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The main socio-psychological functions of the group. Criteria for defining a group in social psychology

Types of groups and their functions. Each of us spends a significant part of his time in various groups: at home, at work or in an educational institution, in the sports section, among fellow travelers in a compartment of a railway car, etc. People lead a family life, raise children, work and rest. At the same time, they enter into certain contacts with other people, interact with them in one way or another - help each other or, conversely, compete. Sometimes people in a group experience the same mental states, and this affects their activity in a certain way.

Various kinds of groups have long been the object of socio-psychological analysis. However, not every set of individuals can be called a group in the strict sense of the term. Several people crowded on the street and watching the consequences of a traffic accident are not a group, but an aggregation - a combination of people who happened to be here at the moment. These people do not have a common goal, there is no interaction between them, in a minute or two they will disperse forever and nothing will connect them. If these people start to take joint action to help the victims of the accident, then for a short time they will become a group. Thus, in order for any set of individuals to be considered a group in the socio-psychological sense, it is necessary, as in the dramatic works of classicism, the presence of three unities - place, time and action. In this case, the action must be joint. It is also important that interacting people consider themselves members of this group. Such identification (identification) of each of them with their group eventually leads to the formation of a sense of "we" as opposed to "them" - other groups. These features characterize groups that include a relatively small number of members, so that the interaction is carried out "face to face". In social psychology, such groups are called small.A small group is a collection of individuals who directly interact with each other to achieve common goals and are aware of their belonging to this population.

Along with small groups, aggregates of individuals, numbering from several tens to several million people, can also act as objects of socio-psychological analysis. These are the groups large, which include ethnic communities, professional associations, political parties, various organizations large in size. Sometimes social groups also include aggregates of people who have some common characteristics, for example, university students, the unemployed, and the disabled. Such groups are often called social categories.

All the diversity of human groups in society can also be divided into primary and secondary groups, as did the American psychologist Cooley at the beginning of the last century. Primary are contact groups in which people not only interact "face to face", but are also closely united by emotional closeness. Cooley called the family the primary group, because this is the first group for any person into which he falls. The family plays a primary role in the socialization of the individual. Later, psychologists began to call primary groups all those characterized by interpersonal interaction and solidarity. Examples of such groups include a group of friends or a narrow circle of work colleagues. Belonging to one or another primary group in itself is a value for its members and does not pursue any other goals.

Secondary groups are characterized by the impersonal interaction of their members, which is due to one or another official organizational relationship. Such groups are inherently opposite to the primary ones. The significance of members of secondary groups for each other is determined not by their individual properties, but by the ability to perform certain functions. People are united in secondary groups primarily by the desire to obtain any economic, political or other benefits. Examples of such groups are a production organization, a trade union, a political party. It is possible that in the secondary group the individual finds exactly what he was deprived of in the primary group. On the basis of his observations, Verba concludes that the individual's turning to active participation in the activities of any political party may be a kind of "response" of the individual to the weakening of attachments between members of his family. At the same time, the forces that impel the individual to such participation are not so much political as psychological.

The groups are also divided into formal and informal.This division is based on the character structures groups. The structure of the group - the relatively constant combination of interpersonal relationships that exists in it. The structure of the group can be determined by both external and internal factors. The nature of the relationship between members of the group can be influenced by the decisions of another group or some person from outside. External regulation determines the formal (official) structure of the group. In accordance with such regulation, the members of the group must interact with each other in a certain way prescribed by them. Thus, the nature of interaction in the production team may depend both on the characteristics of the technological process and on administrative and legal regulations. The same applies to any department of a medical institution. The specifics of people's activities in an official organization are fixed by service instructions, orders and other regulations. A formal structure is created in order to ensure the fulfillment of certain official tasks. If any individual falls out of it, then the vacant place is occupied by another, of the same specialty, qualification. The connections that make up the formal structure are impersonal. A group based on such connections is therefore called a formal group.

If the formal structure of the group is determined by external factors, then the informal structure is determined by internal ones. The informal structure is a consequence of the personal desire of individuals for certain contacts and is more flexible than the formal one. People enter into informal relationships with each other in order to satisfy their needs for communication, association, affection, friendship, getting help, dominance, respect. Informal ties arise and develop spontaneously as individuals interact with each other. On the basis of such connections, informal groups are formed, for example, a company of friends or like-minded people. In these groups, people spend time together, go in for sports, hunt, etc.

The emergence of informal groups can be facilitated by the spatial proximity of individuals. Teenagers living in the same yard or nearby houses can form an informal group, because they constantly meet each other, have common interests and problems. Membership of individuals in the same formal groups facilitates informal contacts between them and also contributes to the formation of informal groups. Workers who perform the same tasks in the same shop feel psychologically close because they have so much in common. This leads to the emergence of solidarity and corresponding informal relationships.

When forming groups, people often value their membership very much. Groups ensure the satisfaction of certain needs of society as a whole and each of its members individually. The American sociologist Smelser identifies the following functions of groups: 1) socialization; 2) instrumental; 3) expressive; 4) supporting.

Socialization the process of including a person in a certain social environment and the assimilation of its norms and values is called. Man, like highly organized primates, can ensure his own survival and upbringing of the younger generations only in a group. It is in a group, primarily in a family, that an individual acquires a number of necessary social skills and abilities. The primary groups in which the child resides contribute to his inclusion in the system of wider social ties.

instrumental the function of the group is to carry out one or another joint activity of people. Many activities are not possible alone. A conveyor team, a rescue squad, a choreographic ensemble are all examples of groups that play an instrumental role in society. Participation in such groups, as a rule, provides a person with material means of life, provides him with opportunities for self-realization.

expressive role groups is to meet people's needs for approval, respect and trust. This role is often performed by primary informal groups. Being a member of them, the individual enjoys communicating with people psychologically close to him.

supportive the function of the group is manifested in the fact that people strive to unite in difficult situations for them. They seek psychological support in the group to help alleviate bad feelings. A vivid example of this is the experiments of the American psychologist Miner. First, the subjects, who were students of one of the universities, were divided into two groups. The members of the first of these were informed that they would be subjected to a comparatively strong electric shock. The members of the second group were told that they were going to get a very light, ticklish electric shock. Next, all subjects were asked how they prefer to wait for the start of the experiment: alone or together with other participants? It was found that about two-thirds of the subjects in the first group expressed a desire to be with others. In the second group, on the contrary, about two-thirds of the subjects said that they did not care how they expected the experiment to begin - alone or with others. So, when a person is faced with some kind of threatening factor, the group can provide him with a sense of psychological support or comfort. Miner came to this conclusion. In the face of danger, people tend to psychologically approach each other. The supportive function of the group can be vividly manifested in the course of group psychotherapy sessions. At the same time, sometimes a person psychologically becomes so close to other members of the group that his forced departure (at the end of the course of treatment) is hard for him to experience.

