Scientific discoveries and inventions of the Middle Ages. Scientific discoveries and inventions

Sailors in the XI century, because. this device was used until the 14th century only on ships to keep track of time. The clock complemented the magnetic compass and helped in the navigation of the ship. But the only sources that talk about it are magazines. And only in 1328 the hourglass materialized on the canvases of Ambrosio Lorenzetti. Since the 15th century, this device has gained great popularity and has been used on land literally everywhere. It was the first accurate time meter. Even special people appeared on the ships, who were responsible for the timely turning of the clock.

Blast furnace - XII century

The Middle Ages is the real era of iron. Knightly armor, weapons, household tools - a lot began to be made of metal. Low-melting ores ceased to meet the requirements of medieval civilization. They were replaced by refractory metals. And they needed completely different ovens. Demand creates supply. And here was shtukofen - a prototype of a blast furnace. The first were built in Shtrya and the Czech Republic. The temperature in them was higher, the melting proceeded more slowly and. At the output, three grades of metal were obtained - cast iron, steel, malleable iron. The next step was the Blauofen, a blowing furnace, which was later upgraded to a blast furnace.

Glasses - XIII century

Eyeglasses, without which it is impossible to imagine modern civilization, were invented in the middle of the century. The earliest documented mention of them dates back to 1268 and belongs to Roger Bacon. The first to show a bespectacled man is a 1352 work by the Italian monk Tommaso da Modena, depicting Hugh Provens rewriting manuscripts. The man is wearing round glasses.

Mechanical clock (XIII cent.)

Presumably, a mechanical clock was invented at the monastery to accurately determine the time of the service, for which all the monks were summoned by the monastery bell. The first mechanical clocks were huge and placed in a tower. They only had an hour hand. The oldest, preserved to this day, are in Salisbury Cathedral (UK). They were created in 1386. The Rouen clock of 1389 still has a well-oiled mechanism and works.

Quarantine - XIV century

In the 14th century, with the growth of maritime trade, plague epidemics also increased. The realization that this dreadful disease was brought in by ships from the Levant led to the introduction of precautionary measures in Venice, which were called quarantine from the Italian word "quaranta" - forty. Arriving ships were isolated for a period of 40 days, during which it was possible to find out whether there was a disease on the ship or not. The choice of a segment of exactly 40 days was due to the choice of the gospel parable about the forty-day solitude of Christ in the wilderness.

In 1423, the first quarantine station was opened - lazaretto, on an island near Venice. This ruled out the transfer of the disease and its spread in the city. The quarantine system was also adopted by other European countries.

Gutenberg printing press - 15th century

Paper and printing is an invention of China. But Europeans in the 15th century figured out how to create books quickly by inventing mechanical printing. The first mention of such a mechanism refers to the trial in Strasbourg, which took place in 1439. The invention of the printing press is attributed according to some sources to Johannes Gutenberg, according to others, more meagerly, to Lawrence Janson Coster. The printing press was designed on the basis of a paper press. This mechanism could print up to 250 pages per hour.

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The most important discoveries of the Middle Ages in the field of science and technology

Introduction

1. Science and technology

Chronology and structure of the Middle Ages

Discoverers

Genius da Vinci

5. Biological knowledge in the Middle Ages

6. Achievements in medicine

In the language of mathematics

Forward to progress

Conclusion

List of used sources and literature

Introduction

The purpose of this essay is to analyze the scientific and technological progress of the Middle Ages. Tasks:

Consider the Middle Ages as an era.

Consider the main discoveries of science and technology V-XVII centuries.

The relevance of this topic is due to the fact that since the beginning of the 5th century, science began its difficult path into the age of knowledge and inventions. In its most important areas, amazing discoveries have taken place, various studies have been carried out on the basis of combining science with technology.

In our modern life, electricity, cars have become commonplace, what can I say, a book - what could be simpler, sheets of paper with typed text. But a few centuries ago, it took a lot of effort and time to print a book. The Middle Ages is what this era is called. The era began leading advances in science and technology. From this era, poetic works have come down to us, in which peoples captured their genius, wonderful monuments of folk art, magnificent masses of Gothic architecture, wonderful, beautiful artistic and poetic creations of the Renaissance, the first successes of awakening scientific thought. This era has given us a number of great people who are proud of humanity. Such as Copernicus, Galileo, Bruno, Brahe, Newton. All these and many other outstanding personalities, whose lives and activities accelerated the progress of mankind, belong to the Middle Ages. The great technical inventions made in the Middle Ages had a huge impact on all areas of the economy and culture, including the development of science. Thus, the Middle Ages contributed their own, and considerable, share to the common treasury of material and spiritual values ​​of all mankind.

1. Science and technology

Science as knowledge and activity for the production of knowledge arose from the beginning of human culture and formed part of the spiritual culture of society, although the word "science" itself is of relatively recent origin. Translated from Latin "scientia" (science) means knowledge.

The word "technique" comes from the Greek "techne" - art, skill, skill. The main meaning of this word today is the means of labor, production.

Historically, technology has gone from primitive tools to the most complex modern automatic machines, developing on the basis of the achievements of science.

Science and technology throughout the history of mankind have been walking hand in hand and have become especially inseparable in our days, when science is a direct productive force, when it is impossible to create samples of new technology without scientific research. The development of a model of new technology, as a rule, begins with scientific research - with the conduct of research work (R&D). Radical improvement of technology is possible only thanks to science. Nowadays, it is almost impossible to separate the spheres of influence of science and technology. Not a single significant modern scientific discovery is practically impossible on a piece of paper, that is, without the involvement of technology, experimental equipment. At the same time, the functions of science are wider. The main ones are: descriptive, systematizing, explanatory, production-practical, prognostic, ideological. Only the production-practical function is directly related to the creation of technology.

2. Chronology and structure of the Middle Ages

The Middle Ages (Middle Ages) is a historical period following the Ancient World and preceding the New Age. The beginning of the Middle Ages is considered the collapse of the Western Roman Empire at the end of the 5th century. The Middle Ages contains several stages within itself: the dark time - the early Middle Ages; high - the middle period of the Middle Ages; later (mature, developed, classical) Middle Ages.

The Early Middle Ages is a period of European history that began shortly after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Lasted about five centuries, approximately from 500 to 1000 years.

The High Middle Ages is a period of European history that lasted approximately from 1000 to 1300. The era of the High Middle Ages replaced the Early Middle Ages and preceded the Late Middle Ages. The main characterizing trend of this period was the rapid increase in the population of Europe, which in turn led to dramatic changes in the social, political and other spheres of life.

