Taylor School of Scientific Management Key Points. determination of the work task based on the study of all elements of the work

EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT IDEAS

INTRODUCTION

An important question is whether management is a related field of knowledge, what are its main elements and where its boundaries lie. However, there are no simple and unambiguous answers to all these questions. Something called " scientific management"("scientific methods of management"). At the same time, some authors, like F. Taylor, believed that they were creating a "science" of management; others, like A. Fayol and C. Barnard, turned to the "principles" of management. The audience interested in the emergence of such concepts arose for various reasons: in particular, from the needs of leaders to "make sense" of what they did, and the desire to understand the environment in which they worked. If they had succeeded in solving this problem, they would have received more favorable opportunities for the formation and control of managerial processes.

Simply put, management is visible actions managers. Thus, in this area, observations arose before theoretical constructions. Practice gave birth to theory, and theory, in turn, indicated the ways of implementing practice. As a result, many management theorists have appeared who have devoted a significant part of their lives to the practice of management. Then pure scientists came to the fore, and above all, representatives of business schools, but their dominance was not absolute.

In some cases, the specific contribution of each of them would be unthinkable without the efforts of those who lived and worked before them. The writings of the so-called "management gurus" reflect a social process in which some new management ideas were put forward, and often, though not always, put into practice by their creators themselves. Since not everyone shares the idea of ​​the existence of such "gurus", it will be useful to provide an explanation of how management ideas arise and spread.

The first major step towards considering management as a management science was made by the American engineer Frederick Winslow Taylor (03/20/1856 - 03/21/1915). who spearheaded the scientific management movement. The area of ​​professional interests was the problem of increasing labor productivity in the organization. The main works of F. Taylor: "Factory Management" (1903), "Principles of Scientific Management" (1911)

They formulated methods scientific organization labor based on the analysis of working time and labor movements, standardization of techniques and tools.

Taylor argued that management is a true science based on certain laws, rules and principles. Them correct use solves the problem of labor productivity growth. If on scientific basis select people, train them with progressive methods, energize them with various incentives, and combine work and person, then you can get a total productivity that exceeds the contribution made by the individual labor force. His main merit is that he: developed methodological foundations labor rationing; standardized work operations; introduced into practice scientific approaches to the selection and placement of personnel; developed methods for stimulating the work of workers; achieved recognition that work and responsibility are divided between workers and managers almost equally.

Scientific management also advocated separating the managerial functions of thinking and planning from the physical execution of work. Taylor and his contemporaries recognized that management work was a specialty and that an organization would benefit if each group of employees focused on what they did best. Previously, workers planned their work themselves.

Thanks to the concept of scientific management, management has become widely recognized as an independent field of scientific research. For the first time, managers, practitioners and scientists saw that the methods and approaches used in science and technology can be effectively used in the practice of achieving the goals of the enterprise.

Management as a science, a scientific discipline originated in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century. This was facilitated by a number of factors, among which we should note the democratic nature of the country, the industriousness of citizens, the high prestige of education, as well as the absence of state intervention in the economy. The country was free from the conservative dogmas of the old world, and the creation of monopolies led to the complication of their management. Under these conditions, the emergence of scientific management was a response to the needs of business.

The concept of "scientific management" was first introduced in 1910 by Louis Brandeis, who represented the interests of shipping companies in a conflict with railway companies. Taylor proceeds from the fact that management as a special function consists of a number of principles that can be applied with equal success to all decisively types of social activities. In place of the vague and contradictory principles of government proposed by his predecessors, Taylor formulated a rigorous scientific system of knowledge based on four scientific principles, which he himself called the laws of government:

1. Creation of a scientific foundation that replaces the old, crudely practical methods of work, the scientific study of each separate species labor activity;

2. Selection of workers and managers based on scientific criteria, their training and education. Now this is denoted by the terms "vocational selection, vocational counseling and vocational training";

3. Cooperation between the administration and the workers in the matter of practical implementation;

4. Uniform and fair distribution of duties (responsibility) between workers and managers.

Taylor's great merit was not just a declaration, but the implementation of the management principles he formulated in practice and the achievement of impressive success. Here are some examples. He timed the operations of the best workers, selected the correct and rational movements, mercilessly cut off everything superfluous, since more energy was spent on unnecessary than on rational ones.

F. Taylor attached great importance to the standardization of tools, taking into account the characteristics of various specific types work .

One of the principles of scientific management is the separation of planning and execution, which is represented in the fourth Taylor principle above. He believed that the specialization of labor is equally important both at the managerial level and at the level of workers. Taylor's suggestion was realized in the fact that commercial and industrial firms establish planning departments that develop daily instructions for workers. However, Taylor does not stop there and offers the concept of functional leadership of a group of workers. Taylor sees the traditional functions of a senior worker (team leader) as consisting of planning and control activities. Planning must be carried out in the planning department by officials who are trained in all aspects of the planning function. He identifies four different sub-functions to be performed by different officials. Control activities would also be performed by four different people. Summarizing, we can say that Taylor's main idea was that management should become a system based on certain scientific principles, should be carried out by specially developed methods and measures, i.e. that it is necessary to design, normalize, standardize not only the technique of production, but also labor, its organization and management. The practical application of Taylor's ideas has proved its importance, providing a significant increase in labor productivity. The Taylor system became very widespread in the advanced capitalist countries in the first three decades of the 20th century - Germany, Sweden and other Western European countries, as a movement for the scientific organization of labor, rationalization, scientific management, etc. Taylor's scientific management focused on the work done at the lowest level of the organization. Taylor and his followers analyzed the relationship between the physical essence of the work and psychological essence working to establish working definitions. And, therefore, it could not offer a solution to the problems of dividing the organization into departments, areas and ranges of control and assignment of authority.

