Practical psychology: the science of influencing human psychology and behavior. Practical psychology

If we want to apply the knowledge of psychology in our lives, it is important for us to know a whole range of special psychological methods. It is the use of specific techniques and compliance with special norms and rules that can provide reliable knowledge. Moreover, these rules and methods cannot be chosen spontaneously, but must be dictated by the characteristics of the psychological phenomenon under study. Our task in this lesson is to consider the main methods of studying psychology and their classification, characterize them and provide effective tips and recommendations so that every reader can use them in everyday life.

Methods of psychology return the researcher to the object under study and deepen its understanding. In essence, methods are a way of studying reality. Any of the methods consists of several operations and techniques that are carried out by the researcher in the process of studying the object. But each method corresponds only to its inherent form of these techniques and operations, corresponding to the goals and objectives of the study. Based on only one method, several methods can be created. It is also an indisputable fact that psychological science does not have any unambiguous set of research methods.

In this lesson, we divided the methods of psychology into 2 groups: methods of theoretical psychology And methods of practical psychology:

Fundamental (general) psychology engages in psychological research on the general patterns of the human psyche, his beliefs, behaviors, character traits, as well as what affects all this. IN ordinary life methods of theoretical psychology can be useful for research, analysis and prediction of human behavior.

Practical (or Applied) Psychology directed to work with specific people, and its methods allow for psychological procedures designed to change the mental state and behavior of the subject.

Part one. Methods of fundamental psychology

Methods of theoretical psychology are the means and techniques through which researchers have the opportunity to obtain reliable data and subsequently use them to create scientific theories and compile practical advice. These methods are used to study mental phenomena, their development and change. But not only the characteristics of a person are studied, but also “external” factors: age characteristics, the influence of the environment and upbringing, etc.

Psychological methods are quite diverse. First of all, there are methods of scientific research and only then practical methods. Among the theoretical methods, the main ones are observation and experiment. Additional are self-observation, psychological testing, biographical method, survey and conversation. Combinations of these methods are used to study psychological phenomena.

EXAMPLE: If an employee of the organization shows irresponsibility and this is repeatedly noticed during observation, then in order to find out the reasons contributing to this, one should resort to a conversation or a natural experiment.

It is very important that the basic methods of psychology are used in a complex way and are "sharpened" for each specific case. First of all, you need to clarify the problem and determine the question to which you want to get an answer, i.e. must be specific purpose. And only after that you need to choose a method.

So, the methods of theoretical psychology.

Observation

In psychology under observation refers to purposeful perception and registration of the behavior of the object under study. Moreover, all phenomena using this method are studied under normal conditions for the object. This method is considered one of the most ancient. But it was scientific observation that was widely used only in late XIX century. At first it was applied in developmental psychology, as well as pedagogical, social and clinical psychology. Later it began to be used in labor psychology. Surveillance is usually used when intervening in natural process course of events is not recommended or not possible.

There are several types of observation:

• Field - in ordinary life;
• Laboratory - in special conditions;
• Indirect;
• Immediate;
• Included;
• Not included;
• Direct;
• indirect;
• solid;
• Selective;
• systematic;
• Unsystematic.

As already mentioned, observation should be used in cases where the intervention of the researcher can disrupt the natural process of human interaction with the outside world. This method is necessary when you need to get a three-dimensional picture of what is happening and to fully capture the behavior of a person / people. Important features observations are:

• Impossibility or difficulty of re-observation;
• Emotional coloring of observation;
• Communication of the observed object and the observer.

  Observation is carried out to identify various features of behavior - this is the subject. Objects, in turn, can be:

• Verbal behavior: content, duration, intensity of speech, etc.
• Non-verbal behavior: facial expression, eye expression, body position, movement expression, etc.
• Movement of people: distance, manner, features, etc.

  That is, the object of observation is something that can be fixed visually. The researcher in this case observes not mental properties, but registers the obvious manifestations of the object. Based on the data obtained and assumptions about the manifestation of what mental characteristics they are, the scientist can draw certain conclusions about the mental properties of the individual.

  How is the observation carried out?

  The results of this method are usually recorded in special protocols. Most objective conclusions can be done if the observation is carried out by a group of people, because it is possible to generalize different results. Certain requirements must also be observed when observing:

  • Observations should not affect the natural course of events;
  • It is better to conduct observation on different people, because there is an opportunity to compare;
  • Observations should be carried out repeatedly and systematically, and the results already obtained during past observations should be taken into account.

  Observation consists of several stages:

  1. Definition of the subject (situation, object, etc.);
  2. Determination of the method of observation;
  3. Choice of data registration method;
  4. Create a plan;
  5. The choice of the method of processing the results;
  6. Observation;
  7. Processing of received data and their interpretation.

  It is also necessary to decide on the means of observation - it can be carried out by a specialist or recorded by devices (audio, photo, video equipment, surveillance maps). Observation is often confused with experiment. But these are two different methods. The difference between them is that when observing:

  • The observer does not affect the process;
  • The observer registers exactly what he observes.

  There is a certain code of ethics developed by the American Psychological Association (APA). This code implies that observations are made according to certain rules and precautions. The following are examples:

  • If the observation is planned to be carried out in a public place, then obtaining consent from the participants in the experiment is not necessary. Otherwise, consent is required.
  • Researchers must not allow participants to be harmed in any way during the course of the research.
  • Researchers should minimize their intrusion into participants' privacy.
  • Researchers should not disclose confidential information about participants.

  Every person, even without being a specialist in the field of psychology, can use the method of observation in order to obtain data regarding any issue, if necessary.

