialectical unity and opposition. Note that it is through overcoming the contradiction in the assimilation of knowledge, norms of behavior that the development of the personality takes place, which, according to the laws of dialectics, is possible only on the basis of movement, changes, and the denial of the previous stage of development. Consequently, the pedagogical process is carried out in society and develops over time, ensures the struggle of unity and opposition of its tendencies towards stability and variability. In the process of development, there is a change from one stability to another. And this stability must be variable, and variability must be stable in a certain time.

It is well known that contradictions are the source of development. In this context, it is inappropriate to develop only the stability of the individual, neglecting her desire for change and improvement. There is no doubt that a harmonic type of character with a dynamic psyche is possible on the basis of a developed ability for variability, dynamism, and easy switching. Only on the basis of a unified dynamic system of forms and methods of influence is it possible to create conditions for the formation of a dynamic (professionally mobile) personality capable of quickly solving new problems, using acquired knowledge for orientation in non-standard situations, quickly switching from one action to another, etc. In our study, the key (system-forming) idea is the formation of professional mobility of the individual in the context of retraining.

From the standpoint of a synergetic approach (E. Knyazeva, S. Kurdyumov, I. Prigozhin, G. Haken, etc.), a person is considered as an open and dynamic system. According to A. Derkach, the most important feature of this system is the advantage of internal systemic connections of its components over external influences on them. That is why the impact on a person through the mechanism of self-organization is effective. At the same time, the accents are focused on a person’s own activity, which is expressed in its ability to ensure the integrity of its development on the basis of previous individual experience and, as the end result, generate a somewhat qualitatively new one. In fact, there is a natural formation of the optimal algorithm for the assimilation of sociocultural achievement, since the individual or ontogenetic development of the personality completely repeats the formation of sociocultural values, which is the manifestation of the synergistic principle of isomorphism and invariance in the formation of professional knowledge.

It should be noted that the synergistic approach in our study determines the idea of ​​openness, freedom of expression and self-realization of the personality of a future professionally mobile specialist in interaction with the educational environment, which ensures forecasting, formulation of strategic goals, and obtaining qualitative changes in the result.

Modern scientists single out the axiological approach as a methodological basis in the training of a specialist, focused on a value orientation. The substantiated axiological approach makes it possible to understand the professional mobility of a specialist as a professional value, as an element of the internal structure of the personality, which expresses its subjective attitude to the socially significant values ​​of professional activity. At the same time, professional mobility can be considered as an internal need of a person during its internalization (transformation into an internal need of a person).

Obviously, the opinion of scientists about the expediency of creating an integrated science of man is becoming more and more relevant. In particular, the acmeological concept of professional development by A. Derkach, V. Zazikin, the concept of professional development by L. Mitina, T. Kudryavtsev, Yu. Povarenkov, A. Rostunov, V. Shadrikov deserve attention. It should be noted that the acmeological concept of A. Derkach and V. Zazikin has two planes of revealing a system of views: content and structural - procedural. At the same time, the content development of the subject of labor to the level of a professional is considered in the context of the general expansion of the subjective space of the individual, his professional and moral "enrichment". The procedural development of the subject of labor to the level of a professional is considered from a systemic standpoint, namely in connection with changes and development of subsystems of personality and activity professionalism, normative regulation, motivation for self-development and professional achievement, reflexive self-organization and in terms of revealing the creative potential of the individual. The authors of this concept emphasize that the professionalism of an individual is achieved in the process and as a result of the development of abilities, personal, business and professionally important qualities, acmeological invariants of professionalism, reflective organization, culture, creative and innovative potential, achievement motivation, disclosure of creative potential, the presence of a strong and adequate motivation for self-fulfillment.

The acmeological approach assumes that acme and self-realization are not ideal images, but a constant movement towards them through correlation of the real characteristics of human development with the optimal model of self-development. At the same time, a person does not just realize himself by making a choice between reproductive methods of development; he qualitatively transforms himself, removing psychological barriers, rethinking life expectations, looking for opportunities for the development of professionally significant qualities, producing his own trajectory of self-development.

According to A. Derkach, within the limits of the designated approach, the subject of self-development seems to be in the space between two poles - from the real (often non-optimal) to the ideal way of self-organization. His activity unfolds precisely in this "real-ideal" space and manifests itself in the constant resolution of contradictions between that highly organized living system, which he himself is, and the objective conditions of his life.

An in-depth understanding of the process under study is facilitated by theoretical modeling, which reflects knowledge of what should be formed. By comparing the designed with the expected result, the experimental model is qualified as a system and the search for ways to improve it is realized.

So, it seemed possible to us to establish that the concept of "professional mobility" is complex, multifaceted both in structure and in functional purpose, species diversity, the key features of which are: mobility, efficiency, speed, flexibility, activity. The formation of professional mobility of a future specialist at the stage of retraining is implemented as an integral system, taking into account the above-mentioned general scientific approaches.