1.2. Classic Ideas A. Fayol

At the beginning of the XX century. Europe put forward its major specialist, theorist and practitioner of management, Henri Fayol (1841-1925), who worked for about 60 years in a large French company, and for the last 30 years he headed it. In his capital work "General and Industrial Administration" (1916), he studied with particular attention the work higher levels management. Fayol is deservedly considered the creator of the "theory of administration" and the system of principles for taking into account the human factor in management. Taking Taylor's ideas about labor stimulation as a basis, Fayol applied these provisions to the activities of top management. Moreover, like Taylor, the reward could be not only a cash bonus, but also various innovations. An important conclusion Fayol was his concept of the continuity of the management process, characterized by the following main interrelated functions: planning, organization, leadership, coordination and control. The main thing, according to Fayol, are the issues of human relations in the team and between leaders and subordinates. Henri Fayol is the founder and "father of management". The aim of the classical school was to create universal principles management. They believed that following these principles, the enterprise will achieve the highest results. Fayol's merit lies in the fact that he considered management as a universal process consisting of several functions. Another direction of this school concerned the structure of the organization. The organization was viewed as closed system in contrast to the concept of scientific management.

Fayol considered management as a special kind of activity, which no one had done before him. He believed that management activity itself should become a special object of study.

Fayol formulated 14 principles of management:

1. Division of labor. The purpose of the division of labor is to perform work that is larger in volume and better in quality, with the same amount of effort. The division of labor is directly related to specialization.

This principle may be applicable to both the sphere of production and managerial work. The division of labor is effective up to a certain extent, at which it does not bring the desired results.

2. Authority and responsibility. Authority is the right to manage the resources of the enterprise (organization), as well as the right to direct the efforts of employees to perform assigned tasks. Responsibility is the obligation to perform tasks and ensure their satisfactory completion.

Authority is an instrument of power. Authority meant the right to give orders. Power is directly related to responsibility. Distinguish official (official) power and personal power arising from individual qualities worker.

In modern conditions, this principle sounds like this: powers (rights) must correspond to responsibilities.

3. Discipline. Discipline involves achieving the fulfillment of agreements concluded between the enterprise and its employees, including obedience. In case of violation of discipline, sanctions may be applied to employees.

Fayol considered obligatory observance of discipline, both for managers of all ranks and for workers. He pointed out that discipline is what the leader is.

4. Unity of command (unity of command). The employee must receive orders and instructions from his immediate supervisor. In addition, he must respect the authority of the leader.

By formulating this principle, Fayol came into conflict with the recommendations of Taylor, who believed that workers could report to different functional leaders.

5. Unity of direction (direction). Each group operating within the same goal must have a plan and one leader. If there are several groups, a single plan approved by higher management is necessary to coordinate their activities. Fayol emphasized: "One leader and a single plan for a set of operations with a common goal."

6. Subordination of personal (individual) interests to the general. The interests of one employee or group of employees should be directed to the interests of the entire enterprise and should not prevail over them. In case of contradictions in interests, the task of the leader is to reconcile them.

7. Remuneration of personnel, i.e. the price of services rendered. Workers should receive a fair wage for their work. This applies equally to workers and managers.

8. Centralization. The enterprise must achieve a certain correspondence between centralization and decentralization, which depends on its size and specific operating conditions.

Small enterprises are highly centralized, while large enterprises are less centralized. Choosing the right balance between centralization and decentralization allows you to achieve the best results.

9. Sklar chain (hierarchy). The sklar chain is a series of executives located on different levels hierarchies (from top managers to low-level managers). The sklar chain determines the subordination of workers. A hierarchical management system is necessary, but if it harms the interests of the enterprise, then it must be improved.

A rational organization management structure requires the presence of horizontal links along with a hierarchy.

10. Order. Fayol divided order into "material" and "social". Each employee must have their own workplace provided with everything you need. To do this, the leader must know his subordinates and their needs well. Briefly, this principle can be formulated as follows: "a place - for everything and everything in its place."

11. Justice. Justice is a combination of kindness and justice. An employee who feels fair to himself feels loyalty to the firm and tries to work with full dedication.

12. Stability of the workplace of the day staff. For the enterprise, the most preferable are employees who hold on to their place. High staff turnover characterizes bad job management personnel, reduces the efficiency of the enterprise. In addition, this principle says that the employee needs a certain amount of time to master the required skills at the proper professional level. In a prosperous company, the management staff is stable.

13. Initiative. The manifestation of entrepreneurship and initiative not only by managers, but also by all employees of the enterprise. Implementation this principle often requires the administration to "give up personal vanity."

14. Corporate spirit. The strength of the enterprise is in harmony (“unity”) of all employees of the enterprise. Fayol pointed out the inadmissibility of using the "divide and rule" principle in management. On the contrary, he believed, leaders should encourage collectivism in all its forms and manifestations.

The classification of management principles proposed by Fayol contributed to the streamlining of the management process. Fayol emphasized the universality of the principles of management, not limiting their application only to the sphere of production. Fayol believed that the system of principles he proposed could not be definitively formulated. Fayol noted that the application of principles in practice is "a difficult art that requires thoughtfulness, experience, determination and a sense of proportion."