Group size and structure. One of the important factors that determine the properties of the group is its size, number. Most researchers, speaking about the size of the group, begin with a dyad - a connection of two persons. A different point of view is expressed by the Polish sociologist Szczepanski, who believes that the group includes at least three people. The dyad, indeed, is a specific human formation. On the one hand, interpersonal ties in a dyad can be very strong. Take, for example, lovers, friends. Compared to other groups, belonging to a dyad causes a much higher degree of satisfaction among its members. On the other hand, the dyad, as a group, is also characterized by particular fragility. Most groups continue to exist if they lose one of their members, the dyad in this case breaks up. Relationships in a triad - a group of three people are also distinguished by their specificity. Each of the members of the triad can act in two directions: contribute to the strengthening of this group or strive to separate it. It has been experimentally found that in the triad there is a tendency to unite two members of the group against the third.

When classifying groups according to their size, special attention is usually paid to small groups. They consist of a small number of individuals (two to ten) with a common goal and differentiated role responsibilities. The study of the structure and dynamics of small groups is an important area of research in modern social psychology. Often the terms "small group" and "primary group" are used in the same sense. However, there is a difference between them. The basis for the use of the term "small group" is its size. The primary group is characterized by a particularly high degree of group membership, close emotional attachment. The same can be observed in many small groups. However, not always. All primary groups are small, but not all small groups are primary.

Every group has one or the other structure- a certain set of relatively stable relationships between its members. The features of these relationships determine the entire life of the group, including the productivity and satisfaction of its members. Various factors influence the structure of different groups. First of all - this group goals.Consider, for example, the crew of an aircraft. In order for the aircraft to reach its destination, it is necessary that each crew member make contact with each of the other crew members. Thus, in accordance with the purpose of the group, there is a need for close integration of the actions of all its members. In groups of a different type, the nature of the relationship looks different. So, in any administrative department, employees may have specific duties, in the performance of which they are independent of each other and coordinate their activities only with the head of the department. To achieve a common goal, the exchange of information between ordinary members of the group in this case is not necessary (although the presence of informal comradely contacts can have a beneficial effect on the activities of this group). We also note the role of such a factor as the degree of autonomy of the group. All functional relationships between the members of the flow production team are clearly defined in advance. Workers cannot make changes to the existing structure of these links without the consent of management. The degree of autonomy of such a group is insignificant. On the contrary, the members of the film crew, whose degree of autonomy is high, usually determine the nature of intra-group relationships themselves. The structure of such a group is more flexible.

Among the significant factors influencing the structure of the group are also socio-demographic, social and psychological characteristics of its members. A high degree of homogeneity of the group according to such characteristics as gender, age, education, skill level, and therefore the presence of a common interest, needs, value orientation is a good basis for the emergence of close ties between employees.

A group heterogeneous according to the indicated characteristics usually breaks up into several informal groups, each of which is relatively homogeneous in its composition. For example, in any subdivision of an institution, men, women, elderly people, young people, football fans, and gardening enthusiasts can unite in separate informal groups. The structure of such a division will be significantly different from the structure of another, consisting only of men of approximately the same age, with the same level of qualification and, moreover, rooting for the same football club. In this case, there are all prerequisites for the emergence of permanent and strong contacts between members of this group. On the basis of such a community, a sense of cohesion, a sense of "we" is born. The structure of a group with a high sense of "we" is characterized by closer interrelationships of its members, compared with the structure of a group that is not distinguished by such unity. In the latter case, contacts are limited and mostly official. At the same time, informal ties are less significant and do not unite all members of this group.

The degree of group cohesion also depends on how belonging to it satisfies the needs of its members. Factors that bind a person to a group can be interesting work, awareness of its social importance, the prestige of the group, the presence of friends. The structure of the group also depends on its size. Ties between members of groups consisting of 5-10 people are usually stronger than in large ones. The structure of small groups is more often formed under the influence of informal relationships. In this case, it is easier to organize interchangeability, the alternation of functions between its members. But permanent informal contacts of all members of a group consisting of 30-40 people or more are hardly possible. Within such a group, several informal subgroups most often arise. The structure of the group as a whole, as it grows, will increasingly be characterized by formal relationships.

Psychological compatibility in the group. In the process of joint activities, members of a small group need to contact each other to transfer information and coordinate their efforts. The productivity of the group depends entirely on the level of such coordination, no matter what type of activity it is engaged in. In turn, this level is a value derived from one or another degree psychological compatibility group members. This concept can be defined as the ability of group members to work together, based on their optimal combination. Compatibility can be due to both the similarity of some of the properties of the members of the group, and the difference in their other properties. As a result, this leads to the complementarity of people in the conditions of joint activity, so that this group represents a certain integrity.

It is known that any real group is not simply the sum of its constituent individuals. Therefore, the assessment of the group's activity must be given taking into account the principle of integrativity put forward by Gorbov and Novikov, that is, the view of the group as a single inextricably linked organism. When studying psychological compatibility, the main attention is paid to such groups that have to perform their tasks in conditions of relative isolation from the social environment (cosmonauts, polar explorers, participants in various expeditions). However, the role of psychologically compatible groups is important in all spheres of joint activity of people without exception. The presence of psychological compatibility of group members contributes to their better teamwork and, as a result, greater labor efficiency. In accordance with the data of Obozov's research, the following criteria for assessing compatibility and operability can be distinguished: 1) performance results; 2) emotional and energy costs of its participants; 3) their satisfaction with this activity. There are two main types of psychological compatibility: psychophysiological and socio-psychological. In the first case, a certain similarity of the psychophysiological characteristics of people is implied and, on this basis, the consistency of their emotional and behavioral reactions, the synchronization of the pace of joint activity. In the second case, we mean the effect of an optimal combination of types of behavior of people in a group, the commonality of their social attitudes, needs and interests, and value orientations.

Not every type of joint activity requires psycho-physiological compatibility of group members. Let's take, for example, employees of a university department, each of whom does his work alone: he gives lectures, conducts seminars, takes exams and tests, supervises the scientific work of graduate students and students. In order for the activity of the department as a whole to be successful, only the socio-psychological aspect of compatibility matters. At the same time, effective work on the assembly line is impossible without the psychophysiological compatibility of the team members. With in-line work, each person must make his movements at a certain pace, a clear coordination of people's actions is necessary. If the members of the conveyor team are also socially and psychologically compatible, this further contributes to its successful work.