The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe a period of European history in the 16th and 17th centuries.

The Late Middle Ages was preceded by the High Middle Ages, and the subsequent period is called the Modern Age. Historians differ sharply in defining the upper limit of the Late Middle Ages. If in Russian historical science it is customary to define its end as the English Civil War, then in Western European science the end of the Middle Ages is usually associated with the beginning of the Church Reformation or the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries. The late Middle Ages is also called the Renaissance.

The most common chronological framework of the period: the middle of the 5th century. - middle of the 15th century However, any periodization of the Middle Ages is conditional.

Geography of the Middle Ages. The most common geographical areas of development of "scientific" thinking and technological innovations in the period under review: "Western Europe"; "Byzantium" and the zone of its influence; "Arab East"; "Vostok" (India, China, Japan); "Pre-Columbian America". The first three areas were most closely related.

The structure of medieval scientific knowledge includes four main areas: physical and cosmological, the core of which is the doctrine of motion. Based on the natural philosophy of Aristotle, it combines an array of physical, astronomical and mathematical knowledge; the doctrine of light; optics is part of the general doctrine - the "metaphysics of light", within which a model of the Universe is built, corresponding to the principles of neoplatonism; doctrine of livingunderstood as the science of the soul, considered as the principle and source of both plant, and animal, and intelligent life; complex astrologer - medicalknowledge, the doctrine of minerals and alchemy.

Technical innovations that had a radical impact on the entire culture of the Middle Ages include: the adoption of gunpowder, which quickly led to the creation of powder production (the first factory); development of powder granulation technology, which increases its efficiency; the rapid development of the production of firearms has fundamentally changed the way of warfare and led to the development of new technologies in foundry, aimed at improving the accuracy of throwing; windmills, the adoption of paper, which led to the creation of printing; the creation and introduction into the economic and cultural circulation of various mechanical devices that eventually created an entire infrastructure; watchmaking development.

3. Discoverers

Roger Bacon (1214-1292)English alchemist, outstanding philosopher. In 1240, he was the first in Europe to describe the technology of making gunpowder. He did a lot of experiments in search of ways to transform some substances into others. For refusing to reveal the secrets of obtaining gold (which he did not know), Bacon was condemned by fellow believers and spent a long 15 years in a church dungeon. At the behest of the general of the order, the works of the monk-naturalist were chained to a table in the monastery library in Oxford as punishment. Bacon foresaw the great importance of mathematics, without which, in his opinion, no science can exist, and a number of discoveries (the telephone, self-propelled carts, aircraft, etc.).

Johann Gutenberg (1397 -1468) German jeweler and inventor of printing.

Gutenberg's ingenious invention consisted in the fact that he made movable raised letters from metal, cut out in reverse, typed lines from them and, using a press, imprinted on paper.

With limited funds, no experienced workers, no improved tools, Gutenberg nevertheless achieved remarkable success. Until 1456, he cast at least five different types, printed the Latin grammar of Aelius Donatus (several sheets of it have come down to us and are kept in the National Library in Paris), several papal indulgences and, finally, two Bibles, 36-line and 42-line; the last, known as the Mazarin Bible, was printed in 1453-1465. with high quality.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)Polish astronomer, mathematician, economist, canon. He is best known as the author of the medieval heliocentric system of the world.

The heliocentric theory, which claimed that the Earth revolves around the Sun, and not vice versa, as scientists used to think from ancient times. Observing the movement of celestial bodies, Copernicus came to the conclusion that Ptolemy's theory was incorrect. After thirty years of hard work, long observations and complex mathematical calculations, he convincingly proved that the Earth is only one of the planets and that all planets revolve around the Sun. True, Copernicus still believed that the stars are motionless and are located on the surface of a huge sphere, at a great distance from the Earth. This was due to the fact that at that time there were no such powerful telescopes that could be used to observe the sky and stars. Having discovered that the Earth and the planets are satellites of the Sun, Nicolaus Copernicus was able to explain the apparent movement of the Sun across the sky, the strange entanglement in the movement of some planets, and the apparent rotation of the firmament.

The fate of the new hypothesis was not easy. The book on the rotations of the celestial spheres (1543) was a shock to astronomers in the 16th century. Many scholars who doubted the infallibility of Ptolemaic constructions were ready to accept the theory of Copernicus. But, of course, the replacement of the old theory by the new one did not happen immediately. Not the entire scientific world has adopted the heliocentric system - and not at all for ideological reasons. Of course, the sharply negative position in relation to the teachings of Copernicus of the Christian church played its role. Initially, the church did not pay attention to the philosophical consequences of the very possibility of putting the Earth on a par with other planets, but in 1616 it corrected its "oversight" - by decree of the Inquisition, the book of Copernicus was included "until correction" in the index of prohibited books and remained banned until 1828 of the year. The secluded life and the late publication of the work saved Nicolaus Copernicus from the persecution that his followers were subjected to. Copernicus was a clergyman and sincerely believing Catholic. Creating his model of the universe, he sought not to conflict with the church, but to find a "golden mean" between faith and scientific truth: both were equally important for Copernicus. However, the heliocentric theory proposed by Copernicus ultimately overturned established ideas about the universe and marked the beginning of the first scientific revolution.

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)Danish astronomer, astrologer and alchemist. He was the first in Europe to make systematic and high-precision astronomical observations, which Kepler used to discover the laws of planetary motion. In 1572, he noticed a supernova - immeasurably distant and very bright - whose appearance in the "unchanging" space beyond the Moon would be impossible. A few years later, Brahe observed an equally incredible appearance of a comet. As a result of large-scale and systematic observations, the researcher determined the position of many celestial bodies and published the first modern catalog of stars.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)Italian scientist, physicist, mechanic and astronomer, one of the founders of natural science; poet, philologist and critic. He laid the foundations of modern mechanics: put forward the idea of ​​the relativity of motion, established the laws of inertia, free fall and the motion of bodies on an inclined plane, the addition of motions; discovered the isochronism of pendulum oscillations; was the first to investigate the strength of beams.

The famous story of how Archimedes jumped out of the bath and ran naked through the streets shouting "Eureka!" was known in Galileo's time as widely as it is today. Archimedes then found a way to determine whether the royal crown was made of pure gold or not. Galileo decided to perfect this ancient method. He invented hydrostatic scales, which could weigh objects in air and water. After that, he repeated the experiment of Archimedes and presented the results in a short treatise called "The Small Scales".