It should be emphasized that the functions and principles of management formulated by Henri Fayol have withstood the test of time and are still relevant today. His postulate, which is expressed in the fact that management is a continuous process, from planning to control, is the alpha and omega of business science to this day.

In his main book "General Industrial Administration" (1916), Fayol summarized managerial experience and created a logically coherent systematic theory of management. Through his practice as an effective leader and his writings, written in a lively yet academically elegant style, Fayol proved that management can only be learned if the theory is rigorously formulated. That is why, after retiring, he devoted his time to popularizing the theory of administration: he spoke at various conferences and symposiums, created the French Center for Administrative Studies and tried to apply his ideas in the reorganization of state and public administration. They are covered in another of his books - "Administrative Theory of the State" (1923).

For Fayol, administration forms only one of the six management functions and, in order of importance, comes after five other activities - technical, commercial, financial, insurance and accounting. Administration affects only the staff of the enterprise, without any impact on the material and economic factors of production.

Unlike the school of scientific management, which dealt mainly with the rational organization of the work of an individual worker, representatives of the classical school began to develop approaches to improve the management of the organization as a whole.

The goal of the classical school was to create universal principles of government. At the same time, the classical school was of the opinion that following these principles will undoubtedly lead the organization to success.

Fayol's concept was based on the position that in any enterprise there are two organisms: material and social. The first includes labor itself, means of labor and objects of labor in their totality, under the second he meant the relationship of people in the labor process. These relationships became the subject of Fayol's research, i.e. he deliberately limited the scope of his research.

Fayol tried to substantiate the necessity and possibility of creating a special science of people management, as part of the general doctrine of enterprise management.

To manage, Fayol argued, means to lead an enterprise towards its goal, extracting opportunities from all available resources.

According to Fayol, administration is part of management, which includes six main groups of management operations:

1) technical and technological (production, manufacturing, processing);

2) commercial (purchase, sale, exchange);

3) financial (attraction of capital and effective management of them);

4) security (protection of property and individuals);

5) accounting (inventory, balance sheets, production costs, statistics);

6) administrative (foresight, organization, command, coordination and control).

Fayol called the management of these operations general management.

Fayol's merit lies in the fact that he divided all management functions into general, related to any field of activity, and specific, related directly to the management of an industrial enterprise.

Special attention Fayol devoted himself to making a forecast and a plan. He pointed out the need for short-term and long-term planning in each organization, as well as the need for planning on a national scale, based on the needs of society as a whole and in particular production.

Fayol's merit is also the assertion that each member of society needs, to a greater or lesser extent, knowledge of the principles of administrative activity.

Course work

subject: Control theory

on the topic: F. Taylor's Scientific School of Management

Management as a historical process has developed since the moment when it became necessary to regulate the joint activities of groups of people. History knows many examples of rational management not only of individual collectives, but also of entire states and empires. At the same time, the level of management, its quality was the defining beginning in the successful development of entire peoples, however, no reliable data on the development of management theory have reached us, and the boom of theoretical thought began in the beginning. XX century. It is related to the fact that in 1911 the engineer Taylor published his research in the book Principles of Scientific Management. This year is traditionally considered the beginning of the recognition of management science and an independent field of study. There are basically 5 directions: the school of scientific management, the school of administrative management, the school from the standpoint of human relations and human psychology, the school from the standpoint of human behavior in production, quantitative approach. True, in some sources of literature the relationship between schools is very smoothed, the classical school is called administrative, and the administrative school is called scientific.

The purpose of this work is to consider scientific school management of F. Taylor, as the founder of the scientific management system. I think for this it is necessary to reveal the biography of the scientist. Born March 20, 1856, Germantown, Pennsylvania - March 21, 1915, Philadelphia - American engineer, inventor, founder of the scientific organization of labor. Born into a lawyer's family with deep cultural traditions; traveling around Europe, he was educated in France and Germany, then at the F. Exter Academy, New Hampshire, in 1874 he graduated from Harvard Law College, but due to deterioration of his eyesight, he could not continue his education and got a job as a press worker in industrial workshops hydraulic factory in Philadelphia, in 1878, thanks to his perseverance (at that time there was a peak of economic depression), he got a job as a laborer at the Midvale steel mill, was a patternmaker and mechanic. And from 1882 to 1883 - the head of mechanical workshops. At the same time, while studying in the evenings, I received technical education(Degree of Mechanical Engineer, Stevens Institute of Technology, 1883). In 1884, Taylor became chief engineer, the year he first used the system of differential pay for productivity. He issued patents for about 100 of his inventions and rationalizations. From 1890 to 1893, Taylor, general manager of the Manufacture Investment Company, Philadelphia, owner of paper presses in Maine and Wisconsin, set up his own management consulting business, the first in management history. From 1898 to 1901 he was a consultant to the Bethlehem Steel Company, pc. Pennsylvania. In 1906, Taylor became president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and in 1911 established the Society for the Promotion of Scientific Management (later it became known as the Taylor Society).