In modern conditions (in the fields of work, sports) there are a number of activities that require both psychophysiological and socio-psychological compatibility, for example, group work of operators in automated control systems. In order to optimally complete such groups, the so-called homeostatic method proposed by Gorbov and his co-workers can be used. Their studies have shown that taking into account the requirements of psychological compatibility helps to increase the productivity and satisfaction of the subjects in the experimental groups. As an example of the use of this technique, let us refer to the work carried out in the 60s in the laboratory of social psychology of St. Petersburg University by Golubeva and Ivanyuk. The “homeostat” installation is a device that can be used to simulate the group interdependent activity of people in the process of solving a problem. This device includes three or four identical devices, each of which has a dial indicator and a control handle. In front of these devices are the subjects (respectively, three or four people). Their common task is to set the arrows of all devices in the position specified by the experimenter. At the same time, the devices are interconnected in such a way that if one of the members of the experimental group manipulates the handle by itself, ignoring the actions of the others, the problem cannot be solved. Experiments have shown that the following four types of communicative behavior can be distinguished:

1) the behavior of people striving for leadership, who can solve the problem only by subordinating other members of the group;

2) the behavior of individualists trying to solve the problem alone;

3) the behavior of people who adapt to the group, easily obeying the orders of its other members;

4) the behavior of collectivists who are trying to solve the problem by joint efforts; they not only accept the proposals of other members of the group, but also take the initiative themselves.

Not every group was able to successfully solve the problem. For example, when a person striving for leadership could not get others to follow his orders, he often refused to participate in the experiment at all, and if he did, he behaved very passively. If the group consisted mainly of individualists, then each of them strove to act separately from the others, on his own. Only certain combinations of different types of behavior turned out to be successful. In the experiments, those groups whose members were quite active and exchanged information, acting collegially, solved their problem most quickly. When working on a simpler homeostatic device, where it was sufficient to understand the task by only one of the three members of the group, the following combination also demonstrated effective activity: one member of the group is active, and the other two are completely subordinate to him. Although the experiments were carried out in the laboratory, the data obtained are directly related to the conditions under which the various groups operate.

Consequently, psychological compatibility in groups is formed due to the action of various factors. The degree of such compatibility of members of the same group may be different at different stages of its life due to the dynamics of interpersonal relations. The recruitment of groups, taking into account the requirements of psychological compatibility, helps to increase their productivity and optimize the socio-psychological climate.

Group approach to decision making. In practice, there are often situations when all members of the group somehow take part in the development and decision-making. From a common sense point of view, a collaborative approach to decision making may seem more effective than a one-man decision. Let's remember the saying: "Mind is good, but two is better." Indeed, what one member of the group does not know, another may know. In cases where the solution involves a single definite answer, it is reasonable to assume that the more people in the group, the more likely it is that at least one of them will find this answer. However, it is not uncommon for specialists in various fields to express skepticism about group decisions, citing another, more modern saying: "A camel is a horse designed by a commission."

Psychologists over the past decades have been busy comparing the effectiveness of individual and group decisions. The process of group decision making is essentially similar to the process of individual decision making. In both cases, the same stages are present - the clarification of the problem, the collection of information, the promotion and evaluation of alternatives, and the choice of one of them. However, the process of group decision-making is more complex in socio-psychological terms, since each of these stages is accompanied by interaction between members of the group and, accordingly, a clash of different views.

In itself, the interaction of group members can be characterized, as the American psychologist Mitchell notes, by the following manifestations:

1) some individuals tend to talk more than others;

2) individuals with high status have a greater influence on the decision than individuals with low status;

3) groups often spend a significant proportion of their time resolving interpersonal differences;

4) groups can lose sight of their goal and get off with inconsistent conclusions;

5) group members often experience exceptionally strong pressure to conform.

Group discussion generates twice as many ideas as when the same people work alone (Hall, Mouton, Blake). Group decisions are more accurate than individual decisions. This is because the group as a whole has more knowledge than one individual. The information is more versatile, which provides a greater variety of approaches to solving the problem. However, groups usually do not contribute to the manifestation of creative forces in decision-making. Most often, the group suppresses the creative impulses of its individual members. When making decisions, groups may follow familiar patterns over a long period, although groups are better than individuals at appreciating an innovative idea. Therefore, the group is sometimes used in order to make a judgment about the novelty and originality of an idea. With group decision-making, the acceptability of the decisions made for all members of the group increases. It is known that many decisions fail to be implemented because people do not agree with them. But if people themselves participate in decision-making, they are more willing to support them and encourage others to agree with them. Participation in the decision-making process imposes appropriate moral obligations on the individual and increases his level of motivation if he has to carry out these decisions. An important advantage of group decisions is that they can be perceived as more legitimate than decisions made by individuals.

Hoffman studied the role of such characteristics as group composition. The data obtained showed that heterogeneous (diverse) groups, whose members differed in qualifications and experience, usually made decisions of higher quality than homogeneous (homogeneous) groups. However, homogeneous groups whose members had similar qualifications and experience had other advantages. Such groups contributed to the satisfaction of their members and the reduction of conflict. There was a great guarantee that in the process of this activity of the group, none of its members would dominate.

The role of the features of group interaction in decision-making was also studied. On this basis, allocate interactive and nominal groups. An ordinary discussion group, for example, one or another commission, whose members directly interact with each other in order to make a decision, is called interactive. In the nominal group, on the contrary, each of the members acts relatively isolated from the rest, although sometimes they are all in the same room (but sometimes they are spatially separated). At intermediate stages of work, these persons are provided with information about each other's activities and have the opportunity to change their opinions. In this case, we can talk about indirect interaction. As Duncan points out, nominal groups are superior to interactive groups at all stages of problem solving, except for the synthesis stage, when the ideas expressed by group members are compared, discussed and combined. As a result, it was concluded that it is necessary to combine the nominal and interactive forms, since this leads to the development of group decisions of higher quality.

When considering the problems of group decision-making, one should pay attention to the phenomenon deindividualization of personality.The loss of a sense of identity by an individual in a group often leads to the disinhibition of moral principles that restrain the individual within certain moral frameworks. Because of this deindividuation, individuals in a group can sometimes make decisions that are very conservative or too risky. Sometimes group decisions turn out to be even immoral to an extent that is not characteristic of most group members, considered individually.

Considerable attention is paid to the problem of the level of risk in group decisions. The results obtained are contradictory. Thus, there are experimental data that testify to the averaging of extreme positions in the process of making a group decision. As a result, the decision turns out to be less risky than a possible individual one. According to other studies, group decisions are more risky than decisions preferred by the "average" member of this group (Böhm, Kogan, Wallach). When making decisions, the group strives for alternatives that provide a higher end result, but a lower probability of achieving it. Along with this, significant overlaps were also found between the distributions of group and individual decisions: a group decision carries a greater degree of risk than the decision of the “average” member of the group, however, any group decision is no more risky than the individual decisions of individual members of this group. The phenomenon of an increase in the level of risk in decisions made by a group is called "risk shift". This phenomenon is a consequence of the deindividualization of the personality in the group and is called "diffusion" of responsibility, since none of the members of the group is endowed with full responsibility for the final decision. The individual knows that responsibility lies with all members of the group.