In 1609, Galileo independently built his first telescope with a convex lens and a concave eyepiece. The tube gave approximately a threefold increase. Soon he managed to build a telescope giving a magnification of 32 times and discovered mountains on the Moon, 4 satellites of Jupiter, phases near Venus, spots on the Sun. A number of Galileo's telescopic discoveries contributed to the establishment of the heliocentric system of the world, which Galileo actively promoted, for which he was put on trial by the Inquisition (1633), which forced him to renounce the teachings of Nicolaus Copernicus. Until the end of his life, Galileo was considered a "prisoner of the Inquisition" and was forced to live in his villa Arcetri near Florence. In 1992, Pope John Paul II declared the decision of the Inquisition Court erroneous and rehabilitated Galileo.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)great English physicist, mathematician and astronomer. Isaac Newton was the greatest scientist since Galileo. His work "The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (1687) convincingly demonstrated that the earthly and celestial spheres are subject to the same laws of nature, and all material objects - to the three laws of motion. Moreover, Newton formulated the law of universal gravitation and mathematically substantiated the laws that govern these processes. The Newtonian model of the universe remained virtually unchanged until the new scientific revolution of the early 20th century, which was based on the works of Albert Einstein.

4. The genius of da Vinci

I would also like to single out one great personality of the Middle Ages.

This is an Italian painter, a skilled architect, engineer, technician, scientist, mathematician, anatomist, musician and sculptor, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). The abilities and capabilities of Leonardo da Vinci were, without exaggeration, supernatural. There is a version that Leonardo da Vinci could penetrate into parallel worlds, where he took the ideas of his many wonderful inventions. At that time they were really perceived as a miracle.

Leonardo da Vinci was an excellent magician (his contemporaries called him a magician). He could call a multi-colored flame from a boiling liquid by pouring wine into it; easily turned white wine into red; with one blow he broke a cane, the ends of which were placed on two glasses, without breaking either of them; applied a little of his saliva to the end of the pen and the inscription on the paper becomes black. The miracles that Leonardo showed so impressed his contemporaries that he was seriously suspected of serving "black magic". In addition, strange, dubious moral personalities were constantly near the genius, like Tomaso Giovanni Masini, known under the pseudonym Zoroaster de Peretola, a good mechanic, jeweler and at the same time an adherent of the secret sciences ...

Leonardo encrypted a lot so that his ideas would be revealed gradually, as humanity "ripened" to them. Scientists only last year, five centuries after the death of Leonardo da Vinci, managed to figure out the design of his self-propelled cart and build it. This invention can be safely called the forerunner of the modern car.

In 1499, Leonardo da Vinci designed a wooden mechanical lion to meet the French king Louis XII, which, after taking a few steps, plowed open its chest and showed the insides "filled with lilies." The scientist is the inventor of the spacesuit, submarine, steamer, flippers. He has a manuscript that shows the possibility of diving to great depths without a space suit due to the use of a special gas mixture (the secret of which he deliberately destroyed). To invent it, it was necessary to have a good understanding of the biochemical processes of the human body, which were completely unknown at that time! It was he who first proposed installing batteries of firearms on armored ships (he gave the idea of ​​​​an armadillo!), He invented a helicopter, a bicycle, a glider, a parachute, a tank, a machine gun, poison gases, a smoke screen for troops, a magnifying glass (100 years before Galileo!).

Leonardo da Vinci invented textile machines, looms, needle-making machines, powerful cranes, systems for draining marshes through pipes, and arched bridges. He created designs for gates, levers and propellers designed to lift enormous weights, mechanisms that did not exist in his time. It is amazing that Leonardo da Vinci describes these machines and mechanisms in detail, although they could not be made at that time due to the fact that they did not know ball bearings at that time (but Leonardo himself knew this - the corresponding drawing was preserved). Sometimes it seems that da Vinci just wanted to learn as much as possible about this world by collecting information. Why did he need her in such a form and in such quantity? He left no answer to this question.

Biological knowledge in the Middle Ages

The sources of information about biological enterprises in the early Middle Ages are works such as "Physiologist", "Bestiary", etc. These books contained descriptions of animals and fantastic monsters mentioned in the Bible, as well as stories based on motives (very loosely interpreted) from the life of animals , the purpose of which was religious and moral teachings. Information about animals and plants was contained in the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh (XI century), which was in the lists in Russia, and other sources.

The most fundamental sources of information about the biological knowledge of the Middle Ages are the multi-volume encyclopedic works of Albert the Great and Vincent de Beauvais, dating back to the 13th century. The Encyclopedia of Albertus Magnus has special sections "On Plants" and "On Animals". Detailed descriptions of the species of the plant and animal kingdoms known at that time were largely borrowed from the ancients, mainly from Aristotle. Following Aristotle, Albert associated the vital activity of plants with the "vegetative soul". Developing the doctrine of the functions of individual parts of plants (trunk, branches, roots, foliage, fruits), Albert the Great noted their functional similarity with individual organs in animals. In particular, he considered the root to be identical with the animal's mouth.

In the Middle Ages, the presence of vegetable oils and poisonous substances in the fruits of some plants was discovered. A variety of facts on the selection of cultivated plants have been described. The idea of ​​plant change under the influence of the environment was expressed in rather fantastic statements that beech turns into birch, wheat into barley, and oak branches into vines. The plants in Albert's writings were arranged in alphabetical order. His zoological information is also presented in great detail. They are given, like the botanical ones, in a purely descriptive way, with references to Aristotle, Pliny, Galen as the highest authorities. The division of animals into bloodless and possessing blood is borrowed from Aristotle. Physiology is reduced solely to the description, often very expressive, of the behavior and customs of animals. In the spirit of medieval anthropomorphic views, it was said about the mind, stupidity, caution, cunning of animals. The mechanism of reproduction in animals was described by Hippocrates: the seed arises in all parts of the body, but is collected in the organs of reproduction. Aristotle borrowed the idea that the female seed contains the matter of the future fetus, and the male, in addition, encourages this matter to develop.

The ears, according to Vincent de Beauvais, are designed to perceive the words of people, while the eyes, seeing creations, are intended to perceive the word of God. According to these tasks, the eyes are located in front, and the ears are on the sides, as if denoting that our attention should be, first of all, turned to God, and only then to our neighbor.