Research. Since 1895, Taylor began his world-famous research on the organization of work. His first experiments, set on the famous worker Schmidt, were aimed at solving the question of how much iron ore or coal a person can lift on shovels of various sizes so as not to lose working capacity for a long time (as a result of rigorous measurements, the optimal weight was determined = 21 pounds), while he came to the very important conclusion that it is necessary to set not only the time for performing work, but also the time for rest. His system of scientific organization of labor included a number of basic provisions: the scientific foundations of production, the scientific selection of personnel, education and training, and the organization of interaction between managers and workers. He introduced specific requirements for the scientific study of the elements of the production process: the division of a holistic process into minimal parts, the observation and recording of all these elements and the conditions in which they are performed, the exact measurement of these elements in time and in terms of effort. For this, one of the first, began to use the timing of executive work actions. His idea of ​​dividing work into the simplest operations led to the creation of the assembly line, which played such a significant role in the growth of US economic power in the first half of the 20th century.

1.1 Prerequisites for the emergence of scientific management

Management, managerial work, its transformation into a special type of activity, different from direct production, is connected with the cooperation of labor. Labor cooperation in a primitive form already existed in the primitive communal system: as a simple combination of the efforts of numerous workers. But researchers in the history of management emphasize that certain signs of management appear already in ancient societies- Sumer, Egypt, Akkad - there is a transformation of the highest caste of priests into religious functionaries, and in fact, managers. This was facilitated by a change in religious principles - instead of human sacrifices, they began to present symbolic sacrifices in the form of offerings of money, livestock, oil, handicrafts. As a result, a new type appears among the priests business people, who, in addition to observing ritual honors, were in charge of collecting taxes, managed the state treasury, and were in charge of property affairs. They kept business documentation, accounting calculations, carried out supply, control, planning and other functions that today determine the content of the management process. By-products of such management activities were the emergence of writing, since it was impossible to remember the entire amount of business information, and the need for calculations. Thus, at the very beginning, management was formed as an instrument of commercial and religious activities, turning over time into social institution and professional occupation.

Another leap in the development of management is associated with the name of the Babylonian ruler Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC). For effective management extensive possessions, he was the first to develop the so-called code of Hammurabi, which contained 285 laws of state administration, regulated the whole variety of social relations and served as a guide for administrators of the entire empire. Another innovation was that Hammurabi developed an original leadership style, constantly maintaining the image of himself as a guardian and protector of the people. So, for the first time during the reign of Hammurabi, a purely secular manner of government appears, a formal system of organizing and regulating people's relations arises, and, finally, the first sprouts of a leadership style are born.

Much later, King Nebuchadnezzar 11 (605-562 BC), the designer of the Tower of Babel and Hanging Gardens, introduced a system of production control at textile factories and granaries, using in particular colored labels to determine the timing of receipt and storage of yarn.

A significant number of managerial innovations took place in Ancient Rome. The most famous among them are the system of territorial administration of Diocletian (243-316 BC) and the administrative organization of the Roman catholic church which has remained unchanged to this day.

The Great Industrial Revolution of the 17th century had a much more significant impact on the theory and practice of management than all previous revolutions. As industry outgrew the boundaries of manufacture and matured modern system share capital, the owners of capital increasingly moved away from doing business. The owner-manager was replaced by hundreds and thousands of shareholders. A new, diversified (dispersed) form of ownership has emerged. Instead of a single owner, there were many shareholders, i.e. joint (and share) owners of one capital. Instead of a single owner-manager, several hired managers appeared, recruited from all, and not just the privileged classes. At the same time, administration was understood as the formulation of the general goals and policies of the company, and management in the original and narrow technical sense was understood as control over their implementation.

The growth in production volume, the acceleration of capital turnover, the expansion of banking operations, the influence of modern scientific and technological revolution extremely complicates management. It could no longer be the sphere of application of one common sense, but required special knowledge, skills and abilities of experts. The language of conjecture and intuition acquires a clear calculation basis - everything is translated into formulas and money.

Everyone manufacturing process stands out as an independent function and sphere of activity of management. The number of functions is growing, and the problem of their coordination and connection on a new basis is becoming more acute. To unite them, a staff of specialists (department, subdivision) is assigned to each function, and general coordination functions are given to management.

It is important to note the following regularity here. Initially, the owner and manager are presented in one person. Management is then separated from capital and production. Instead of one capitalist-manager, two communities arise: shareholders and hired managers. The next stage of development: there are many managers and each one monitors a specific function. After that, a single specialist manager is again split up, and a community of specialists appears instead. Now the manager coordinates the work of specialists, using special coordination tools for this, in particular, the decision-making system, the goals of the company's policy, etc.

Management originated in the private sector as business management, but rose to its feet as a scientific and social force not in medium and small firms, although free enterprise is very developed there, but in large corporations. The annual incomes of some corporations often exceed the budgets of many states. The well-being of both the state and the private sector increasingly depended on the quality of governance. Management attracts the best forces of the nation. Even people of average ability, having passed hard way manager, become prominent personalities. If in the middle of the 19th century the main battles were between labor and capital, then in the 20th century the confrontation became managerial. It is not the capitalist who is now opposed to the worker, but the leader to the subordinate. If in the pre-capitalist period of the development of society, the function of management was not yet isolated from direct productive activity and was reduced mainly to the function of supervision and compulsion to work, now the development of capitalism leads to an increase in the role of the functions of management of production, which is becoming more and more complicated, differentiated, and becomes independent. specific area of ​​activity. Numerous staffs of specialists are emerging, specially trained in business schools and vocational training systems. There is an institution of professional managers-managers who become the main figure in private and public enterprises.

F. Taylor School of Scientific Management

Founder of the School of Scientific Management counts Frederick Taylor. Initially, Taylor himself called his system "management by tasks." The concept of "scientific management" was first used in 1910 by Louis Brandweiss.