At times, the group may lean towards the most unreasonable decisions. This is especially true for groups with a high degree of cohesion. Sometimes group members are so eager for consensus (complete unanimity when making a group decision) that they ignore realistic assessments of their decisions and their consequences. Members of such groups may have a high social status and the significance of their decisions is extremely high for many people. Unanimity often triumphs over a balanced critical approach to a problem. As a result, reaching a consensus, group members make an inefficient decision. The American psychologist Janice called this phenomenon "group thinking". Among its symptoms are the illusion of the invulnerability of the group members and the anonymity of the decision, excessive optimism, risk-taking. In this case, the group discusses the minimum number of alternatives. The possible risk of consequences of the decision favored by the group is not considered. Expert opinions are not taken into account at all. All facts and opinions that do not support the group's point of view are also ignored. Group members are self-censoring any deviation from the explicit consensus. Thus, the more the members of the group are imbued with the spirit of unity, the greater the danger that independent, critical thinking will be replaced by "grouping".

Decisions made by this or that real group, in practice, always have a social character. These decisions inevitably reflect the goals, values and norms of the respective social groups.

Management and leadership. One of the sides of the division of labor in any organization is the presence of leaders and led. In any relatively complex organization, one can find a whole hierarchy of leaders of various managerial ranks. In a simple organization - at the level of a small group - there is at least one leader. The concept of "leadership" is widely used in the literature on the management of organizations. This term is formed from two words: "hand" and "lead". But its meaning is not at all that leading is “leading by hand” (for example, by signing documents). "Gathering" - this is the original meaning of the word "hand" in the Slavic languages. Leading means gathering, uniting people and directing their movement towards a specific goal. The successful work of people working together is impossible without the appropriate organization and direction of their actions.

The term "leadership" comes from the English word "leadership", which means leadership, however, domestic authors sometimes distinguish leadership and leadership as two different phenomena inherent in organized (to one degree or another) communities. Their main difference is as follows. The interaction of leaders and people led by them is carried out in the system of administrative-legal relations of one or another official organization. As for the interaction of leaders and followers, it can occur both in the system of administrative-legal and moral-psychological ties between people. If the former are a necessary feature of any official organization, then the latter arise spontaneously as a result of the interaction of people in both official and informal organizations. Thus, in the same act of interaction between two employees of an organization or institution, one can sometimes observe both leadership relationships and leadership relationships, and sometimes only one of these types of relationships.

The phenomenon of leadership has attracted the attention of researchers since time immemorial. The earliest attempts to build a theory of leadership include the search for specific personality traits inherent in leaders. At the same time, it is believed that a person manifests himself as a leader due to his exceptional physical or psychological characteristics, giving him a certain superiority over others. Proponents of this approach are based on the premise that some people are "born leaders", while others, even in the role of official leaders, will never be able to achieve success. The origins of such theories can be found in the writings of the philosophers of ancient Greece and Rome, who considered the historical course of events as the result of the actions of prominent people who were called to lead the masses by virtue of their natural qualities.

In the XX century. Behavioral psychologists began to lean toward the idea that leadership traits cannot be considered entirely innate and therefore some of them can be acquired through training and experience. Empirical research has been conducted to identify the universal traits that leaders should have. Both psychological traits of leaders (intelligence, will, self-confidence, need for dominance, sociability, ability to adapt, sensitivity, etc.) and constitutional traits (height, weight, physique) were analyzed. By the beginning of 1950, more than 100 such studies had been carried out. Reviews of these works have shown a wide variety of "leader traits" found by different authors. Only 5% of traits were found to be common to all.

Unsuccessful attempts to identify personality traits that would be consistently associated with successful leadership have led to the formation of other theories. A concept has been put forward that focuses on the success of the leader in the various functions that must be performed in order for the group to achieve its goals. An essential element of this approach was to shift attention from the traits of the leader to his behavior. In accordance with this point of view, the functions performed by the leader depend on the specifics of the situation. Therefore, it was concluded that it is necessary to take into account a number of “situational variables”. There is ample evidence to suggest that the behavior required of a leader in one situation may not meet the requirements of another situation. A leader who is consistently effective in one type of situation often turns out to be completely ineffective in another. Consequently, for successful leadership in some conditions, the leader must have some personality traits, in other conditions - traits, sometimes directly opposite. This explains the emergence and change of informal leadership. Since the situation in any group is subject to one or another change, and personality traits are more stable, then leadership can pass from one member of the group to another. Depending on the requirements of the situation, the leader will be that member of the group whose personality traits turn out to be “leader traits” at the moment. As we can see, in these cases, the leader's personality traits are considered only as one of the "situational" variables, along with others. These variables also include the expectations and needs of the people being led, the structure of the group and the specifics of the situation at the moment, the broader cultural environment in which the group is located.

A wide variety of factors influencing leadership has been noted. Simply listing them does not create any valid theory of leadership. Nor is there enough data to justify the role of these "situational" variables. On the whole, such an approach underestimates the role of the individual's activity, elevating the totality of certain circumstances to the rank of a higher force that completely determines the leader's behavior.

In recent years, the West has been developing the concept of leadership, understood as a "system of influences." This concept is sometimes considered a further development of "situationism". However, in contrast to the situational approach, here the persons led by the leader are considered not only as one of the “elements” of the situation, but as a central component of the leadership process, its active participants. Supporters of this theory note that the leader, of course, influences the followers, but, on the other hand, the fact that the followers influence the leader is just as important. Based on the analysis of the interaction between the leader and the followers, a number of authors conclude that a reasonable approach to the leadership process should link together the following three factors - the leader, the situation and the group of followers. Thus, each of these factors affects each of the others and is, in turn, affected by them.

Leadership practices vary widely. By studying these methods in relation to small groups, social psychologists have developed a number of classifications of leadership styles. Here is the most common classification, which originates from the works of Levin. This classification is based on such an important component of the leader's behavior as the approach to decision making. In this case, the following leadership styles are distinguished.

1. Autocratic. The leader makes decisions on his own, determining all the activities of subordinates and not giving them the opportunity to take the initiative.

2. Democratic. The leader involves subordinates in the decision-making process on the basis of a group discussion, stimulating their activity and sharing with them all decision-making powers.

3. Free. The leader avoids any personal participation in decision-making, giving subordinates complete freedom to make decisions on their own.

Observations on experimentally created groups, conducted under the leadership of Lewin, revealed the greatest advantages of the democratic style of leadership. With this style, the group was distinguished by the highest satisfaction, the desire for creativity, and the most favorable relationship with the leader. However, productivity scores were highest under autocratic leadership, slightly lower under democratic leadership, and lowest under free leadership.