  EXAMPLE: You want to send your child to some section or circle. To do right choice, you need to identify its predispositions, i.e. to which it gravitates by itself without external influence. To do this, you need to make an observation. Look at the child from the outside what he does when he is left alone, what actions he performs, what he likes to do. If, for example, he constantly draws everywhere, then perhaps he has a natural inclination for drawing and you can try to send him to art school. If he likes to disassemble / assemble something, then he may be interested in technology. The constant craving for the ball suggests that it is worth giving it to a football or basketball school. You can also ask kindergarten teachers or teachers at school to observe your child and draw certain conclusions based on this. If your son constantly bullies and fights with the boys, this is not a reason to scold him, but an incentive to enroll in the section of some martial art. If your daughter loves to braid her girlfriends, then she might be interested in starting to learn the art of hairdressing.

  There are many options for monitoring. The main thing is to understand what exactly you want to define and think through best ways their observations.

  Psychological experiment

  Under experiment in psychology, they understand an experiment conducted under certain conditions in order to obtain new data through the direct intervention of the experimenter in the life of the subject. In the process of research, the scientist changes a certain factor / factors and sees what happens as a result. A psychological experiment may include other methods: testing, questioning, observation. But it can also be a completely independent method.

  There are several types of experiments (according to the method of conducting):

  • Laboratory - when you can control specific factors and change conditions;
  • Natural - carried out under normal conditions and a person may not even know about the experiment;
  • Psychological and pedagogical - when a person / group of people learn something and form certain qualities in themselves, master skills;
  • Pilot - a trial experiment conducted before the main one.

  There are also experiments on the level of awareness:

  • Explicit - the subject is aware of the experiment and all its details;
  • Hidden - the subject does not know all the details of the experiment or does not know about the experiment at all;
  • Combined - the subject knows only part of the information or is deliberately misled about the experiment.

  Organization of the experiment process

  The researcher must set a clear task - why the experiment is being carried out, with whom and under what conditions. Further, certain relations must be established between the subject and the scientist, and instructions are given to the subject (or not given). Then the experiment itself is carried out, after which the data obtained are processed and interpreted.

  Experiment as a scientific method must meet certain qualities:

  • Objectivity of the received data;
  • Reliability of received data;
  • Validity of the received data.

  But, despite the fact that the experiment is one of the most respected methods of research, it has both pros and cons.

  • Possibility to choose a starting point to start the experiment;
  • Possibility of repeating;
  • The ability to change certain factors, thereby affecting the result.

  Cons (according to some experts):

  • The psyche is difficult to study;
  • The psyche is fickle and unique;
  • The psyche has the property of spontaneity.

  For these reasons, when conducting psychological experiments, researchers cannot rely on the data of this method alone in their results and must resort to combining with other methods and take into account many different indicators. When conducting experiments, the APA Code of Ethics must also be adhered to.

  It is possible to conduct various experiments in the process of life without the help of graduates and experienced psychologists. Naturally, the results obtained in the course of independent experiments will be purely subjective. But some information can still be obtained.

  EXAMPLE: Let's say you want to learn more about the behavior of people in certain circumstances, to see how they will react to something, and perhaps even to understand the course of their thoughts. Model some situation for this and use it in life. As an example, the following can be cited: a person was interested in how people around him react to a sleeping person sitting next to them and leaning on them in transport. To do this, he took his friend, who filmed what was happening on camera, and repeated the same action several times: he pretended to be asleep and leaned on his neighbor. The reaction of people was different: someone moved away, someone woke up and expressed dissatisfaction, someone sat peacefully, putting his shoulder to the “tired” person. But based on the video recordings received, it was concluded that people, for the most part, react negatively to a “foreign object” in their personal space and experience unpleasant emotions. But this is only the “tip of the iceberg” and the psychological rejection of people from each other can be interpreted in completely different ways.

  When conducting your personal experiments, always be careful and make sure that your research does not cause any harm to others.

  Introspection

  Introspection It is observation of oneself and the peculiarities of one's behavior. This method can be used in the form of self-control and plays a big role in the psychology and life of a person. However, as a method, self-observation to a greater extent can only state the fact of something, but not its cause (forgotten something, but it is not known why). That is why self-observation, although it is an important research method, cannot be the main and independent in the process of understanding the essence of the manifestations of the psyche.

  The quality of the method we are considering is directly dependent on the self-esteem of a person. For example, people with low self-esteem are more prone to introspection. And the result of hypertrophied self-observation can be self-digging, obsession with wrong actions, guilt, self-justification, etc.

  Adequate and effective self-observation is facilitated by:

  • Keeping personal records (diary);
  • Comparison of self-observation with the observations of others;
  • Increased self-esteem;
  • Psychological trainings on personal growth and development.

  The application of self-observation in life is very effective way understand yourself, the motives of your actions, get rid of some problems in life and resolve difficult situations.

  EXAMPLE: Do you want to increase your efficiency in daily activities (in communication with people, at work, at home) or get rid of bad habits (negative thinking, irritability, even smoking). Make it a rule to be in a state of awareness as often as possible every day: pay attention to your thoughts (what you are thinking now) and your actions (what you are doing in this moment). Try to analyze what causes you certain reactions (anger, irritation, envy, joy, satisfaction). For what "hooks" people and circumstances pull you. Get yourself a notebook in which you will write down all your observations. Just watch what is happening inside you and what is contributing to it. After analyzing after some time (a week, a month) what you have learned about yourself, you will be able to draw a conclusion on the topic of what you should cultivate in yourself, and what you should start getting rid of.

  The regular practice of self-observation has a very positive effect on the inner world of a person and, as a result, on its external manifestations.

  Psychological testing

  Psychological testing belongs to the section of psychodiagnostics and is engaged in the study psychological qualities and personality traits through the use of psychological tests. This method is often used in counseling, psychotherapy, and by employers in hiring. Psychological tests are needed when you need to learn more about a person's personality, which cannot be done with a conversation or a survey.