Frederick Taylor believed that management as a specific function consists of a set of principles that can be applied to all types of social activity.

Fundamentals of Frederick Taylor.

Scientific study of each individual type of labor activity.

Selection, training and education of workers and managers based on scientific criteria.

Cooperation between management and workers.

Equal and fair distribution of responsibilities.

Taylor claims that in charge of management involves selecting people who can meet job requirements, and then preparing and training these people to work in a particular direction. Preparation is the defining moment for increase of efficiency of work.

Taylor believes that the specialization of labor is equally important at both the managerial and executive levels. He believes that planning should be carried out in the planning department by officials who are comprehensively trained and can perform all planning functions.

Frederick Taylor created differential payment system, according to which workers received wages in accordance with their production, i.e., he attached the main importance to the system of piecework wage rates. This means that workers who produce more than the daily standard quota should receive a higher piece rate than those who do not produce the norm. The main motivating factor of working people is the opportunity to earn money by increasing labor productivity.

The role of differential payment.

The system of differentiated piece rates should stimulate greater productivity of workers, since this raises the piece rate of wages.

The use of Taylor's ideas provides a significant increase in labor productivity.

Taylor and his followers analyzed the relationship between the physical nature of work and the psychological nature of workers to establish job definitions. And, therefore, it could not solve the problem of division of the organization into departments, ranges of control and assignments of authority.

Taylor's main idea was that management should become a system based on certain scientific principles; should be carried out by specially developed methods and measures. It is necessary to normalize and standardize not only the technique of production, but also labor, its organization and management. In his concept, Taylor pays considerable attention to the "human factor".

Scientific management, according to Taylor, focused on the work performed at the lowest level of the organization.

Taylorism interprets man as a factor of production and presents the worker as a mechanical executor of the "scientifically sound instructions" prescribed to him in order to achieve the goals of the organization.

Creators schools of scientific management proceeded from the fact that, using observations, measurements, logic and analysis, it is possible to improve most manual labor operations, to achieve their more efficient implementation.

Main principles of scientific management school:

Rational organization of work - involves the replacement of traditional methods of work with a number of rules formed on the basis of work analysis, and the subsequent correct placement workers and training them in best practices.

Development of the formal structure of the organization.

Determination of measures for cooperation between the manager and the worker, i.e., the separation of executive and managerial functions.

The founders of the school of scientific management are:

F. W. Taylor;

Frank and Lily Gilbert;

Henry Gantt.

F. W. Taylor- an engineer-practitioner and a manager who, based on the analysis of the content of the work and the definition of its main elements developed the methodological framework for labor rationing, standardized work operations, put into practice scientific approaches to the selection, placement and stimulation of workers.

Taylor designed and implemented complex system organizational measures:

timing;

instructional cards;

methods of retraining workers;

planning office;

collection of social information.

He attached considerable importance to the leadership style, the correct system of disciplinary sanctions and labor incentives. Labor in his system is the main source of efficiency. A key element of this approach was that people who produced more, were rewarded more.

A look at piecework and bonus wage systems:

F.Taylor: workers should be paid in proportion to their contribution, i.e. piecework. Workers who produce more than the daily quota should be paid more, i.e. differentiated piecework wages;

G. Gantt: The worker is guaranteed a weekly wage, but if he overfulfills the norm, he earns a bonus plus a higher payment per unit of output.

Scientific management is most closely associated with the work of Frank and Lilia Gilbert, who were primarily concerned with the study of physical work in production processes and explored the ability to increase output by reducing effort spent on their production.

Gilberts studied work operations using movie cameras in combination with a microchronometer. Then, with the help of freeze frames, they analyzed the elements of operations, changed the structure of work operations in order to eliminate unnecessary, unproductive movements, and sought to increase work efficiency.

F. Gilbert's studies on the rationalization of workers' labor provided a threefold increase in labor productivity.

L. Gilbert laid the foundation for the field of management, which is now called "personnel management". She explored issues such as recruitment, placement and training. Scientific management did not neglect the human factor.

An important contribution of this school was systematic use of incentives in order to interest workers in increasing productivity and production volume.

Taylor's closest student was G. Gantt, who was engaged in developments in the field of bonus payment methods, compiled charts for production planning (Gantt's tape charts), and also contributed to the development of leadership theory. Gantt's works characterize the consciousness of the leading role of the human factor.

Representatives of the school of scientific management mainly devoted their work to what is called the management of production. She was engaged in efficiency improvement at the level below the managerial level, the so-called non-management level.

Criticism of the scientific management school: a mechanistic approach to management: the teaching of management was reduced to the teaching of industrial engineering; reduction of labor motivation to the satisfaction of the utilitarian needs of workers.

The concept of scientific management was a turning point. It almost instantly became a subject of general interest. Many branches of business activity began to apply scientific management not only in the USA, but also in England, France and other countries.

G. Ford, mechanic and entrepreneur, organizer of mass production of automobiles in the United States, was the successor of Taylor's teachings and implemented his theoretical provisions in practice.

G. Ford's principles of production organization: replacement of manual work with machine work; maximum division of labor; specialization; arrangement of equipment along the technological process; mechanization of transport works; regulated rhythm of production.

The ideas laid down by the school of scientific management were developed and applied to the management of organizations in general, primarily by representatives of the administrative school of management.