Each of the considered leadership styles has both advantages and disadvantages, and gives rise to its own problems. Autocratic leadership allows for quick decision making. In the practice of activities of various organizations, situations often arise in which decisions must be made promptly, and success is achieved with unquestioning obedience to the order of the head. The choice of leadership style in this case should be determined by the time allotted for decision-making. One of the main disadvantages of this style is the often arising dissatisfaction of subordinates, who may feel that their creative powers are not being used properly. In addition, the autocratic leadership style usually gives rise to the abuse of negative sanctions (punishments). The high efficiency of democratic leadership is based on the use of the knowledge and experience of group members, however, the implementation of this style requires the leader to make significant efforts to coordinate the activities of subordinates. The free style of leadership gives the members of the group more initiative in dealing with issues that arise in the course of work. On the one hand, this can contribute to the manifestation of the activity of people, the understanding that a lot depends on them. On the other hand, the passivity of the leader sometimes leads to complete disorientation of the members of the group: everyone acts at his own discretion, which is not always compatible with common tasks.

The main feature of effective people management is flexibility. Depending on the specifics of the situation, the leader must skillfully use the advantages of a particular leadership style and neutralize its weaknesses.

Socio-psychological climate of the group. In order to most generally characterize the conditions of activity of a particular group, its internal environment, the concepts of "socio-psychological climate", "moral-psychological climate", "psychological climate", "emotional climate" are often used. In relation to the labor collective, one sometimes speaks of a "production" or "organizational" climate. In most cases, these concepts are used in an approximately identical sense, which does not exclude significant variability in specific definitions. In the domestic literature, there are several dozen definitions of the socio-psychological climate and various research approaches to this problem (Volkov, Kuzmin, Parygin, Platonov, etc.).

The socio-psychological climate of the group is a state of the group psyche, due to the characteristics of the life of this group. This is a kind of fusion of the emotional and intellectual - attitudes, attitudes, moods, feelings, opinions of group members, all the individual elements of the socio-psychological climate. The mental states of the group are characterized by varying degrees of awareness. It is necessary to clearly distinguish between the elements of the socio-psychological climate and the factors influencing it. For example, the features of the organization of labor in any work collective are not elements of the socio-psychological climate, although the influence of the organization of labor on the formation of a particular climate is undoubted. The socio-psychological climate is always reflected, subjective education in contrast to reflected - the objective life of a given group and the conditions in which it takes place. Reflected and reflected in the sphere of public life are dialectically interconnected. The presence of a close interdependence between the socio-psychological climate of the group and the behavior of its members should not lead to their identification, although the peculiarities of this relationship cannot be ignored. Thus, the nature of relationships in the group (reflected) acts as a factor influencing the climate. At the same time, the perception of these relationships by its members (reflected) is an element of climate.

When addressing the problems of the socio-psychological climate of the group, one of the most important is the consideration of the factors that influence the climate. Having singled out the factors influencing the climate of the group, one can try to influence these factors and regulate their manifestation. Consider the problems of the socio-psychological climate on the example primary labor group- brigades, links, bureaus, laboratories. We are talking about elementary organizational units that do not have any official structural units. Their number can vary from 3-4 to 60 people or more. This is the “cell” of every enterprise and institution. The socio-psychological climate of such a cell is formed due to a variety of different influences. We divide them conditionally into factors macro environment and microenvironments.

The macroenvironment means a large social space, a wide environment within which this or that organization is located and carries out its vital activity. First of all, this includes the cardinal features of the socio-economic structure of the country, and more specifically, the specifics of this stage of its development, which is appropriately manifested in the activities of various social institutions. The degree of democratization of society, the features of state regulation of the economy, the level of unemployment in the region, the probability of bankruptcy of an enterprise - these and other factors of the macro environment have a certain impact on all aspects of the organization's life. The macro environment also includes the level of development of material and spiritual production and the culture of society as a whole. The macroenvironment is also characterized by a certain social consciousness, reflecting the given social being in all its contradictions. Thus, the members of each social group and organization are representatives of their era, of a particular historical period in the development of society. Ministries and departments, concerns, joint-stock companies, the system of which includes an enterprise or institution, carry out certain managerial influences in relation to the latter, which is also an important factor in the influence of the macro environment on the socio-psychological climate of the organization and all its constituent groups. As significant factors of the macro environment that affect the climate of the organization, it should be noted its diverse partnerships with other organizations and with consumers of their products. In a market economy, the influence of consumers on the climate of the organization increases. The microenvironment of an enterprise, institution is the "field" of people's daily activities, those specific material and spiritual conditions in which they work. At this level, the effects of the macro environment acquire certainty for each group, a connection with the reality of life practice.

The conditions of daily life activity form the attitude and mentality of the primary labor group, its socio-psychological climate. First of all, these are factors of the material environment: the nature of labor operations performed by people, the condition of equipment, the quality of workpieces or raw materials. Of great importance are also the features of the organization of labor - shifts, rhythm, the degree of interchangeability of workers, the level of operational and economic independence of the primary group (for example, teams). The role of sanitary and hygienic working conditions, such as temperature, humidity, illumination, noise, vibration, is essential. It is known that the rational organization of the labor process, taking into account the capabilities of the human body, ensuring normal working and resting conditions for people have a positive effect on the mental state of each employee and the group as a whole. And, on the contrary, certain malfunctions of equipment, imperfections in technology, organizational turmoil, irregularity of work, lack of fresh air, excessive noise, abnormal temperature in the room and other factors of the material environment negatively affect the climate of the group. Therefore, the first direction in improving the socio-psychological climate is to optimize the complex of the above factors. This task should be solved on the basis of the developments of specialists in occupational hygiene and physiology, ergonomics and engineering psychology.

Another, no less important group of microenvironment factors are impacts, which are group phenomena and processes at the level of the primary labor group. These factors deserve close attention due to the fact that they are a consequence of the socio-psychological reflection of the human microenvironment. For brevity, we will call these factors socio-psychological. Let's start with such a factor as the nature of the official organizational ties between the members of the primary labor group. These connections are enshrined in the formal structure of the unit. The differences between the types of such a structure can be shown on the basis of the following "models of joint activity" identified by Umansky.

1. Joint-individual activity: each member of the group does his part of the common task independently of others (team of machine operators, spinners, weavers).

2. Joint-sequential activity: a common task is performed sequentially by each member of the group (team assembly line).

3. Joint-interacting activity: the task is performed with direct and simultaneous interaction of each member of the group with all its other members (team of installers).