The theoretical analysis of the main scientific approaches to the problem under study made it possible to consider professional mobility as:

* the foundations of an effective response of the individual to the challenge of modern society, a kind of personal resource that underlies the effective transformation of the environment and oneself in it;

* a systemic multilevel phenomenon that requires an integrated, interdisciplinary research approach;

* internal (motivational-intellectual-volitional) potential of the individual, which underlies flexible orientation and active response in dynamic social and professional conditions in accordance with one's own life positions; ensures readiness for changes and the implementation of this readiness in one's life (the readiness of the individual for modern life with its multidimensional choice factors).

It has been determined that the integrative sign of the formation of a professionally mobile specialist is the persistent readiness of the individual for dynamic professional activity, which predetermines the totality of features and characteristics of both the activity itself and its subject.

Literature

1. Acmeology in questions and answers: textbook / A.A. Derkach, E.V. Seleznev. - M.: MPSI, NPO Modek. - 2007. - 248 p.

2. Andreeva V.P. Improving the qualifications of primary school teachers in the context of multi-subject teaching in a modern school: Ph.D. diss ... cand. ped. sciences: spec. 13.00.08 "Theory and methods of vocational education" / V.P. Andreeva. - M.: 2003. - 17 p.

3. Arkhangelsky A.I. Formation of professional mobility of students in the process of learning at a technical university: Ph.D. diss ... cand. ped. sciences: spec. 13.00.08 "Theory and methods of vocational education" / Alexander Igorevich Arkhangelsky. - M., 2003. - 18 p.

4. Afanasiev V.G. Consistency and society / V.G. Afanasiev. - M., 1980. - 368 p.

5. Beh I. D. Formation of a professional in modern social minds / I. D. Beh. - K. : ІЗМН, 1998. - 204 p.

6. Ivchenko A.O. Tlumachny dictionary of Ukrainian language / A.O.Ivchenko. - Kharkiv: Folio, 2006, - 540 p.

7. Igoshev B.M. Organizational and pedagogical system of training professionally mobile specialists at the Pedagogical University / B.M. Igoshev. - M.: VLADOS, 2008. - 2008. - 201 p.

8. Kugel S.A. Professional mobility in science / S.A. Kugel. - M.: Misl, 1983 .- 256 p.

9. Kuzmina N.V. Subject of acmeology / N.V. Kuzmina / 2nd bridle correct and additional / - St. Petersburg. : Polytechnic, 2002. - 189 p.

10. Mitina L.M. Psychology of work of teacher's professional development / L.M. Mitin. - M.: Academy, 2004. - 215 p.

11. Nikitin V.N. Problems of the formation of a dynamic competitive personality (the concept of a holistic, systemic, dialectical, synergetic approach) / V.N. Nikitin, Z.V. Egorova. - Cheboksary: ​​Scientific and methodological center for the training of social service personnel, 2005. - 391 p.

12. Prima R.M. Formation of professional mobility of the future teacher of the cob classes: theory and practice. Monograph. - Dnipropetrovsk: IMA-press. - 2009. - 367 p.

13. Petrov I.G. Meaning as a reflexive attitude of human existence (meaning about the purpose, status and methodology of meaning) / I. G. Petrov // World of Psychology. - 2001. - No. 2. - S. 26-32.

14. Shadrikov V.D. New model of a specialist: innovative training and competence approach / V. D. Shadrikov // Higher education today. - 2004. - No. 8. - S. 26 - 31.

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Interpretation of results. Any statements should not be taken on faith, even if they come from reputable scientists. To ensure independent verification, observations are documented, and all initial data, methods and research results are made available to other scientists. This allows not only to obtain additional confirmation by reproducing experiments, but also to critically assess the degree of adequacy (validity) of experiments and results in relation to the theory being tested.

Story

Main article: History of scientific method

Separate parts of the scientific method were used by the philosophers of ancient Greece. They developed the rules of logic and principles for conducting a dispute, the pinnacle of which was sophistry. Socrates is credited with saying that truth is born in a dispute. However, the goal of the sophists was not so much scientific truth as victory in lawsuits where formalism exceeded any other approach. At the same time, the conclusions obtained as a result of reasoning were given preference over observed practice. A famous example is the claim that swift-footed Achilles will never overtake a tortoise.

Types of scientific method

Theoretical scientific method

theories

Theory (Greek θεωρία, “consideration, research”) is a system of knowledge that has predictive power in relation to a phenomenon. Theories are formulated, developed and tested according to the scientific method.

The standard method for testing theories is direct experimental testing ("experiment is the criterion of truth"). However, often a theory cannot be tested by direct experiment (for example, the theory of the origin of life on Earth), or such verification is too complicated or costly (macroeconomic and social theories), and therefore theories are often tested not by direct experiment, but by the presence of predictive power - that is, if unknown / previously unnoticed events follow from it, and upon close observation these events are detected, then the predictive power is present.