Alchemical treatises can serve as sources of information not only about chemical, but also about biological knowledge. Alchemists operated not only with objects of the mineral kingdom, but also with plant and animal objects. The "Book of Plants" by the famous 15th-century alchemist John Isaac Holland is of considerable interest as a kind of alchemical body of biological knowledge. Studying the processes of decay, fermentation, alchemists got acquainted with the chemical composition of plant matter. In connection with healing, a different, sometimes purely practical attitude was allowed for the study of animals and plants. The healing effects of herbs and minerals became a subject of special interest for the healing monks of the late Middle Ages.

The question of the instincts and behavior of animals and humans was considered by Roger Bacon. Comparing the behavior of animals with the conscious activity of man, he believed that only perceptions that arise independently of experience are characteristic of animals, while man has a mind.

The circle of the then ideas about animals and vegetation of distant countries was expanded by poetic descriptions of travels to overseas lands. So, for example, the Byzantine poet Manuel Phil (XIII-XIV centuries) visited Persia, Arabia, and India. He wrote three poetic compositions containing a lot of cognitive biological material. These are the poems "On the Properties of Animals", "A Brief Description of the Elephant" and "On Plants". Phil liked to talk about exotic, sometimes fantastic, animals. However, his fantastic images of animals are composed of quite real, well-known and accurately conveyed elements, reflecting the level of zoological knowledge of the XIV century.

Achievements

Medicine in the Middle Ages developed in difficult and unfavorable conditions. Nevertheless, the objective laws of the development of society and the logic of scientific thinking inevitably contributed to the formation in its depths of the prerequisites for the future medicine of the great Renaissance. In connection with technical discoveries, the role of scientific research has increased even more. Since dogmatic views disappeared, and riddles no longer seemed insoluble, everything became the object of study, including the human body and its diseases. Until the 16th century, it was assumed that the disease is the result of an abnormal displacement of the four body fluids (blood, sputum, yellow and black bile). The Swiss alchemist was the first to challenge this theory. Paracelsus (1493-1541 famous alchemist, physician andophthalmologist) , who argued that diseases are associated with disorders of various organs and can be cured with the help of chemicals. Around the same time, the first thorough anatomical study of a human was carried out Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564 physician and anatomist.) . However, the foundations of modern medical science were laid almost a hundred years later, when the English scientist William Harvey (1578-1657 English physician, founder of physiology andembryology.) discovered that the blood in the human body circulates in a vicious circle due to the contractions of the heart, and not the liver, as previously believed.

The medicine of the Middle Ages was not fruitless. She has accumulated extensive experience in the field of surgery, recognition and prevention of infectious diseases, has developed a number of anti-epidemic measures; hospital care, forms of organizing medical care in cities, sanitary legislation, etc.

In the language of mathematics

The new science tried to confirm the validity of observations through experiments and to translate the results into the universal language of mathematics. Galileo was the first scientist to realize that this approach is the key to understanding everything that exists, and argued that "the book of nature ... is written in mathematical signs." The progress of the mathematical method was rapid. By the beginning of the 17th century, the most common arithmetic symbols (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and equality) were in widespread use. Then in 1614 John Napier (1550-1617Scottish baron, mathematician, one of the inventors of logarithms, the first publisher of logarithmictables.) introduced logarithms. The first adding machine - a distant ancestor of the computer - was designed Blaise Pascal (1623-1662 French mathematician, physicist, writer and philosopher. Classic of French literature, one of the founders of mathematical analysis, probability theory and projective geometry, creatorthe first samples of counting technology, the author of the basic law of hydrostatics.) in the 1640s, and 30 years later the great German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716 German philosopher, mathematician, lawyer, diplomat.) invented a machine capable of multiplication. Leibniz was also one of the creators of the differential calculus, which became the most important mathematical method of the time. Isaac Newton arrived at similar results independently of Leibniz, and these two great men, with far from scientific ardor, entered into a discussion about which of them holds the laurels of superiority.

Forward to progress

So, by the 17th century, science had really advanced far in its development, and there is a lot of evidence for this.

The mechanical clock was invented in the 13th century. The improvement of their design, in turn, led to the invention of parts (for example, a speed indicator, ratchets, gears), which were subsequently used in other mechanisms.

Water supply systems developed in medieval European cities. For this, pumping stations were built, driven by the same hydraulic motor. Some cities had such a water supply system as early as the beginning of the 16th century.

In the XIV century, the use of gunpowder began in Europe, which, although it was invented in China, again, it was in Europe that it received widespread use and further improvement. Bows, spears and crossbows began to be exchanged for firearms and cannons, which further determined the dominance of Europeans on the world stage. In addition, the telescope was invented, instruments such as microscope, thermometer, barometer and air pump. Scientific advances constantly multiplied. Newton discovered the wave nature of light and demonstrated that a stream of light that appears white to us consists of spectral colors into which it can be divided using a prism. Two other famous English experimenters were William Gilbert (1544-1603 English physicist, scientist and physician.) who laid the foundations for the study of electricity and magnetism, and Robert Hooke (1635-1703 English naturalist, encyclopedist) , who introduced the concept of "cell" to describe what he saw through the lenses of his improved microscope.

Irishman Robert Boyle (1627-1691 physicist, chemist and theologian) carried out physical work in the field of molecular physics, light and electrical phenomena, hydrostatics, acoustics, heat, mechanics. In 1660, Guericke improved the air pump, established new facts, which he set out in New Physico-Chemical Experiments Concerning Air Elasticity. He showed the dependence of the boiling point of water on the degree of rarefaction of the surrounding air and proved that the rise of a liquid in a narrow tube is not related to atmospheric pressure. In 1661 he discovered Boyle's law, designed a barometer and introduced the name barometer. He made the first studies of the elasticity of solids, was a supporter of atomism. In 1663 he discovered colored rings in thin layers (Newton's rings). In 1661 he formulated the concept of a chemical element and introduced the experimental method into chemistry, laying the foundation for chemistry as a science.

A Dutch scientist Christian Huygens(1629-1695 Dutch mathematician, physicist, astronomer and inventor.) invented the escapement pendulum clock, proving the correctness of Galileo's conclusion that a pendulum device could be used to control time.

There will still be inventions ahead, the steam engine, electricity and the telephone. The earth will be entangled with wires and railways, and astronauts will go out into outer space. In the meantime ... while a lonely medieval scientist in his dim little room forged the history of science ...

Conclusion

"The history of the world never assumes such importance and significance, it never shows such a multitude of individual phenomena as in the Middle Ages."