There is a direct relationship between such models and the level of development of the group as a team. Thus, “cohesion in direction” (unity of value orientations, unity of goals and motives of activity) within the limits of a given group activity is achieved faster with the third model than with the second, and even more so with the first. By themselves, the features of one or another "model of joint activity" are ultimately reflected in the psychological traits of labor groups. The study of teams at a newly created enterprise showed that satisfaction with interpersonal relationships in these primary groups increases as the transition from the first "model of joint activity" to the third (Dontsov, Sarkisyan).

Along with the system of official interaction, the socio-psychological climate of the primary labor group is greatly influenced by its informal organizational structure. Of course, comradely contacts during work and at the end of it, cooperation and mutual assistance form a different climate than unfriendly relations, manifested in quarrels and conflicts. When discussing the important formative influence of informal contacts on the socio-psychological climate, it is necessary to take into account both the number of these contacts and their distribution. Within the same brigade, there may be two or more informal groups, and the members of each of them (with strong and benevolent intra-group ties) oppose members of "non-own" groups.

Considering the factors influencing the climate of the group, one should take into account not only the specifics of formal and informal organizational structures, taken separately, but also their specific relationship. The higher the degree of unity of these structures, the more positive the impacts that shape the climate of the group.

The nature of leadership, manifested in a particular style of relationship between the immediate supervisor of the primary labor group and the rest of its members, also affects the socio-psychological climate. Workers who consider shop managers to be equally attentive to their production and personal affairs are usually more satisfied with their work than those who claim that they are neglected by managers. The democratic leadership style of the foremen of the teams, the common values and norms of the foremen and workers contribute to the formation of a favorable socio-psychological climate.

The next factor affecting the climate of the group is due to the individual psychological characteristics of its members. Each person is unique and unrepeatable. His mental warehouse is a combination of personality traits and properties that creates the originality of the character as a whole. Through the prism of personality traits, all the influences of the external environment are refracted. The relationship of a person to these influences, expressed in his personal opinions and moods, in behavior, represents his individual “contribution” to the formation of the climate of the group. The psyche of the group should not be understood only as the sum of the individual psychological characteristics of each of its members. This is a qualitatively new education. Thus, for the formation of this or that socio-psychological climate of a group, it is not so much the individual properties of its members that matter, but the effect of their combination. The level of psychological compatibility of group members is also a factor that largely determines its climate.

Summarizing what has been said, we single out the following main factors influencing the socio-psychological climate of the primary labor group.

Impacts from the macro environment:characteristic features of the current stage of the socio-economic and socio-political development of the country; the activities of higher structures that manage this organization, its own management and self-government bodies, public organizations, the relationship of this organization with other city and district organizations.

Impacts from the microenvironment: the material-material sphere of activity of the primary group, purely socio-psychological factors (the specifics of formal and informal organizational ties in the group and the relationship between them, the style of group leadership, the level of psychological compatibility of workers).

When analyzing the socio-psychological climate of the primary labor group in a particular situation, it is impossible to attribute any influence to only the macro-environment, or only the micro-environment. The dependence of the climate of the primary group on the factors of its own microenvironment is always determined by the macroenvironment. However, when solving the problem of improving the climate in one or another primary group, one should pay priority attention to the factors of the microenvironment. It is here that the effect of purposeful influences is most clearly visible.

test questions

1. Mandatory characteristics of a small group are:

1) contacts between its members;

2) mutual sympathy;

3) interaction of its members "face to face";

4) psychological compatibility.

2. As an example of a social category, one can name such a set of persons as:

2) labor collective;

3) university students;

4) passengers of a carriage compartment.

3. Socialization is:

1) the formation of social norms in the group;

2) expression of the social needs of the group;

3) the assimilation by the individual of the norms and values of a certain social environment;

4) social regulation of relationships in the group.

4. Homogeneity of the group according to socio-demographic characteristics:

1) leads to the division of the group into several subgroups;

2) promotes good contacts between its members;

3) interferes with group cohesion;

4) leads to the emergence of an informal leader.

5. The task is best solved in a group when:

1) there is an equal number of active and passive members of the group;

2) all its members strive for leadership;

3) there is a certain combination of the number of active and passive members of the group;

4) one member of the group has more information than the others.

6. Group norms arise on the basis of:

1) official orders, instructions, etc.;

2) contacts between group members;

3) innate needs;

4) the desire of some members of the group for leadership.

7. Conformity means:

1) uncritical submission of the individual to the pressure of the group;

2) opposition of the individual to the pressure of the group;

3) cooperation between the individual and the group;

4) the desire of the individual to dominate in the group.

8. The greatest satisfaction of people is noted in experiments:

1) with an autocratic style of leadership;

2) with a democratic style of leadership;

3) with a free style of leadership;

4) when each of the group members takes turns acting as a leader.

Every day, every person, regardless of age, preferences, interests, and standard of living, is in contact with other people at work, school, among relatives, friends, acquaintances, and sometimes strangers. Various relationships, social connections, contacts are formed. People are united in groups according to interests, professional specialization and other characteristics. One way or another, communication with other people directly affects the formation of personality and the determination of the place of a particular individual in social activity. Knowledge of certain psychological foundations of the formation of teams can help a person decide on the choice of his environment. Professional psychologists need such information to create favorable conditions in the work team, and the manager will help to effectively organize personnel appointments and control the interpersonal activities of employees. Today we will share information about what types of small groups exist and what are their features.

What is a small group in psychology?

In psychology, a small group is usually called an association of a small number of people who have a single link for all participants, have any common social ties and joint activities. Such aggregates are formed in each collective. Types of small groups in social psychology are distinguished by the method of formation: artificial or natural.

Psychologists and sociologists around the world are discussing the question of how many participants should be in such small associations. Some experts say that two people are enough to create a small group. Others, meanwhile, believe that the types of relationships in a small group consisting of a dyad (two people) are completely different, they have their own characteristics, different from the signs of a small association of people. Therefore, supporters of this assumption prove the point of view that the minimum number of participants in a small team should be 3 people.

Even more controversy arises about the maximum number of people in small groups. In the works of various researchers, you can find the number 10, 12 and even 40. In the works of the famous psychiatrist Jacob Levi Moreno, who was actively involved in groups, the maximum allowable number of participants in a small group is indicated. In his opinion, it is 50 people. But the formation of an association of 10-12 participants is considered optimal. It is noted that in teams with a large number of people, splits occur more often, thereby forming new types of small groups.

Features

To define a gathering of a small number of people as a small group, certain distinguishing features must be present:

Regular meetings of participants.
Formation of a single goal, tasks.
General activity.
The presence of a structure, the definition of a leader, a manager.
Definition of the role and scope of each participant.
Formation of internal interpersonal relations in the group.
Formation of rules, traditions, norms within a small group.