Hypotheses

Hypothesis (from other Greek ὑπόθεσις - “foundation”, “assumption”) - an unproven statement, assumption or conjecture.

As a rule, a hypothesis is expressed on the basis of a number of observations (examples) confirming it and therefore looks plausible. The hypothesis is subsequently either proved, turning it into an established fact (see theorem, theory), or refuted (for example, by indicating a counterexample), turning it into the category of false statements.

An unproven and undisproved hypothesis is called an open problem.

scientific laws

A law is a verbal and/or mathematically formulated statement that describes relationships, connections between various scientific concepts, proposed as an explanation of facts and recognized at this stage by the scientific community as consistent with the data. An untested scientific statement is called a hypothesis.

Scientific modeling

Main article: Scientific modeling

Practical scientific method

Experiments

An experiment (from Latin experimentum - test, experience) in the scientific method is a set of actions and observations performed to test (true or false) a hypothesis or scientific study of causal relationships between phenomena. Experiment is the cornerstone of the empirical approach to knowledge. Popper's criterion puts forward the possibility of setting up an experiment as the main difference between a scientific theory and a pseudoscientific one.

The experiment is divided into the following stages:

• Collection of information;
• Observation of a phenomenon;
• Analysis;
• Developing a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon;
• Development of a theory that explains the phenomenon based on assumptions in a broader sense.

Scientific research

Scientific research is the process of studying, experimenting, conceptualizing and testing a theory associated with obtaining scientific knowledge.

Types of research: Basic research undertaken primarily to generate new knowledge regardless of application perspectives. Applied research.

Observations

Main article: Observation (science)

measurements

Truth and Prejudice

“Truth and faith are two sisters, daughters of one supreme parent, they can never come into conflict with each other, unless someone exclaims out of some vanity and testimony of his own sophistication.”

Now the assumption of divine intervention automatically takes the theory that used such an assumption out of the bounds of science, because such an assumption is in principle unverifiable and unrefutable (violation of the Popper criterion). At the same time, religion-related personal beliefs of scientists are the most difficult to overcome. In their scientific work, they are forced to look for the causes of phenomena exclusively in the natural field, without relying on the supernatural. As academician Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg noted,

“In all cases known to me, believing physicists and astronomers in their scientific works do not mention God in a single word... While engaging in specific scientific activities, the believer, in fact, forgets about God...”

No less anti-scientific can be the prejudice of an atheist. An example of the incompatibility of such a prejudice and the scientific method is the VASKhNIL session of 1948, as a result of which genetics in the USSR was almost destroyed and biological science was thrown back decades. One of the main theses of the "Michurin" biologists, headed by T.D. Lysenko against genetics was that the founders of the classical theory of heredity Mendel, Weissman and Morgan, allegedly due to their religious idealism, created an incorrect idealistic theory instead of a correct materialistic one:

As we noted earlier, the clash of materialistic and idealistic worldviews in biological science has taken place throughout its history ... It is quite clear to us that the main provisions of Mendelism-Morganism are false. They do not reflect the reality of living nature and are an example of metaphysics and idealism ... The true ideological background of Morganist genetics was well (by chance for our Morganists) revealed by the physicist E. Schrödinger. In his book "What is life from the point of view of physics?", approvingly expounding Weismann's chromosome theory, he came to a number of philosophical conclusions. Here is the main one: "... the personal individual soul is equal to the omnipresent, omniscient, eternal soul." Schrödinger considers this his main conclusion "... the greatest that a biologist can give, trying to prove both the existence of God and the immortality of the soul with one blow."

Even without religion, a simple belief in something based on previous experience or knowledge can change the interpretation of the results of observation. A person who has a certain belief about a certain phenomenon is often inclined to accept facts as evidence of his faith, just because they do not directly contradict it. In analysis, it may turn out that the object of belief is only a special case of more general phenomena (for example, the Corpuscular-wave theory considers previous ideas about light in the form of particles or waves to be special cases) or is not related to the object of observation at all (for example, Teplorod's concept of temperature ).

Criticism of the scientific method

Also, one of the significant shortcomings that prevents us from considering the development of science as a system based on some unified methods is the existence of ad hoc hypotheses. This is one of the defense mechanisms used by scientific and non-scientific theories. With the help of these hypotheses, it becomes impossible to refute any theory. It is possible to speak only of a temporary shift in problems: either progressive or regressive.

Criticism of the existence of the scientific method as a completely formalized and reliable method, leading to more reliable knowledge, reflects a huge layer of modern philosophical literature: Kuhn T., Lakatos I., Feyerabend P., Polanyi M., Lektorsky V. A., Nikiforov A. L. ., Stepin V. S., Porus V. N., etc.

see also

• Research and development work

Notes

Links

• Nesterov, Vyacheslav Series of lectures: Scientific knowledge as a model. Modern theory of truth. . sinor.ru. Retrieved April 4, 2008.
• Irme Lakatos. Falsification and methodology of research programs.

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