  The main characteristics of psychological tests are:

  • Validity - the correspondence of the data obtained from the test to the characteristic for which the test is carried out;
  • Reliability - conformity of the received results at repeated testing;
  • Reliability - the property of the test to give true results, even with intentional or unintentional attempts to distort them by the subjects;
  • Representativeness - compliance with the norms.

  A truly effective test is created through trials and modifications (changing the number of questions, their composition and wording). The test must go through a multi-stage verification and adaptation procedure. An effective psychological test is a standardized test, based on the results of which it becomes possible to assess the psychophysiological and personal characteristics, as well as the knowledge, skills and abilities of the subject.

  There are different types of tests:

  • Career guidance tests - to determine a person's predisposition to any type of activity or compliance with the position;
  • Personality tests - to study the character, needs, emotions, abilities and other personality traits;
  • Intelligence tests - to study the degree of development of intelligence;
  • Verbal tests- to study the ability of a person to describe in words the actions performed;
  • Achievement tests - to assess the level of mastery of knowledge and skills.

  There are other options for tests aimed at studying a person and his personality traits: color tests, linguistic tests, questionnaires, handwriting analysis, psychometry, lie detector, various diagnostic methods, etc.

  Psychological tests are very convenient to use in everyday life in order to get to know yourself or the people you care about better.

  EXAMPLE: Tired of making money in a way that does not bring moral, psychological or emotional satisfaction. Dreaming of finally quitting and doing something else. But here's what you don't know. Find some career orientation tests and test yourself. It is quite possible that you will learn some things about yourself that you did not even know about before. The results of such tests can help you discover new facets of yourself and will help you understand what you would really like to do and what you have a penchant for. And knowing all this, it is much easier to find something to your liking. In addition, it is also good that a person, doing what he loves and enjoying it, becomes happier and more satisfied in life and, in addition, begins to earn more.

  Psychological testing contributes to a deeper understanding of yourself, your needs and abilities, and often also indicates the direction for further development. personal development.

  biographical method

  Biographical method in psychology- this is a method by which a person's life path is investigated, diagnosed, corrected and projected. Various modifications of this method began to develop at the beginning of the 20th century. In modern biographical methods, personality is studied in the context of history and perspectives of its individual development. Here it is supposed to obtain data, the source of which is autobiographical techniques (autobiographies, interviews, questionnaires), as well as eyewitness accounts, analysis of notes, letters, diaries, etc.

  This method is often used by managers of various enterprises, biographers who study the life of some people, and simply in communication between little-known people. It is easy to use when communicating with a person to compose it psychological portrait.

  EXAMPLE: You are the head of an organization and you are hiring a new employee. You need to find out what kind of person this is, what are the characteristics of his personality, what is his life experience, etc. In addition to filling out questionnaires and conducting interviews, you can use the biographical method for this. Talk to a person, let him tell you the facts from his biography and some significant moments on his life path. Ask about what he can tell about himself and his life from memory. This method does not require special skills and training. Such a conversation can take place in a light, relaxed atmosphere and, most likely, will be pleasant to both interlocutors.

  Using the biographical method is lovely way get to know a new person and the opportunity to see his strengths and weaknesses, as well as imagine a possible perspective of interaction with him.

  Survey

  Survey- a verbal-communicative method, during which there is an interaction between the researcher and the person being studied. The psychologist asks questions, and the researcher (respondent) gives answers to them. This method is considered one of the most common in psychology. The questions in it depend on what information is required to be obtained in the course of the study. Typically, a survey is a mass method because it is used to obtain information about a group of people, not just one person.

  Polls are divided into:

  • Standardized - strict and giving general idea about the problem;
  • Non-standardized - less strict and allow you to study the nuances of the problem.

  In the process of creating surveys, first of all, programmatic questions are formulated that are understandable only to specialists. After that, they are translated into questionnaire questions that are more understandable to the average layman.

  Types of surveys:

  • Written allows you to get superficial knowledge about the problem;
  • Oral - allows you to penetrate into the psychology of a person more deeply than written;
  • Questioning - preliminary answers to questions before the main conversation;
  • Personality tests - to determine the mental characteristics of a person;
  • Interview - a personal conversation (also applies to the method of conversation).

  When writing questions, you need to follow some rules:

  • Separateness and conciseness;
  • Exclusion of specific terms;
  • brevity;
  • specificity;
  • Without hints;
  • Questions provide non-template responses;
  • Questions should not be repulsive;
  • Questions should not suggest anything.

  Depending on the tasks, the questions are divided into several types:

  • Open - offering answers in free form;
  • Closed - offering prepared answers;
  • Subjective - about a person's attitude to something / someone;
  • Projective - about a third person (without indicating the respondent).

  A survey, as already mentioned, is most suitable for obtaining information from a large number of people. This method allows you to establish the needs of the masses or determine their opinion on a particular issue.

  EXAMPLE: You are the director of a service firm and you need to know the opinion of your employees on improving working conditions and attracting more clients. In order to do this as quickly and efficiently as possible, you can create (for example, together with an in-house analyst) a series of questions, the answers to which will help you solve the tasks. Namely: to make the process of work of employees more pleasant for them and to find some ways (perhaps very effective) to expand the client base. Based on the results of such a survey, you will receive information on very important points. Firstly, you will know exactly what changes your employees need to make the atmosphere in the team better and work brings positive emotions. Secondly, you will have a list of all kinds of methods to improve your business. And thirdly, you can probably pick out from total weight employees of a promising and promising person who can be promoted, thereby improving general indicators enterprises.

  Polls and questionnaires are a great way to get important and up-to-date information on topical topics from a large number of people.