Natural formation of a small group

Almost always in large collectives there is an unintentional division of participants into smaller associations. The concept and types of small groups that have formed naturally are determined by analyzing the distinctive features and characteristics. People are divided according to interests, preferences, life position, and so on. Such associations are called informal.

Each environment has its own characteristics of the division of team members. This should be taken into account by the leaders and organizers of such communities, since the formation of small groups affects the ability to work and the general atmosphere in the team. So, for example, in order to organize effective educational activities in a children's team, it should be taken into account that the composition of informally created small groups changes literally daily, the statuses and roles of participants change. Such associations can exist under the leadership of an adult leader. Among children of different ages, the leader must gain an impeccable reputation.

In professional informal teams, in order to organize successful activities, there must also be a reasonable leader. Uncontrolled associations of workers in various types of small groups can sometimes have a negative impact on the work of the company. The dissatisfaction of participants with management, working conditions and other things can generalize people, which will lead to strikes, mass layoffs. Therefore, in large companies, where time is devoted and funds are allocated for the psychology of personnel, a full-time psychologist works. One of the tasks of such a specialist is to identify associations of workers in a team and determine their focus and activities. With the right approach, such groups can be used to improve the efficiency of the company.

formal group

Allocate formal types of small social groups. The peculiarity of such a team is that people are united not so much by desire and preferences, but by necessity, status and professional qualifications. Formal small groups include, for example, the union of the management of the company.

At the same time, formal and informal types of small groups in an organization can form, exist and interact. Managers and psychologists are faced with the task of implementing the activities of such teams for public purposes, for the development of the company.

Small group functions

Small groups perform important functions both in the development and formation of the individual and the team as a whole. Psychologists identify the following functions, which are identical, regardless of what types of small social groups exist in a particular association of people:

Socialization of the individual. Starting from a very young age, a person learns to interact with other people, preferences and views, character, place in society are formed.
The expressive function is to determine a particular individual in a small group, his place in it. Thus, the level of self-esteem, personal professional qualities are formed, the person's need for encouragement and approval is realized.
The instrumental function allows the individual to carry out the chosen activity.
The function of psychological assistance is to provide support to participants while overcoming life and professional difficulties. Studies have been conducted that show that members of small groups turn to associates for help even more often than to relatives. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the individual does not want to injure and burden loved ones with his problems. While members of a small team can listen, give advice, but do not take information to heart, leaving the individual's personal space intact.

The types and functions of small groups depend on the choice of tasks and goals, the direction of the social activities of such associations.

Classification of small groups

How is a small group classified? Types of small groups, characteristics of their activities are determined by analyzing certain indicators.

There is no exact division of such social cells. Psychologists have developed only recommendations for the classification of such groups. Below is a table that reveals the types of small groups.

Structure

The types and structure of the small group are closely interconnected. Depending on the type of small association formed, the internal structure of the community is formed. It represents the internal communication, social, emotional and psychological ties between individual participants. The structure is classified as follows:

The sociometric type is based on interpersonal preferences and dislikes.
The communicative type is determined by the flow of information within the group, the way of communication between the participants.
The role structure consists in the distribution of positions and activities among members of a small group. Thus, the group is divided into those who make decisions, and those who carry out and support actions.

Relationships between small group members

The problem of interpersonal relations in the circle of a small group of people is devoted to a lot of psychological and social works, research, and experiments. Summarizing knowledge, we can distinguish the following types of relations in a small group: formal and informal. In the first case, cooperation is clearly regulated by legislative acts: there is a boss and subordinates.

In the second case, everything is much more complicated. Here, thanks to personal qualities, a certain individual becomes a group. Such relations are not regulated by anything, except for the sympathy of other members of a small team. Such a position often turns out to be quite unstable: there may be several leaders at once, the complete absence of one, competition between participants, unwillingness to accept a nominated role, and other problems in communication and the distribution of social roles.

Don't underestimate the role Often these alliances lead to changes in the formal circles of leaders.

an individual in a small group?

Each person in society, and in the team in particular, has a certain status. In order to determine it, it is necessary to answer the question: who is this person? At birth, for example, race and gender can be assigned. Status can be acquired or achieved, such as Doctor or Philosopher.

It is possible to determine the status of an individual in a group using sociometric methods. In educational institutions, organizations of workers, surveys are often conducted, in which questions are asked about the personal relations of some members of the group to others. They are most often carried out in the form of questionnaire cards, or a matrix is filled out, where the scale is an indication of the level of sympathy for another person. For example, they are asked to name a classmate who enjoys the greatest authority in the class. Based on the answers received, informal leaders, performers and other statuses of participants are determined using specially designed keys.

When choosing the means and methods of psychological research in a team, it is extremely important for specialists to take into account what types of small groups take part in the survey for the reliability of the results obtained.

The concept of leadership in a small group

Psychologists and scientists began to actively deal with the problem of leadership at the beginning of the 20th century. Why can some people freely lead others? What qualities do you need to have and what do you need to do to achieve this? Unfortunately, to date no one has given exact answers to these questions. One person can become a leader in certain conditions and in a specific group of people, while in another team he will be completely lost and will play an inconspicuous role. So, for example, the leader of a sports team cannot always adequately prove himself in a group of intellectuals. Therefore, a leader is, rather, a person who has correctly weighed his capabilities, defined goals and ways of solving problems in specific conditions.

There are psychological works that explore the necessary personal qualities of a leader. The most popular is R. Hogan's "big five" technique, which indicates the 5 most important features of a person who claims to be a leader in a team.

What is the role of a leader in a small group of people? It is easy to conclude that a leader is a person who, under positive conditions, leads the team to achieve its goals, and under negative conditions, it can not only not achieve the results desired by the group, but also completely destroy it as such.

Small group management

In order to streamline, implement tasks and goals, improve, develop and achieve results, a small group must be managed. How can this be done? Regardless of what types of small groups have formed, it is customary in social psychology to distinguish between several leadership styles:

The authoritarian style consists in a pronounced advantage of the leader over other members of the group, who turn out to be only performers.
The liberal style involves the collective activity of each and every member of the group.
Democratic style is that the leader directs the participants to certain actions, coordinating and discussing the processes with each participant.

Summing up, it can be noted that the types of small groups in psychology are an inaccurate concept that changes under the influence of external factors and conditions. But the leader of any kind of team should be attentive to the formation of both formal and informal internal associations. Since such groups, with the right purposeful approach, can ensure the development of the entire team, lead to the improvement of work and the effective implementation of tasks.

The problem of the group is one of the most important not only for social psychology, but also for many social sciences. Currently, there are about 20 million different formal and informal groups in the world. In groups, social relations are really represented, which are manifested in the course of the interaction of their members with each other and with representatives of other groups. What is a group? The answer to such a seemingly simple question requires a distinction between two aspects in the understanding of the group: sociological and socio-psychological.