(N.V. Gogol)

Technique arose along with the emergence of man, and for a long time developed independently of any science. Science itself did not have a special disciplinary organization for a long time and was not oriented towards the conscious application of the knowledge it created in the technical sphere. Recipe-technical knowledge was opposed to scientific knowledge for a long time, and the question of special scientific and technical knowledge was not raised at all. "Scientific" and "technical" actually belonged to different cultural areas. It was the engineers, artists, and practical mathematicians of the Middle Ages who played the decisive role in the adoption of a new type of practice-oriented theory. The ideal of a new science was put forward, capable of solving engineering problems by theoretical means, and of a new technology based on science. This ideal eventually led to the disciplinary organization of science and technology. The great technical inventions made in the Middle Ages had a huge impact on all areas of the economy and culture, including the development of science. For a long time, the Middle Ages were characterized as a period of spiritual decline, a period between great epochs: antiquity and rebirth. But without this time, without its discoveries and technical improvements, the onset of a new time would have been impossible. The technical successes of the renaissance were made possible by the use and development of the inventions and discoveries of the Middle Ages, which, taken together, opened up to Europeans greater possibilities of control and, ultimately, understanding of the world than they could have received from the classical legacy.

List of used sources and literature

science discovery middle ages newton

1. Bernal J. Science in the history of society / J. Bernal; per. from English. A.M. Vyazmina; total ed. B.M.Kedrova, I.V.Kuznetsova.- M.: Foreign literature, 1956.-735p.

Gorelov A.A. Concepts of modern natural science: textbook. allowance.- M.: Higher education, 2008.-335s. - (Fundamentals of Sciences)

Solomatin V.A. History and concepts of modern natural science: a textbook for universities. - M.: PER SE, 2002.-464s. - (Modern education)

"100 people who changed the course of history" weekly edition, issue No. 9, 2008

History of biology from ancient times to the present day [Electronic resource] http://www.biolhistory.ru/

Historical physics. Leonardo da Vinci [Electronic resource] http://www.abitura.com/

Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia[Electronic resource] http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Who invented the compass and when?

Who was the first European to reach America?

Where and how were medieval handwritten books created? How were they decorated? one.

Development of practical knowledge. Astrology and alchemy flourished in the Middle Ages.

Astrologers claimed that the stars can determine the future. They were consulted by kings, generals and travelers. Alchemists were busy looking for a "philosopher's stone" that could turn any metal into gold. But the observations and experiments of astrologers and alchemists made it possible to accumulate knowledge in astronomy and chemistry. Alchemists, for example, improved methods for obtaining metal alloys, paints, medicinal substances, and created many chemical devices. Astrologers studied the location of stars and luminaries, their movement and the laws of physics.

judnevekovy iach by the color of mo-I determines the state of pain- IGO. Miniature / c.

Accumulated useful knowledge of medicine. Hospitals (hospitals) were first created by bishops and monasteries, and then by city councils. In hospitals, they not only treated, but also gave shelter to pilgrims and the poor. And gentlemen and rich townspeople could invite a paid doctor to their place. Wounds and fractures were more often treated not by doctors, but by barbers (hairdressers), who also pulled out teeth. To make a diagnosis, doctors measured the patient's pulse, examined the color of his tongue and urine. It had already become clear that it was necessary to observe the rules of personal hygiene, and doctors advised to wash and brush your teeth in the morning, not to abuse hot baths, not to indulge in gluttony, to do physical exercises and take walks in nature.

In mathematics, the number 0 appeared; together with the spread of Arabic numerals (instead of Roman ones), this made it possible to solve complex problems. 2.

First mechanisms. Since the 14th century, water mills have been increasingly used in mining and crafts. A simple water wheel has long been the basis of mills that were built on rivers and lakes to grind grain. But in the Middle Ages, a more powerful wheel was invented, which was set in motion by the force of water falling on it. The river was blocked by a dam and narrow channels - gutters - diverted from it. Water rushed into the gutter and fell from above onto the blades of the wheel, speeding up its rotation. When processing metal with such a wheel, a hammer weighing up to one ton was set in motion. The energy of the mill was also used in cloth making, for washing (enrichment) and smelting of metal ores, lifting weights, and so on. The mill and mechanical clocks are the first mechanisms, we owe them to the Middle Ages.

New in metallurgy and metal processing. The advent of firearms.

Large water machine. Engraving of the 16th century.

Previously, metal was melted in small forges, forcing air into them with hand bellows. Since the XIV century, they began to build blast furnaces - melting furnaces up to 3-4 m in height. The water wheel was connected to large bellows, which were used to blow air into the furnace.

Thanks to this, a very high temperature was reached in the blast furnace: iron ore was melted, and liquid pig iron was formed. Various products were cast from cast iron, and iron and steel were obtained by remelting it. Metal was now smelted much more than before.

For melting metal in blast furnaces, they began to use not only charcoal, but also coal, if there were deposits of it nearby. Metal, wood or glass was processed on special machines: turning, grinding, screw-cutting. Many turning and locksmith tools were used, which made it possible to achieve great accuracy in the manufacture of a product (for example, a ball or lenses).

A lot of cast iron and iron were needed for the production of firearms: heavy cannons for the siege of fortresses and light guns for field battles.

Forge with a water engine.

The spread of cannons was the beginning of a revolution in military affairs. Knightly armor ceased to be a reliable defense, the walls of castles lost their impregnability. 4.

Development of navigation and shipbuilding. For a long time, Europeans did not dare to embark on long voyages on the high seas. Without correct maps and marine instruments, ships sailed "cabotage" (along the coast) along the seas surrounding Europe, along North and West Africa.

Smelting ore in blast furnaces

It became safer to go to the open sea after the sailors mastered the compass. The astrolabe was invented - a device for determining the place where the ship is located.

In the 15th century, a fast light sailboat appeared - a caravel (“a boat with a sail”) - mobile and roomy. He had three masts with straight and oblique sails and could move in the right direction not only with a fair, but also with a side and even a headwind. On caravels it was possible to go on long sea voyages. In 1492, the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus, who was in the service of the Spanish kings, reached the coastal islands of America in the Caribbean.

The discovery of America by Europeans was of world historical significance. It marked the beginning in the coming centuries of new great geographical discoveries, comprehension, development and colonization by Europeans of the entire globe and, at the same time, the spread of European culture to other continents and regions. This was the beginning of world history and one of the important milestones of the end of the Middle Ages. five.

The invention of printing. With the development of the state and cities, science and navigation, the amount of knowledge and at the same time the need for educated people and books increased.

The navigator locates the ship. Drawing from a book of the 16th century.

Find out what the device shown in the picture was called and how it worked.