  Conversation

  Conversation is a form of observation. It can be oral or written. Its purpose is to identify a special range of issues that are not available in the process of direct observation. The conversation is widely used in psychological research and has a great practical value. Therefore, it can be considered, albeit not the main, but an independent method.

  The conversation is conducted in the form of a relaxed dialogue with the person - the object of study. The effectiveness of the conversation depends on the fulfillment of a number of requirements:

  • It is necessary to think over the plan and content of the conversation in advance;
  • Establish contact with the researched person;
  • Eliminate all moments that can cause discomfort (alertness, tension, etc.);
  • All questions asked during the conversation should be clear;
  • Leading questions should not lead to answers;
  • During the conversation, you need to observe the reaction of a person and compare his behavior with his answers;
  • The content of the conversation should be memorized so that later it can be recorded and analyzed;
  • Do not take notes during the conversation, because this can cause discomfort, mistrust, etc.;
  • Pay attention to the "subtext": omissions, slips of the tongue, etc.

  Conversation as a psychological method helps to obtain information from the "original source" and establish more trusting relationships between people. With the help of a well-conducted conversation, you can not only get answers to questions, but also get to know the interlocutor better, understand what kind of person he is and “how he lives”.

  EXAMPLE: Zhiteisky. You notice that your close friend has been walking around with a drooping and dejected look for days. He answers questions in monosyllables, rarely smiles, and avoids his usual society. The changes are obvious, but he himself does not comment on this. This person is close to you and his fate is not indifferent to you. What to do? How can I find out what's going on and help him? The answer is on the surface - talk to him, have a conversation. Try to guess the moment when no one will be around or specifically invite him to drink a cup of coffee with you. Do not start the conversation directly - with phrases like: "What happened?" or “Come on, tell me what you got!”. Even if you have good friendships, start the conversation with sincere words that you have noticed changes in him, that he is dear to you and that you would like to help him, advise something. "Turn" the person to yourself. Let him feel that it is REALLY important for you to know what happened and that you will understand him anyway. Most likely, under your kind pressure, your friend will “turn off” his defense mechanism and tell you what's wrong. Almost every person needs other people to take part in his life. It is important to feel that he is not alone and not indifferent. Especially to your friends.

  A conversation is always good when there is an opportunity to talk face-to-face, because it is during a conversation (official or confidential) that you can safely talk about what, for some reason, you can’t talk about in the bustle of ordinary affairs.

  The methods of theoretical psychology are far from being exhausted on this. There are many variations and combinations of them. But we got to know the main ones. Now, in order for the understanding of the methods of psychology to become more complete, it is necessary to consider practical methods.

  Part two. Methods of practical psychology

  The methods of practical psychology include the methods of the fields that form the general psychological science: psychotherapy, counseling and pedagogy. The main practical methods are suggestion and reinforcement, as well as methods of counseling and psychotherapeutic work. Let's talk a little about each of them.

  Suggestion

  suggestion is the process of inserting certain formulas, attitudes, positions or views into the person under study outside of his conscious control. Suggestion can be direct or indirect communicative (verbal or emotional). The task of this method is to form the required state or point of view. The means of suggestion does not play a special role. the main task- implement it. That is why emotional imprinting, confusion, distraction, intonation, remarks, and even turning off a person’s conscious control (hypnosis, alcohol, drugs) are widely used during suggestion.

  From other appeals (requests, threats, instructions, demands, etc.), which are also methods psychological impact, suggestion is distinguished by involuntary and automatic reactions, and also by the fact that it does not imply volitional efforts made consciously. In the process of suggestion, everything happens by itself. Suggestions affect each person, but to varying degrees.

  There are several types of offerings:

  • Direct - impact with the help of words (orders, commands, instructions);
  • Indirect - hidden (intermediate actions, irritants);
  • Intentional;
  • Unintentional;
  • positive;
  • Negative.

  There are also different tricks suggestions:

  • Methods of direct suggestion - advice, command, instruction, order;
  • Methods of indirect suggestion - condemnation, approval, hint;
  • Techniques of hidden suggestion - the provision of all options, the illusion of choice, truism.

  Initially, suggestion was used unconsciously by people whose communication skills had developed to a high level. Today the suggestion plays huge role in psycho- and hypnotherapy. Very often this method is used in hypnosis or in other cases when a person is in a trance state. Suggestions are part of human life since childhood, because are used in the process of education, in advertising, politics, relationships, etc.

  EXAMPLE: A well-known example of suggestion, called the "placebo" effect, is the phenomenon of an improvement in the patient's condition when taking a medicine that, in his opinion, has certain properties, when in fact it is a dummy. You can put this method into practice. If, for example, one of your loved ones suddenly has a headache, give him a simple empty capsule under the guise of a remedy for a headache - after a while the “medicine” will work and headache stop. That's what it is .

  Reinforcement

  reinforcements is the instantaneous reaction (positive or negative) of the researcher (or the environment) to the actions of the researcher. The reaction must actually be instantaneous so that the subject immediately has the opportunity to associate it with his action. If the reaction is positive, then this is a sign that one should continue to act or act in a similar way. If the reaction is negative, then vice versa.

  Reinforcement can be of the following types:

  • Positive - the correct behavior / action is fixed;
  • Negative - incorrect behavior/action is prevented;
  • Conscious;
  • Unconscious;
  • Spontaneous - happens by accident (burn, electric shock, etc.);
  • Intentional - conscious action (education, training);
  • One-time;
  • systematic;
  • Direct;
  • indirect;
  • Basic;
  • secondary;
  • Complete;
  • Partial.

  Reinforcement is a huge part of human life. It, like suggestion, is present in her from childhood in the process of education and gaining life experience.