Thus, the foundation was laid for the development schools of SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 1885-1920 (according to other sources - 1880-1924). Taylor's contribution: He separated the planning function from the management function. He pointed to the need for a complete, almost revolutionary change in the attitude of managers and workers to their duties. Everyone should work in harmony with each other. A strict scientific system of knowledge about the laws of rational organization of labor, constituent elements which is the mathematical method of calculating the cost, the differential system of remuneration, the method of studying time and movements (timekeeping), the method of dividing and rationalizing labor methods, instruction cards, and much more, which later became part of the so-called mechanism of scientific management. Taylor presented the award not only as a monetary reward. He always advised entrepreneurs to make concessions to the workers, because these concessions are also a reward, as well as various semi-philanthropic innovations: the organization of baths, canteens, reading rooms, evening courses, kindergartens. All this Taylor considered a valuable "means for creating more skillful and intelligent workers", which "causes them good feelings towards the owners." Taylor proved that if you introduce appropriate improvements in the labor process and interest the worker, then in the allotted time he will do 3-4 times more than under normal conditions. The psychological impact on workers that Taylor recommended sometimes took original forms. So, in one factory, where mostly young women worked, a huge thoroughbred cat was purchased, which became the favorite of the workers. Playing with this animal during a break improved their mood, in connection with which they set to work with more energy. As you can see, much of what Taylor proposed to use in the labor process had a psychological basis. And the concept of "human factor" in psychological terms was first introduced into scientific circulation by Taylor - then it was developed by the classics of management. Thus, Taylor did not neglect the human component of organizations, as many believe, but emphasized the individual rather than the collective qualities of people. In recent years, many researchers have begun to doubt Taylor's contribution: Enemy and Perroni - Taylor did not conduct experiments. Wragé and Stotka wrote that Taylor derived most of his principles from the manuscript of his colleague Morris Cooke. However, Locke wrote that the criticism of Taylor was unfounded. Scientific management and Taylor have become synonymous. Prof. Ralph Davies, Dean of the Department of Management at Ohio University, winner of the Taylor Prize (1959), author of numerous works on management, noted that the entire modern American philosophy of scientific management was laid down by Taylor's works. Harlow Pearson, a prominent American figure in the field of production management theory, who was one of the managing directors of the Taylor Society, gives an assessment similar to R. Davis of the legacy of F. Taylor. During the period we are considering, he was the initiator and editor of the collection "Scientific Management in American Industry", published by the "Taylor Society". The sections of the collection written by Person set out the essence of the Taylor system, and then the principles of scientific management, as they appeared to Person in 1929 and which, as applied to the enterprise, differed little from those set out by Taylor at the beginning of the century. Person also tried to consider the problems of production management at the sectoral and even national level. Successive representatives of the "classical" school are trying in every possible way to take Taylor under protection. Thus, in one of his papers, published in 1955, "Management as a system of thought", Urwick strongly opposed the notion that Taylor's "scientific management" was "inhuman", and indignantly rejected attempts to portray Taylor as "cold, prudent, impartial scientist, equally indifferent to human hopes and human fears ... ". Urwick emphasizes that it is impossible to completely identify the works and worldview of Taylor himself and the entire "classical" school, and in order to "rehabilitate" Taylor, places are found in his works where the importance of the human factor is recognized. According to the table, it is easy to see that these principles contain a number of provisions formulated by representatives of the "classical" school.

F. Taylor considered scientific management as an effective weapon for bringing together the interests of all personnel due to the growth in the well-being of workers and the establishment of their closer cooperation with the owners and administration in achieving the production and economic objectives of the organization. F. Taylor believed that for those who would perceive the scientific management system in full, the consequence was the elimination of all disputes between the parties, since the formation of an "honest day's work" for a worker would be the subject of scientific research instead of fraud attempts. F. Taylor's significant contribution to management theory was the separation of managerial functions from the actual performance of work. F. Taylor, according to his followers, made an "intellectual revolution" by interpreting industrial management as a joint activity of managers and workers based on a common interest. Management was characterized by him as the process of merging material resources and technology with the actual human potential to achieve the goals of the organization. Scientific management, noted F. Taylor, contributes to the development of a sense of camaraderie, since the relationship of people in production is no longer the relationship of masters and subordinates, as in the old management systems, but the relationship of mutual assistance between friends who help each other to do the work for which each one of them is better prepared. On the other hand, F. Taylor emphasized that driving force labor productivity - the personal interest of the employee.

The main tasks of the administration, according to F. Taylor, are:

Work out scientifically each element of the work instead of using primitive empirical methods;

To select, train and develop employees on a scientific basis, whereas in the past they independently chose their work and prepared for it as best they could;

Combine workers and science together, ensure friendly cooperation between workers to carry out work in accordance with the developed scientific principles;

To ensure a stricter division of labor between workers and managers, so that executive work is concentrated on the side of the former, and command and supervision on the side of the latter.

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF F. TAYLOR'S SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT SCHOOL AND A. FAYOL'S ADMINISTRATIVE SCHOOL

The founder of the school of scientific management is Frederick Taylor. Taylor originally referred to his system as "task management." The concept of "scientific management" was first used in 1910 by Louis Brandweiss.

Frederick Taylor believed that management as a special function consists of principles that can be applied to social activities.

The basic principles of Frederick Taylor:

1. Scientific study of each individual type of labor activity.

2. Selection, training and education of workers and managers based on scientific criteria.

3. Uniform and fair distribution of responsibilities.

4. Interaction of administration with workers. Taylor believed that it was the responsibility of a manager to select people who could meet the job requirements, and then train and train those people to work in a particular direction.