The monks were the first to copy books. Over time, many secular workshops for copying books and even entire libraries arose in the cities. Libraries were now not only in cathedrals and monasteries, but also in universities (where textbooks

Caravel

Compare the structure of a caravel with the ships of various peoples of the Middle Ages (pp. 42-43, 55, 80, 112, 171).

Printing house. Engraving of the 16th century. On the left, typesetters from the cash desks are typing. Right - a worker smears a set with paint, covers it with paper, rubs it on top with a brush or presses it with a press

could be borrowed for a while at home), from kings and rich people.

In the XIV century in Europe they began to produce cheaper writing material - paper, but there were still not enough books. To reproduce the text, they made prints from wood

Changes in ecology

Europe inherited from antiquity natural conditions little affected by civilization. In the Middle Ages, they changed markedly. Population growth led to an increase in the number of settlements. The village and especially the rapidly growing cities needed material for construction - it was primarily wood. The shafts were kept from collapse with the help of wooden beams - vertical fasteners. The smelters consumed more and more charcoal. All this caused irreparable damage to forests. If at the beginning of the Middle Ages Europe was covered with huge impenetrable forests, then by the 16th century the forests were mercilessly cut down. In some countries, natural forests have disappeared completely.

The development of agriculture required the expansion of arable land. For this purpose, forests were also reduced, but at the same time vast swamps in Europe were drained. For example, already in the 15th century, the swampy malarial Lombardy became a flourishing breadbasket. Of course, the clearing of forests and the draining of swamps have drastically reduced the number of wild animals and birds. The eye of a traveler in Europe now and then stopped at the picturesque fields, city walls, farms and villages.

In the late Middle Ages, the natural landscape of Europe was already combined with the cultural landscape created by man.

wood or copper board with letters carved on it, but this method was very imperfect and labor intensive: after all, a new board had to be made for each page.

Johannes Gutenberg.

Portrait by an unknown artist

In the middle of the 15th century, the German Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1399-1468) invented printing. After long and hard work and searches, he began to cast individual letters (letters) from metal; from them the lines and pages of the set were composed, from which an imprint was made on paper. Using collapsible font, you could type as many pages of any text as you like. Gutenberg also invented the printing press.

In 1456, Gutenberg produced the first printed book, the Bible, which was artistically as good as the best handwritten books. Since then, printing began to spread rapidly in Europe. By the end of the 15th century, 30,000 books had been published. There were more books, and they were no longer as expensive as handwritten ones.

The invention of printing is one of the greatest discoveries in human history. Thanks to the printed book, the knowledge accumulated by people, all the necessary information began to spread faster. They were more fully preserved and passed on to the next generations of people. 1. What is the role of alchemy and astrology in the development of scientific knowledge? 2. Why is the invention of printing considered one of the greatest discoveries in human history? 3. List what contributed to the beginning of the Great geographical discoveries. 4. Fill in the table "Technical discoveries and inventions of the Middle Ages." Application area

Name of discovery or invention

Meaning of discovery or invention

1. Can we say that technological progress in the Middle Ages was slow? Argument your opinion. 2. What was the significance of the invention of printing? Do you think that the book is currently the main carrier of information? Explain your answer. 3. Based on the facts known to you, write a discussion about how trade, military campaigns, conquest of territories and cultural contacts of people during the Middle Ages influenced the development of European science and technology. 4. Imagine that you are a medieval master inventor or a merchant who has the secret of some technical novelty (astrolabe, mechanical clock, etc.). You need to attract the attention of people who can find a use for this invention, put it into production and enrich both yourself and you. Describe all the advantages and benefits of your new product, possible areas of its use, expected benefits. 5. What technical inventions and scientific discoveries made by people in the Middle Ages do you use in your daily life?

Summing up

You have learned that:

in the Middle Ages, the views of Europeans on the world expanded and became more realistic;

in the XII-XIII centuries, the first universities arose in Europe;

medieval religious philosophy - scholasticism - developed a scientific method that contributed to the development of science in the future;

there were different genres of medieval literature;

medieval architecture became famous for Romanesque and Gothic architectural styles;

in the XIV century, a new culture was born in Italy - the culture of the Renaissance;

in the Middle Ages there was an accumulation of scientific knowledge and the development of technical improvements;

The advent of printing was of great importance for world culture.

"7" g:: 1. List what has changed in a person's ideas about the world, God, huh? in the Renaissance in comparison with the period of the early Middle Ages. Which of these changes do you consider the most important? Why? 2.

Express your opinion: is there a connection between the Hussite movement in the Czech Republic and the activities of the humanists in Italy? Justify your answer 3.

With the help of additional literature and Internet resources, prepare a presentation about one of the cultural figures of medieval Europe (no more than 7 slides). Explain why you chose this particular person. 4.

Arrange in chronological order the events associated with the development of culture in the Middle Ages: a) the creation of Dante's "Divine Comedy"; b) the appearance of the first printed Bible; c) teaching Abelard at the Paris Cathedral School; d) creation of the first chronicles, lives of saints and epic songs. 5. What property, according to alchemists, did the "philosopher's stone" (choose the correct answer): a) predict the future; b) cure the plague; c) turn any metal into gold; d) protect from evil spirits?

Creative works and projects

Group information project "The complex history of simple objects." Many modern household items - a fork, glasses, handkerchiefs, mirrors, watches - appeared in Europe during the Middle Ages. Divide into groups. Gather information about the history of invention or change over the centuries of a single item with the help of additional, reference literature and online resources. Systematize and formalize the result of the group's work, arrange a presentation lesson in the class.

Analytical essay. Write the dialogues in pairs:

A) Pierre Abelard and Bernard of Clairvaux on whether faith and doubt, reasoning are connected;

B) a medieval thinker (for example, Thomas Aquinas or Francis of Assisi) and a humanist (for example, Francesco Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio) about what a person is and what is the purpose of his life. Consider the arguments of both interlocutors. Will there be a winner in these disputes?

The period of the Middle Ages is considered to be a period of time covering the millennium, which began in the 5th and ended in the 15th century AD. Contrary to the well-established idea that these were the Dark Ages of world history, the scientists of the Middle Ages made a significant contribution to the development of civilization. In this article, we will recall their most significant achievements.

heavy plow

One of the early inventions of medieval history (about 600) was the heavy plow, which made it possible to successfully plow the hard soil of the fields of Northern Europe. This made it possible to increase their productivity, and consequently, to produce more food. As a result, this period of history was marked by a significant increase in the total European population.