  EXAMPLE: Examples of reinforcement are all around us at every turn: if you dip your hand into boiling water or try to touch the fire, you will certainly get burned - this is a negative elemental reinforcement. The dog, following some command, receives a treat and repeats it with pleasure - a positive intentional reinforcement. A child who received a deuce at school will be punished at home, and he will try not to bring more deuces, because if he does, he will be punished again - one-time / systematic negative reinforcement. The bodybuilder knows that only regular training will give the result - systematic positive reinforcement.

  Psychological consultation

  Psychological consultation- this is, as a rule, a one-time conversation between a psychologist and a client, orienting him in the current life situation. It implies a quick start of work, because. the client does not need any special preparation and the specialist together with him can understand the circumstances and outline steps to achieve the desired result.

  The main problems for which people seek the advice of a psychologist are:

  • Relationships - jealousy, infidelity, communication difficulties, parenting;
  • Individual problems - health, bad luck, self-organization;
  • Work - dismissal, intolerance to criticism, low wages.

  Psychological consultation consists of several stages:

  • Contact;
  • Inquiry;
  • Plan;
  • Setting up for work;
  • Implementation;
  • Hometasks;
  • Completion.

  The method of psychological consultation, like any other method of psychology, consists of a combination of both theoretical and practical research methods. Today, there are various variations and types of consultations. Turning to a psychologist for help can be a solution for many life problems and getting out of difficult situations.

  EXAMPLE: The impetus for resorting to psychological counseling can be absolutely any life situation which a person cannot solve on his own. This is the occurrence of problems at work, and troubles in family relationships, depression, loss of interest in life, inability to get rid of bad habits, disharmony, struggle with oneself and many other reasons. Therefore, if you feel that you have been overcome and disturbed by some obsessive thoughts or states for a long period of time and you understand that you cannot cope with this alone, and there is no one nearby who could support, then without a shadow of a doubt and hesitation, seek help from a specialist. Today there are a huge number of offices, clinics and centers of psychological assistance, where experienced highly qualified psychologists provide their services.

  This concludes the consideration of the classification of the main methods of psychology. Other (auxiliary) methods include: the method of experimental psychological tests, the method of explanation and training, training, coaching, business and role-playing games, counseling, the method of correcting behavior and condition, the method of transforming living and working space, and many others.

  Any mental process must be considered by psychological science as it is in reality. And this implies its study in close relationship with the surrounding world and external conditions in which a person lives, because they are reflected in his psyche. Just as the reality surrounding us is in constant motion and change, so its reflection in the human psyche cannot be unchanged. In order to learn to more deeply understand the features of the inner world of a person, and the essence of things in general, one should also come to the realization of the fact that one of the foundations of this understanding is precisely human psychology.

  Now in the public domain there is an incalculable amount of materials for the study of psychological science and its features. In order for you not to get lost in all this diversity and know where to start studying, we suggest that you familiarize yourself with the works of such authors as A. G. Maklakov, S. L. Rubinshtein, Yu. B. Gippenreiter, A. V. Petrovsky, N. A. Rybnikov, S. Buhler, B. G. Ananiev, N.A. Loginova. And right now you can see interesting video on the topic of psychology methods:

  Test your knowledge

  If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. Only 1 option can be correct for each question. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on passing. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are shuffled.

When students of psychology study the methods of psychology in order to answer them on the exam, they study the methods of not all, but only theoretical (academic) psychology. Methods of practical psychology are not yet asked from psychology students. About them - at the end of the article, and in the main article, when "methods of psychology" is written, one should read "methods of academic psychology." So,

The methods of (academic) psychology are those techniques and means by which psychologists obtain reliable information that is used further to build scientific theories and develop practical recommendations. good method does not replace a talented researcher, but is an important help to him.

The methods of psychology are aimed at studying mental phenomena in development and change.

The development and change of the psyche are studied in the history of the animal world, in the history of mankind, with age characteristics, under the influence of exercise, training and education, as a result of adverse effects external environment due to diseases.

Methods of psychological research study not only the special person himself, but also the conditions affecting him.

It is impossible, for example, to understand the properties of a child's personality without taking into account the situation around him in the family and at school.

Types of methods of (academic) psychology

First of all, the methods of actual scientific research and methods that are directly applied in practice are distinguished. Methods can be more general and more specific, more or less scientific. In a psychology that claims to be scientific, there must be appropriate scientific methods.

Using methods of (academic) psychology

In the study of mental phenomena, various methods are usually used that complement each other.

For example, the manifestation of an employee's confusion when performing a certain task, repeatedly noted by observation, has to be clarified by conversation, and sometimes verified by a natural experiment, using target tests.

If sensation and thought cannot be seen, then they are observed indirectly, not only through self-observation, but also through practical deeds and actions.

Methods of psychology must be used systematically, in a complex - and always purposefully, for each task specifically.

First of all, the task that has arisen, the question to be studied, the goal to be achieved are specified, and then, in accordance with this, a specific and accessible method is selected.

Basic and additional methods of (academic) psychology

The main methods of psychology, like most other sciences, are observation and experiment. Additional - self-observation, conversation, questioning and biographical method. IN Lately psychological testing is becoming more and more popular.