He developed differential payment system, according to which workers received wages in accordance with their output. The system of differentiated piece rates should stimulate greater productivity of workers, since this raises the piece rate of wages.

Taylor's main idea was that management should become a system based on certain scientific principles, should be carried out by specially developed methods and activities.

Administrative (classical) school of Henri Fayol.

The founder of the administrative school of government is Henri Fayol (1826–1926).

Representatives of the administrative school considered management as a universal process, consisting of such management functions as planning, organization, motivation, control and coordination, proposed a systematic theory of management of the entire organization (by dividing the organization into units that perform the main functions - finance, production, marketing) . The main task of the administrative school is the creation of universal principles of management, following which the organization will function successfully.

Management principles formulated by Henri Fayol: unity of command (provides unity of point of view, unity of action and unity of management), division of labor (specialization), discipline, unity of leadership (activities pursuing the same goal must have one leader and be guided by general plan), justice, power and responsibility, remuneration, initiative (contemplation and implementation of the plan), order, centralization, corporate spirit, etc.

The classical school of management organization - the School of Scientific Management - is the very first school in the theory of organization. The heyday of this school dates back to the period from the end of the 90s. 19th century by the end of the 20s. 20th century “Taylorism is based on the assumption that you can manage “scientifically”, hence the name of this school.

Places and personalities characterizing the formation of this school are very different:

§ USA - Frederick Winslow Taylor, Harington Emerson, the Gilberts and others;

§ France - Henri Fayol;

§ Germany - Max Weber;

§ Poland - Kottorbinsky;

§ Russia - Peter Kerzhinsky, Nikolai Vitke.

The theorists of this school postulated for the first time that the object of management in an organization is a person, and only he can be managed.

Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) is one of the creators of modern management, the founder and main developer of the ideas of the scientific management school. Born and lived in Philadelphia, one of the most industrialized cities in America at that time. Unlike many management theorists, Taylor was neither a research scientist nor a business school professor. He was a practitioner, having received an engineering education, starting as a worker, he went through several levels of hierarchy and rose to the level of chief engineer in a steel company. He is a social engineer. He lacked entrepreneurial talent. He was a lively and scandalous person.

The founding premise of the school scientific management is that work (in particular, the work of performers) can and should be studied using scientific methods. According to Taylor, an objective analysis of the facts and data collected in the workplace can form the basis for determining the best way organization of work. Moreover, it is the manager's responsibility to determine this best way.

The essence of scientific management is expressed by Taylor in the following four principles:

1) to develop optimal methods for the implementation of work on the basis of a scientific study of the costs of time, movements, efforts, etc., and to follow these developed standards in absolute terms;

2) with the help of certain criteria, select, and then train, educate and develop the workforce, and the placement of workers takes place in those jobs where they can give the greatest benefit;

3) ensure a reasonable division of labor and responsibility between managers and employees. Leaders ( functional managers) perform the work for which they are better prepared than workers, that is, they exercise control in specialized areas ( managers think, workers work). Pay based on performance.

4) maintaining friendly relations between workers and managers in order to ensure the possibility of scientific management.

These four statements express main idea scientific management: for each type of human activity, a theoretical justification is developed, and then he is trained, during which he acquires the necessary work skills. This approach is opposed to the method of volitional decisions, when the tasks of managers and workers are not clearly separated. Taylor believed that through a more efficient organization of labor, the total amount of goods could be increased, and the share of each participant could increase without reducing the share of others. Therefore, if both managers and workers perform their tasks more efficiently, then the income of both will increase. Both groups would have to experience what Taylor called a "mental revolution" before the widespread application of scientific management becomes possible. The "intellectual revolution" will consist in creating an atmosphere of mutual understanding between managers and workers on the basis of satisfying common interests.

Division, planning and execution of work

This division of the two functions is based on the specialization of labor, both managers and workers, and on a rational approach to the formation of the management hierarchy in the organization. At each level of the organization there is a specialization of functions. By separating the planning of work and its execution, production organizations form planning departments whose task is to develop accurate daily instructions for managers. Taylor, however, went even further and substantiated the need for specialization of the leaders of the lower levels - groups of performers.

Functional group management

This concept consists in dividing the work by managers in such a way that each person (starting with the assistant manager and below) had as many functions as he could perform. Taylor believed that the traditional functions of the leader of the grassroots group were reduced to planning and management activities. Moreover, planning activities should be carried out in planning departments by employees specializing in these matters. He identified 4 different sub-functions to be performed by 4 different individuals:

§ an employee in the order and direction of work,

§ clerk on instructions,

§ employee on time and cost,

§ an employee for the observance of shop discipline.

The same applies to management activities at the shop level:

§ Shift Supervisor,

§ receiver,

§ head of the repair shop,

§ Head of rationing.

The functional leadership of the group has given rise to specialization of managers. It was assumed that the production process would improve, since neither the worker himself, nor any of the team leaders can be an expert in all sub-functions. On the other hand, the worker who tries to follow the instructions of all the specialized managers can hardly satisfy them all. The bulkiness of such a structure explains its low distribution in industry.

Research in action and time

The most important feature of scientific management is system analysis of work. Taylor and his followers suggested that the way to improve work, namely to make it more efficient, is to define:

1) the best way to complete the task;

2) standard execution time.

The relationship between research and time is so strong that it is impossible to separate one from the other.