The essence of the invention is very simple. It is known that the depth of the furrow that the plowshare leaves behind depends on the weight of the plow, which cannot be too large, since in this case the plowman will not be able to lift it. The solution was found simple and effective: the plow was equipped with wheels, which made it much heavier and, consequently, increased the plowing depth. This was the beginning of inventions and scientific discoveries in the Middle Ages.

tidal mills

The next chronological invention of medieval history is also associated with food production, since an empty stomach stimulates creative thought like nothing else. They became the so-called tidal mills. In 787, the monks of the Nendrum monastery, located on one of the islands of Northern Ireland, came up with the idea to use the sea tide to turn the mill wheel.

They built a sufficiently large reservoir, connected to the sea and filled during the period of its rise in level. When it was full, special gates were closed, and after that the water began to be lowered onto the mill wheel, which made it rotate and set the millstones in motion. The volume of the reservoir was calculated in such a way that it ensured the operation of the mill until the next high tide, after which the whole cycle was repeated anew.

History of the hourglass

It is hardly necessary to describe the principle of operation of this simple device, which makes it possible to accurately indicate a certain interval of time. It is known to everyone. The hourglass was invented quite late - only in the 11th century, and became a very important addition to the magnetic compass. At first they were used exclusively for the needs of navigation. This is evidenced by entries in the ship's logs of that ancient era.

What the first examples of hourglasses looked like is unknown, since they have not survived to this day, and their earliest images are found only in the paintings of the Italian artist Ambrosio Larenzetti, dating back to the first half of the 14th century. Nevertheless, there is much evidence that by the middle of the 15th century they were most widespread. Since then, their appearance and design have not undergone any noticeable changes.

From the diaries of Ferdinand Magellan, it is known, in particular, that during a round-the-world trip, at least 18 hourglasses were used on each of the ships that were part of his squadron. Moreover, the ship's charter provided for a special position of a sailor, who was obliged to turn them over in a timely manner and make appropriate entries in the ship's log. The hourglass became the first instrument in history for measuring time, and therefore became one of the most significant scientific discoveries and inventions. In the Middle Ages, they were used not only at sea, but also in production, worship and even cooking.

The appearance of the first blast furnaces

Science in the Middle Ages gave the world another invention that largely determined the further course of civilization - it was the creation of the first blast furnaces. According to historians, they appeared in the countries of Western Europe at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries and for the most part were the brainchild of the monks of the Cistercian Order, which was widespread at that time.

It is curious that the Cistercians (in some countries they were called Bernardines) devoted so much time and importance to metallurgy that the smelting technology they developed was included in the monastery charter. In the same place, among other things, drawings of a blast furnace were also placed.

Not limited to theoretical research, the monks launched a wide production of metal, building a whole network of enterprises, often exceeding their holy cloisters in area. They also showed remarkable entrepreneurial talent. In those areas where the mining industry was developed, the monks accepted donations not in money (which, however, they did not refuse either), but in ore, from which metal was smelted, which then entered the markets of all European countries.

The invention of the distillation apparatus (distiller)

The scientists of the Middle Ages own an invention that has found its application all over the world and has earned particular popularity in Russia. It was an apparatus that made it possible to easily and simply turn any alcohol-containing, but low-alcohol composition into a product, although it had various technical names, but was, in fact, ordinary moonshine.

There is no need to explain its structure, since it is well known to those interested, and to the rest it is hardly interesting. We only note that distillation apparatuses were invented in the East in the VIII-IX centuries, and their creators were Muslim alchemists, that is, people who are absolutely non-drinkers. Paradox, and nothing more. By the way, the creator of the distillation cube Khabir ibn Hayyan (721-815) wrote that the vapors formed from the wine heated in his apparatus, although flammable, would hardly find practical application. How wrong he was!

Relatively pure alcohol was also obtained in Mongolia at the turn of the 6th and 7th centuries, but a complex and extremely impractical method was used there. An alcohol-containing composition (for example, mash) was frozen, and then ice water crystals were extracted from it. The result was a liquid that did not freeze due to the high alcohol content. In addition, it is known that alcohol was obtained by distillation in ancient Babylon, but it was used exclusively for the manufacture of perfumes, and the technology for its production was lost over time.

It is generally accepted that their appearance dates back to the 13th century. By its significance, this event is one of the most important scientific discoveries and inventions. In the Middle Ages, people also suffered from visual impairment, like the current generation, and therefore they were looking for ways to make up for this natural deficiency. Who exactly came up with the idea to use the lenses inserted into the frame is unknown, although the earliest treatise on this topic belongs to the English philosopher and naturalist Roger Bacon (1214-1292). The scientist accompanied his notes with drawings that give an idea of ​​​​this simple design. However, in his time it was already used for reading not only by Europeans, but also by the inhabitants of the Islamic world. Therefore, there are still discussions among scientists about whether the East borrowed this invention from Europe, or it was just the opposite.

In this section, we are talking about mechanical watches, since we talked about sand watches above. It is known that they also appeared during the Middle Ages, but the name of their inventor has sunk into oblivion. It is known that at first these were very large structures placed on the towers of monastery cathedrals and intended to accurately determine the time when it was necessary to ring the bell and call the monks to prayer. They differed from modern tower clocks in that they had only one hand.

Of the current examples of medieval mechanics, the oldest are the clocks installed in Rouen. They were made in 1389 and are only slightly younger than those that adorn the tower of the Cathedral of the Virgin Mary in the English city of Salisbury, the arrow of which froze several centuries ago. The clock, designed for the tower of the cathedral in Wales, is also considered their peers, but it has long been dismantled and is now on display in the London Science Museum.

Birth of the printing press

Despite the fact that the birthplace of book printing is China, they managed to mechanize this process in Europe. And if the names of those who invented watches or glasses are forever hidden from posterity, then the inventor of the printing press - the German Johann Gutenberg - has firmly taken his place in history. It should be noted that a number of researchers give the palm to his compatriot Lawrence Janson Coster, but they cannot provide convincing arguments.

It is generally accepted that the prototype of Gutenberg's printing press, which he created in the mid-1440s, was a press for olives or grapes, which was then widespread in the Mediterranean countries. In both cases, a heavy wooden screw was set in motion with a special lever, with the help of which the necessary pressure was created on the paper. This device, simple in its design, made it possible to produce up to 250 sheets of single-sided printing within an hour. Having existed without major changes for about 350 years, the printing press became one of the most significant inventions and scientific discoveries made in the Middle Ages.

thinkers of the past

Medieval history has preserved for posterity the names of many researchers and thinkers who have made a significant contribution to all areas of knowledge. These are the English philosopher and naturalist Roger Bacon, the Austrian mathematician Johann Gmunden, the Italian philosopher Pietro d "Abano and a number of other outstanding pundits of the past.