Methods of practical psychology

The methods of practical psychology include the methods of those branches and sections that form it: pedagogy, counseling, psychotherapy. See →

See also

1. 
   Academic and practical psychology
2. 
   Observation: a method of research in psychology
3. 
   Psychology
4. 
   Psychology theoretical and practical
5. 
   experimental psychology

Methods in psychology

experimental method can be used in laboratory and natural conditions. The essence of this method is to identify a cause-and-effect relationship between certain properties of mental phenomena.
The identification of this dependence contributes to the creation experimental conditions where you can get more necessary information about the psychic phenomenon under study. When preparing an experiment, one must remember that there are three groups of variable factors: independent, dependent and controlled variables.
The independent variable is the factor that the experimenter introduces into the experiment in order to evaluate its effect on the process.
Dependent variables are factors associated with the behavior of the subjects and depending on the state of their body.
Controlled variables are factors that can be tightly controlled in an experiment. Intermediate variables lie between independent and dependent variables. internal factors which cannot be strictly controlled.
Thus, J. Godefroy notes in his book “What is Psychology”, to experiment means to study the influence of an independent variable on one or more dependent ones with strict control of all other variables, called controlled ones.
Method of questioning and testing.
Questionnaires provide an opportunity to obtain information about large groups people by interviewing some part of these people who make up a representative (representative) sample. Questioning provides an opportunity to identify certain trends and understand the path of further deeper psychological research through testing or experimentation.
Tests is a standardized method used to measure various characteristics of individuals who are the subjects of research. Tests allow you to assess the level of development of intellectual or perceptual abilities, personality traits, character, temperament, etc.
In practice, two main types of tests are used: questionnaires and projective tests.
Questionnaires are based on the ability of a person to consciously evaluate himself and his actions.
Projective tests are built in such a way that they are more turned to the subconscious sphere, and help to reveal such personality traits that a person himself does not suspect. Projective methods include the Luscher color test, the "Tree" test, "Non-existent animal", various drawing tests, etc.
Questionnaires are processed according to certain keys, and then interpreted depending on the received data. Our textbook contains questionnaire tests that are published and can be used for self-knowledge purposes.Projective tests are difficult to process and require special psychological preparation for their interpretation, so they are not used in the textbook.
Observation method - this is a descriptive method by which the researcher systematically observes the behavior of another person, the external manifestations of the psyche and, based on them, draws conclusions about mental processes, states and properties this person. Scientific observations have an organized, planned character, during which observation maps are drawn up. This

Russian State Social University

Faculty of Psychology, Social Medicine and Rehabilitation Technologies

Specialty Psychology

General psychological workshop

Study minimum for student report

on the course General psychological practice

Performed:

2nd year student, 2 groups

correspondence department Boeva ​​E.V.

Moscow city

I. Stage. Theoretical

Conversation method

The method of conversation is a psychological verbal-communicative method, which consists in conducting a thematically oriented dialogue between a psychologist and a respondent in order to obtain information from the latter.

General information

In a psychological conversation, there is direct interaction between the psychologist and the respondent in the form of an oral exchange of information. The method of conversation is widely used in psychotherapy. It is also used as an independent method in consultative, political, legal psychology.

In the process of conversation, the psychologist, being a researcher, directs, covertly or explicitly, the conversation, during which he asks the person being interviewed questions.

There are two types of conversation:

· Managed

· Unmanaged

In the course of a guided conversation, the psychologist actively controls the course of the conversation, maintains the course of the conversation, and establishes emotional contact. An uncontrolled conversation occurs with a greater return of initiative from the psychologist to the respondent in comparison with the controlled one. In an unmanaged conversation, the focus is on giving the respondent the opportunity to speak out, while the psychologist does not interfere or almost does not interfere with the course of the respondent's self-expression.

In the case of both managed and unmanaged conversation, the psychologist is required to have the skill of verbal and non-verbal communication. Any conversation begins with the establishment of contact between the researcher and the respondent, while the researcher acts as an observer, analyzing the external manifestations of the respondent's mental activity. Based on the observation, the psychologist carries out express diagnostics and corrects the chosen strategy for conducting a conversation. At the initial stages of the conversation, the main task is to encourage the subject under study to actively participate in the dialogue.

The most important skill of a psychologist in a conversation situation is the ability to establish and maintain rapport, while maintaining the purity of the study, avoiding irrelevant (interfering with obtaining a reliable result) verbal and non-verbal influences on the subject, which can contribute to an active change in his reactions. Careless statements on the part of the psychologist, made, for example, in the form of orders, threats, moralizing, advice, accusations, value judgments regarding what the respondent said, reassurance and inappropriate jokes, can lead to the destruction of rapport with the respondent or to the provision of side suggestions to the respondent.

Types of conversation

Conversations differ depending on the psychological task pursued.

Allocate the following types:

Therapeutic conversation

Experimental conversation (in order to test experimental hypotheses)

Autobiographical conversation

Collection of subjective anamnesis (collection of information about the personality of the subject)

Collecting an objective anamnesis (gathering information about acquaintances of the subject)

・Telephone conversation

The interview is referred to both as a conversation method and a survey method.

Reflective and non-reflective listening

There are two styles of conversation, and in its course one can replace the other depending on the context.

Reflective listening

Reflective listening is a style of conversation that involves active verbal interaction between the psychologist and the respondent.

Reflective listening is used to accurately control the correctness of the perception of the information received. The use of this style of conversation may be associated with the personal characteristics of the respondent (for example, a low level of development of communication skills), the need to establish the meaning of the word that the speaker had in mind, cultural traditions (communication etiquette in the cultural environment to which the respondent and the psychologist belong ).

Three main techniques for maintaining a conversation and controlling the information received:

Clarification (using clarifying questions)

Paraphrasing (formulation of what the respondent said in his own words)

The psychologist's verbal reflection of the respondent's feelings

Non-reflective listening

Non-reflexive listening is a style of conversation that uses only the minimum necessary, from the point of view of expediency, words and non-verbal communication techniques on the part of the psychologist.

Non-reflexive listening is used in cases where there is a need to let the subject speak out. It is especially useful in situations where the interlocutor shows a desire to express his point of view, discuss topics of concern to him, and where he has difficulty expressing problems, is easily confused by the intervention of a psychologist, and behaves enslavedly due to the difference in social position between the psychologist and the respondent.

II. Stage. Research

Emotions

The doctrine of emotions or feelings is the most unexamined chapter in the former psychology. This aspect of human behavior proved to be more difficult to describe, classify, and bind by any laws than all the others. Nevertheless, even in former psychology, completely just views on the nature of emotional reactions were expressed.