Performance improvement includes analysis external environment and the conditions under which the work is done. The purpose of the study is to determine preferred method work, taking into account the raw materials used, the production plan, the work procedure, the tool, equipment, the location of the work and the required manual labor.

Motion Study is a process in which the movement of the main elements related to the machines and tools necessary to perform the work is examined.

Temporary about e study is a fixation of the time required to complete the task after the preferred way of solving it is chosen. There are two methods of research in time that replace the arbitrary estimates of the leader: timing and rationing.

Bonus salary system

An integral aspect of the definition of standard methods and time is the wage system. Taylor abandoned all forms of collective wages, using only an individual form of wages (piecework wages), that is, payment in proportion to the contribution. At the same time, he believed that workers who produced more than the daily quota should be paid more than those who failed to meet the quota. He took the average productivity among the best workers as the norm. If the task was not completed, a fine of 50% was imposed, and if it was overfulfilled, a bonus of 15% was given.

Offering differentiated piecework wages, Taylor proceeded from the fact that the main motivational factor for an employee is the opportunity to earn money. Differentiated piecework wages encourage workers to apply about greater labor effort.

Selection and training

Proponents of the theory of scientific management considered the selection of people capable of meeting the requirements of the job, and then training them so that they can do the job as prescribed, as the most important task of the manager. Previously, workers learned a new trade from experienced workers, traditional work habits were passed from one to another. Business leaders did not consider training as their function. There were no systematized, scientifically substantiated methods of personnel selection. Since the beginning of the century (1910-1915), psychological methods were used in industry to select workers whose mental and physical abilities had to meet the requirements practical work.

Training in working professions, in predetermined ways, is part of scientific management. Without training, efforts to improve performance will be in vain.

The history of the formation of the school scientific management is directly related to the name of Taylor and the results of his practical work. Taylor noted that in the 90s. 19th century American goods could not compete with European counterparts, losing in price and quality. He believed that the problem lay in the management of people. In this regard, he set himself the following tasks, the solution of which was to establish the management of people:

§ increase in labor productivity;

§ removal of social conflicts.

These tasks were relevant at that time, since until the mid-30s. 20th century The US economy was in crisis, social conflicts were growing in the country.

Taylor proceeded from the fact that the worker is by nature stupid, lazy and greedy. Taylor, believed that the worker is a limited, unambitious being, incapable of rationally organizing his own labor, not cooperating with the administration, immensely lazy, cunning when trying to get out of the control of the administration, for the most part reacting to "carrot and stick". At the same time, he said that: "God did not give us another type of resource, we will have to work with them." From here his 4 main principles of management were born (see above).

Before late XIX in. the management structure in the organizations was linear. It had a number of advantages: centralization, a single connection of all links, and a disadvantage: it was impossible to build functional specialists into it. Taylor refuses to apply this structure. And offers a new functional structure aimed at working with performers. It divides and standardizes management functions. It divides all managers into administrators and functional specialists. In this structure, the administrative workers are the foremen in charge of the fu planning function works (see above 4 functions).

Functional specialists work in departments (human resources, accounting) and the main thing they do is to fulfill control functions: the development of new forms of work, the organization of labor of workers, the creation of conditions for management, the training of workers, although they also have the right to give instructions down.

As a result, we get that each subordinate has several bosses. And although the absolute advantage functional structure was that for the first time it made it possible to find a place for functional specialists, its disadvantage is that it created a positional conflict situation in which the subordinate receives conflicting tasks from different leaders.

What gave Taylor the introduction of a functional organizational structure?

1) he eliminated the social conflict at the enterprise;

2) he removed trade unions to enterprises (since, according to Taylor, the main incentive to work is money, his workers managed to increase productivity by 6 times, and wages increased by 2.5-3 times)

3) he singled out the leaders (“Stakhanovists”), who fulfilled the norm by 600-800%, these achievements were consecrated in the media, and the leaders were created all the conditions for work and paid huge salaries;

4) he presented his structure as the embodiment of social harmony and believed that he had achieved it.

During the years of the Soviet five-year plans, they tried to introduce the methods of scientific management on Soviet enterprises. But Taylorism has never been applied in its purest form. No one has achieved increased productivity without changing technology.

Taylor's system gave a big gain in productivity, but divorced an unwieldy managerial apparatus. At the same time, Taylor, while optimizing the performance of individual functions and operations, did not improve the management of the organization as a whole.

Management in 1920-1950

Management thought is influenced by the achievements of many sciences, and the evolution of management in the twentieth century. is precisely to use these achievements to solve the main problem - how to get desired results based on the concerted actions of many people producing products and services and using diverse resources.

The first breakthrough in management thought that occurred at the beginning of the twentieth century. and related to Taylorism, was based on the premise that it was possible to govern scientifically. This was both an insight and an illusion, but in fact it consisted in transferring the ideas of engineering science to management at the lower production level. True, quite soon the world of management realized the fundamental limitations of Taylorism.

The next major step in the development of Western managerial thought, closely related to the previous one, was the dissemination of the principles of management formulated by A. Fayol, which can be recognized as the first independent result of the science of administration in its now classic version focused primarily on building formal organizational structures and systems.

The third breakthrough in managerial thought, comparable in significance to the first two, was the emergence of E. Mayo's "human relations" school at the turn of the 1930s. In the 40-60s of the last century, this direction was continued by the development theories of organizations as social systems, but by its nature it was nothing more than the use of the achievements of psychology and sociology - the sciences of human behavior- in management.