The article deliberately does not mention the discoveries made during the Renaissance, the beginning of which is considered to be the 16th century. It deals exclusively with the achievements of science in the Middle Ages. Their far from complete list, given above, allows us to assert with good reason that even in the period of history called the "Dark Ages", human thought paved the way for the future heights of technological progress. It was founded on scientific discoveries and inventions made in the Middle Ages.

🙂 Greetings to regular and new readers of the site "Ladies-Gentlemen"! In the article "Scientists of the Middle Ages and their discoveries: facts and videos" - information about famous scientists in the field of alchemy, medicine, geography. The article will be useful for schoolchildren and history buffs.

Scientists of the Middle Ages

The Middle Ages is an era in history from the 5th to the 15th century. The medieval world was full of prejudice and ignorance. The Church zealously followed those who aspired to knowledge, and literally persecuted them. Knowledge was considered useful if it brought one closer to the knowledge of the Lord.

Medicine more often caused harm than good - it was necessary to rely only on the strength of the body. People did not understand what the Earth looks like and came up with various fables about its structure.

But even in this ignorance there was a place for an analogue to the modern scientist. Of course, such a concept did not exist, because no one yet had a concept of scientific methods. The main activity of philosophers was aimed at searching for the philosopher's stone, which would turn any metal into gold, and the elixir of life, which gave eternal youth.

Alchemy

Even 400 years before Newton's activity, the monk Roger Bacon conducted an experiment during which a beam directed through water decomposed into a spectrum. The naturalist came to the conclusion, like Newton later, that the white color has an invariable geometry. Roger Bacon wrote that mathematics is the key to other sciences.

Like most of the 13th-century alchemists, Bacon was one of the experimental philosophers in search of the philosopher's stone. Medieval alchemists were obsessed with gold for a reason. Gold is a very remarkable metal. First of all, it cannot be destroyed. Experimenters asked this question all the time.

Why does the variability of matter inherent in other substances not extend to gold? This metal can be heated, melted, given a new shape - it remains with unchanged qualities.

The study of gold became the search for perfection on earth. All manipulations with metal were not aimed at enrichment, alchemists did not strive for wealth, but for knowledge of the secrets of the shiny metal.

Numerous experiments have made a lot of discoveries. Alchemists discovered the technique of applying gilding. We got concentrated acids, discovered various methods of distillation, and, in fact, laid the foundations of chemistry.

Famous alchemists of the Middle Ages:

• Albert the Great (1193-1280)
• Arnoldo de Villanova (1240-1311)
• Raymond Lully (1235-1314)
• Basil Valentine (1394-1450)
• (1493-1541)
• Nicholas Flamel (1330-1418)
• Bernardo, the Good Man of Treviso (1406-1490)

Church

No matter how we scold the clergy, it was these people who were the most educated for many centuries. It was they who pushed the boundaries of science, conducted scientific experiments, and made records in church libraries.

In the 11th century, a monk at Malmesbury Abbey, Aylmer, strapped on a pair of wings and jumped from a high tower. The aircraft carried him for almost 200 meters before he hit the ground, breaking his legs in the process.

Aylmer of Malmesbury, 11th century English Benedictine monk

During the treatment, he told the abbot that he knew what his mistake was. His flying invention lacks a tail. True, the abbot forbade further experiments, and controlled flights were postponed for 900 years.

But the ministers of the church had the opportunity to make discoveries in other areas of human activity. The medieval church did not oppose itself to science; on the contrary, it wanted to use it.

The most perspicacious expressed their bold thoughts. They assumed that humanity would have ships driven not by a hundred rowers, but by one person, wagons moving without any kind of manpower, an aircraft that would tear a person off the ground and return him back.

This is exactly what happened, and progress is delayed by humanity, perhaps from the unwillingness to objectively evaluate the past.

The medicine

Today, people need one thing from medicine - to make us feel better. But medieval physicians had more ambitious goals. For starters, eternal life.

For example, Artephius is a philosopher who lived in the 12th century. He wrote a treatise on the art of prolonging human life, claimed that he himself lived for at least 1025 years. This charlatan boasted of his acquaintance with Christ, although at that time it turned out that he had already lived for more than 1200 years.

The alchemists believed that if they could turn the metal into perfect gold using the Philosopher's Stone, then they could use it as an elixir of eternal life and make humanity immortal. And although the elixir of eternal life has not been found, experts in this field undoubtedly were.

Doctors who lived 600-800 years before our time quite rightly believed that the disease is not caused by external factors, but occurs when the body lacks health. Therefore, doctors with the help of diets and herbs tried to restore health.

There were entire pharmaceutical shops, where there were a large number of medicinal preparations. At least 400 plants were mentioned in medical treatises, with various healing properties.

The main advantage of medieval doctors is that they perceived the body as a whole.

The most ancient scientist and physician (Avicenna) (980-1037) worked for many years on his encyclopedia "Canon of Medicine", which absorbed the medical knowledge of the medieval East.

Mondino de Luzzi (1270 - 1326) - Italian anatomist and physician resumed the practice of public autopsies of dead people, forbidden by the Catholic Church, to teach students.

Alchemist, physician, philosopher, naturalist Paracelsus (1493-1541)

The famous healer and alchemist from Switzerland - Paracelsus (1493-1541) knew anatomy very well. In practice, he mastered the skills of surgery and therapy. He criticized the ideas of ancient medicine, independently developed a classification of diseases.

Geography

People have long believed that the earth is flat. But it is known for sure that Robert Bacon wrote in his writings: “The rounding of the earth explains why, having climbed to a height, we see further.” The dissent of the church authorities hindered the development of many sciences, but geography suffered, perhaps, most of all.

This is proved by maps found by archaeologists. Only navigators needed accurate maps, and they had them. We do not know who drew these maps and how the process of their creation went. Their accuracy amazes modern specialists.

Of the travelers of the Middle Ages, the Russian merchant Athanasius Nikitin (date of death 1475) should be noted. He traveled from the city of Tver to India! At the time it was incredible! His notes made during the trip are called “Journey Beyond the Three Seas.”

The Italian merchant and traveler Marco Polo (1254-1344) was the first European to describe China. The "Book of Marco Polo" was one of the main sources for compiling the map of Asia.