James and Lange were the first to establish this, of whom the first drew attention to the broad bodily changes that accompany feelings, and the second to those vasomotor changes that accompany them. Independently of each other, both researchers came to the conclusion that the usual idea of ​​​​feelings is the fruit of a deep delusion, and in reality, emotions do not proceed in the same order as they imagine.

Ordinary psychology and ordinary thinking distinguish three points in feelings.

The first is the perception of an object or event or an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bit (meeting with a robber, remembering the death of a loved one, etc.) - A, the feeling caused by this (fear, sadness) - B and the bodily expression of this feeling (trembling, tears ) - C. The full process of the flow of emotions was imagined in the following order: ABC.

If you take a closer look at any feeling, it is easy to see that it always has its bodily expression. Strong feelings seem to be written on our face, and, looking at a person, we can understand without any explanation whether he is angry, frightened or complacency.

All the bodily changes that accompany feeling fall easily into three groups. First of all, this is a group of mimic and pantomimic movements, special contractions of muscles, mainly eyes, mouth, cheekbones, arms, body. This is a class of motor reactions - emotions. The next group will be somatic reactions, i.e. changes in the activity of some organs associated with the most important vital functions of the body: respiration, heartbeat and blood circulation. The third group, this group is a group of secretory reactions, certain secretions of external and internal order: tears, sweat, salivation, internal secretion of the gonads, etc. These three groups usually form the bodily expression of any feeling.

James distinguishes the same three moments in every feeling that are mentioned above, but he put forward a theory according to which the order and sequence of these moments are different. If the ordinary scheme of feeling establishes the sequence ABC, i.e. perception, feeling, facial expressions, then the true state of affairs, according to James, is more consistent with another formula - DIA: perception - facial expressions - feeling.

In other words, James assumes that certain objects have the ability to cause bodily changes in us directly by reflex, and that the feeling itself is a secondary moment in the perception of these changes. Meeting with a robber, he suggests, reflexively, without the mediation of any feeling, causes us to tremble, dry throat, pallor, shortness of breath and other symptoms of fear. The very same feeling of fear is nothing but the totality of these changes that are recognized by the body. To be afraid means to feel one's trembling, one's heartbeat, one's paleness, and so on. Almost in the same way, the memory of the death of a loved one and loved one reflexively causes tears, lowering the head, etc. Sadness comes down to feeling these symptoms, and being sad means perceiving your tears, your hunched posture, your head down, and so on.

Usually they say: we cry because we are upset, we beat because we are irritated, we tremble because we are afraid. it would be more correct to say: we are upset because we cry, we are irritated because we beat, we are afraid because we tremble. (James, 1912, p. 308)

What was previously considered a cause is in fact a consequence, and vice versa - the effect turns out to be a cause.

That this is indeed the case can be seen from the following considerations.

The first is that if we artificially evoke these or other external expressions of feeling, the feeling itself will not be slow to appear. Try for an experiment, as James says, when you get up in the morning, take on an expression of melancholy, speak in a low voice, do not raise your eyes, sigh more often, bend your back and neck a little, in a word, give yourself all the signs of sadness - and by the evening such longing will take possession of you. that you won't know where to go. Educators know perfectly well how easily a joke in this area turns into reality for children and how two boys who start a fight as a joke, without any malice against each other, suddenly, in the midst of the struggle, begin to feel anger against the enemy and cannot say whether the game is over or is still going on. So easily frightened as a joke, a child suddenly begins to be afraid in reality. And in general, any external expression facilitates the onset of the corresponding feeling: the runner is easily frightened, etc. Actors know this well when a particular pose, intonation or gesture evokes strong emotion in them.

Methods of psychology- this is a set of techniques and methods using which researchers can obtain information and expand the knowledge necessary to create scientific theories in psychology and form practical recommendations. Together with the definition of the concept of "method", the terms "methodology" and "methodology" are used. The method is implemented in a methodology, which is a set of rules necessary for research, describes a set of applied tools and objects that are used in certain circumstances and are regulated by the sequence of the researcher's influences. Each psychological technique based on information about age, gender, ethnicity, professional and religious affiliation.

Methodology is a system of principles and techniques for organizing scientific research, which determines the ways to achieve theoretical scientific knowledge, and methods of organizing practical activities. The research is based on the methodology, which reflects the worldview of the researcher, his views and philosophical position.

The phenomena that are studied by psychology are very complex and diverse, they are very difficult for scientific knowledge, because the success of this science depended on the improvement of research methods.

The subject, tasks and methods of psychology have changed throughout the development of science. To use your psychological knowledge correctly, you need to know the basic methods of psychology. The receipt of reliable information depends on the observance of special principles and the application of specific techniques.

The methods of psychology are briefly understood as ways of studying the real facts of the surrounding reality. Each method is accompanied by only the appropriate type of techniques that meet the goals and objectives of the study. Based on any one method, you can create several methods.

Subject, tasks and methods of psychology These are the three important aspects on which all science rests. IN different time the subject of psychology was defined in different ways, now it is the psyche, the study of its patterns and mechanisms for the formation of personal characteristics. The tasks of psychology follow from its subject.

The methods of psychology can be briefly described as ways of studying the psyche and its activities.

Research methods in psychology

The exploratory methods of psychology are briefly described as methods by which reliable knowledge is obtained that is necessary to create concepts and test theories. Through certain norms and techniques, the most effective way for the practical application of knowledge in the field of psychology is provided.

The general characteristic of the methods of psychology used in the study lies in their distribution into four groups: organizational, empirical, methods of correction and data processing.

Organizational basic methods of psychology:

- comparative genetic: comparison different types groups according to certain psychological criteria. He received the greatest popularity in zoopsychology and child psychology. The evolutionary method, formed in line with the comparative, is to compare mental development an animal with developmental features of individuals that are at the previous and subsequent levels of animal evolution;

– the cross-sectional method is a comparison of the features of interest different groups(for example, a study of the psychological characteristics of children different ages, them with different levels development, different personality traits and clinical reactions);

- longitudinal - repetition of the study of the same subjects for a long time;

- complex - representatives of different sciences who study the same object in different ways participate in the study. In a complex method, one can find connections and dependencies between different phenomena (mental and physiological phenomena, social and psychological).

The cross-sectional method in psychology has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of transverse sections is the speed of the study, that is, the possibility of acquiring results within a fairly short time. Despite the great advantage of this type of research methods in psychology, it is impossible to demonstrate the dynamics of the development process with its help. Most of the results on the laws of development are very approximate. Regarding the method of transverse sections, the longitudinal one has a large number of advantages.

Longitudinal research methods in psychology help to process data in individual age periods. With their help, you can establish the dynamics of the individual development of the child. Thanks to the longitudinal methods of studying psychology, it is possible to determine and resolve the issue of age crises in human development. A significant disadvantage in a longitudinal study is that it requires a large amount of time required to organize and conduct it.

Empirical methods are the main methods of psychology in research, since it separated into a separate science:

- objective observation (external) and self-observation (internal);

— analysis of products of activity;

- experimental (natural, formative, laboratory) and psychodiagnostic (questionnaires, tests, questionnaires, interviews, sociometry, conversation) methods.

Psychology of the introspective direction considered self-observation to be the main way of cognition in psychology.

In the process of objective observation, the researcher inquires about the individual motives, experiences and sensations of the subject, the researcher directs him to perform appropriate actions, deeds, so that he observes the patterns of mental processes.

The method of observation is used when there is a need for the least interference with natural behavior, interpersonal relationships people, in the case of striving to obtain a holistic picture of everything that happens. The observation must be carried out using objective methods.

Scientific observation is directly related to ordinary life observation. That is why, in the first place, it is desirable to create the basic conditions that satisfy observation, so that it becomes a scientific method.

One of the requirements is the presence of a clear goal of the study. According to the goal, you need to define a plan. In observation, as in scientific method, the most essential features are planned and systematic. If observation proceeds from a well-conscious goal, then it must acquire a selective and partial character.

Praximetric methods have been developed mainly in line with the psychology of work in the study of various mental aspects, human actions, operations and professional behavior. These methods are chronometry, cyclography, professiograms and psychograms.

The method of analyzing products of activity is used in many areas of science: from general psychology to age and is a comprehensive study of the results of labor, as the materialization of mental activity. This method is applied equally to both the child's drawing and school essay or a work of a writer or a painted picture.

The biographical method in psychology is life path person, a description of his biography. When a personality develops, it changes, rebuilds life orientations, views, experiencing certain personal transformations during this.

Modeling in psychology has variety of options. Models can be structural or functional, symbolic, physical, mathematical or informational.

The third group of methods of psychology is represented by methods of processing the obtained results. These include - a more organic unity of qualitative and quantitative meaningful analysis. The process of processing the results is always creative, exploratory and involves the selection of the most adequate and sensitive tools.

The fourth group of methods of psychology is interpretive, which theoretically explain the property or phenomenon being studied. Here are complex and systemic sets of different variants of structural, genetic and functional methods, which close the general cycle of the process of psychological research.

A feature of practical psychology is its focus on working with people. Practical psychologists provide services of practical psychological assistance, consult, conduct trainings. The main issues to be addressed practical psychology, - these are issues of human interaction with others, personal growth, the desire for internal balance. This direction of psychology is based on methods and techniques of direct influence on a person and on his behavior.

Often practical psychology is compared with psychotherapeutic methods, but this is not the same thing. Many people do turn to practical psychologists with requests, the solutions of which require psychotherapeutic work. But all activities are not limited to this one aspect.

Practical psychology includes many areas and directions. Each section performs its specific functions. These include psychological education and training, psychodiagnostics, psychocorrection, developmental psychology.

Features of practical psychology as a branch in psychological science

Practical psychology is not the same as popular (everyday) psychology, although the two are often confused. The main difference between these concepts is that worldly psychology is focused on a wide range of consumers, often articles from this industry are of an entertaining nature. Practical psychology is necessarily based on a scientific basis and focuses on specific needs. As a rule, books on practical psychology are intended to reveal a specific issue or problem, and the entertaining element is not always present in them. That is, such books need to be read thoughtfully, to master them.

But practical psychology is not applied psychology either. The latter works exclusively within the scientific framework, while practical psychology uses both the scientific base and certain techniques and methods without a scientific basis. Applied psychology focuses on the professional presentation of materials, it is focused on narrow specialists. Books, materials on practical psychology are aimed at a wide range of readers.

Practical psychology differs from other areas in its attitude to science. Based on scientific data, it allows the involvement of factors that are not related to the exact sciences.

An important working material in this area of ​​psychology is practical experience, and it is not always possible to confirm it with scientific facts.

Methods in practical psychology

Practical psychology is a field that uses the methodology of those industries that are its basis. Such industries include counseling, pedagogy, psychotherapy and others.

The most popular are the following methods:

• reinforcement - the essence of this method is that a positive or negative reaction, a certain response, is instantly given to some human action;
• suggestion;
• sample use.

But although practical psychology uses methods used in other branches, this branch of science fills these tools with new meaning, relevant specifically for practical psychology.

Thus, practical psychology is a branch of the science of psychology, the main task of which is the use of knowledge from this area in practice. This is an applied science that makes it possible to comprehend oneself, correct one's behavior and, as a result, change life in a positive way.