In the first case, a group is understood as any set of people united for various (arbitrary) reasons. This approach, let's call it objective, is typical, first of all, for sociology. Here, in order to single out a particular group, it is important to have an objective criterion that allows differentiating people on various grounds to determine their belonging to a particular group (for example, men and women, teachers, doctors, etc.).

In the second case, a group is understood as a real-life formation in which people are gathered together, united by some common feature, a kind of joint activity, or placed in some identical conditions, circumstances, in a certain way they are aware of their belonging to this formation. It is within the framework of this second interpretation that social psychology primarily deals with groups.

For a socio-psychological approach, it is extremely important to establish what a group means for a person in psychological terms; what its characteristics are significant for the person included in it. The group here acts as a real social unit of society, as a factor in the formation of personality. Moreover, the influence of different groups on the same person is not the same. Therefore, when considering the problem of a group, it is necessary to take into account not only the formal belonging of a person to a certain category of people, but also the degree of psychological acceptance and inclusion by him of himself in this category.

Let's name the main characteristics that distinguish a group from a random gathering of people:

Relatively long existence of the group;

The presence of common goals, motives, norms, values;

The presence and development of a group structure;

Awareness of belonging to a group, the presence of "we-feelings" among its members;

The presence of a certain quality of interaction between the people that make up the group.

Thus, social group- a stable organized community united by common interests, socially significant goals, joint activities and an appropriate intra-group organization that ensures the achievement of these goals.

Group classification in social psychology can be produced for various reasons. These grounds can be: the level of cultural development; structure type; tasks and functions of the group; the predominant type of contacts in the group; the time of the group's existence; the principles of its formation, the principles of accessibility of membership in it; the number of group members; the level of development of interpersonal relations and many others. One of the options for classifying groups studied in social psychology is shown in fig. 2.

Rice. 2. Classification of groups

As we can see, the classification of groups here is given on a dichotomous scale, which implies the selection of groups on several grounds that differ from each other.

1. By the presence of relationships between members of the group: conditional - real groups.

Conditional Groups- these are associations of people artificially distinguished by the researcher on some objective basis. These people, as a rule, do not have a common goal and do not interact with each other.

Real groups- really existing associations of people. They are characterized by the fact that its members are interconnected by objective relationships.

2. Laboratory - natural groups.

Laboratory groups- specially created groups to perform tasks in experimental conditions and experimental verification of scientific hypotheses.

natural groups- groups functioning in real life situations, the formation of which occurs regardless of the desire of the experimenter.

3. By the number of group members: large - small groups.

Large groups- quantitatively unlimited communities of people, identified on the basis of various social characteristics (demographic, class, national, party). Towards unorganized spontaneously arisengroups, the very term "group" is very arbitrary. To organized Long-term groups include nations, parties, social movements, clubs, and so on.

Under small group is understood as a small group, whose members are united by a common social activity and are in direct personal communication, which is the basis for the emergence of emotional relationships, group norms and group processes (G.M. Andreeva).

An intermediate position between large and small groups is occupied by the so-called. middle groups. Possessing some features of large groups, middle groups differ in territorial localization, the possibility of direct communication (the team of a factory, an enterprise, a university, etc.).

4. According to the level of development: emerging - highly developed groups.

Emerging groups- groups already set by external requirements, but not yet united by joint activity in the full sense of the word.

Highly evolved groups- these are groups characterized by an established structure of interaction, established business and personal relationships, the presence of recognized leaders, and effective joint activities.

The following groups are distinguished according to the level of their development (Petrovsky A.V.):

Diffuse - groups at the initial stage of their development, a community in which people are only co-present, i.e. they are not united by joint activities;

Association - a group in which relationships are mediated only by personally significant goals (a group of friends, friends);

- cooperation- a group that is distinguished by a really operating organizational structure, interpersonal relations are of a business nature, subordinated to the achievement of the required result in the performance of a specific task in a certain type of activity;

- corporation- this is a group united only by internal goals that do not go beyond its framework, striving to achieve its group goals at any cost, including at the expense of other groups. Sometimes the corporate spirit can acquire the features of group selfishness;

- team- a highly developed, time-stable group of interacting people united by the goals of joint socially useful activities, characterized by a high level of mutual understanding of each other, as well as the complex dynamics of formal and informal relationships between group members.

5. By the nature of the interaction: primary - secondary groups.

For the first time, the allocation of primary groups was proposed by C. Cooley, who ranked among them such groups as a family, a group of friends, a group of closest neighbors. Later, Cooley proposed a certain sign that would make it possible to determine the essential characteristic of primary groups - the immediacy of contacts. But when such a feature was singled out, the primary groups began to be identified with small groups, and then the classification lost its meaning. If a sign of small groups is their contact, then it is inappropriate to single out some other special groups within them, where this very contact will be a specific sign. Therefore, according to tradition, the division into primary and secondary groups is preserved (secondary in this case, those where there are no direct contacts, and various “mediators” in the form of means of communication, for example, are used for communication between members), but in essence it is the primary groups that are further investigated, since only they satisfy the criterion of a small group.

6. By form of organization: formal and informal groups.

Formal a group is called, the emergence of which is due to the need to implement certain goals and objectives facing the organization in which the group is included. A formal group is distinguished by the fact that all the positions of its members are clearly defined in it, they are prescribed by group norms. It also strictly distributes the roles of all members of the group in the system of subordination to the so-called power structure: the idea of vertical relations as relations defined by a system of roles and statuses. An example of a formal group is any group created under the conditions of some specific activity: a work team, a school class, a sports team, etc.

informal groups are formed and arise spontaneously both within the framework of formal groups and outside them, as a result of mutual psychological preferences. They do not have an externally given system and hierarchy of statuses, prescribed roles, a given system of relationships along the vertical. However, an informal group has its own group standards of acceptable and unacceptable behavior, as well as informal leaders. An informal group can be created within a formal one, when, for example, groupings arise in a school class, consisting of close friends united by some common interest. Thus, two structures of relations are intertwined within a formal group.

But an informal group can also arise on its own, outside of organized groups: people who accidentally unite to play football, volleyball somewhere on the beach or in the courtyard of the house. Sometimes, within the framework of such a group (say, in a group of tourists who went on a hike for one day), despite its informal nature, joint activities arise, and then the group acquires some features of a formal group: certain, albeit short-term, positions and roles.

In reality, it is very difficult to isolate strictly formal and strictly informal groups, especially in cases where informal groups arose within the framework of formal ones. Therefore, proposals were born in social psychology that remove this dichotomy. On the one hand, the concepts of formal and informal structure of a group (or structures of formal and informal relations) were introduced, and it was not the groups that began to differ, but the type, the nature of the relations within them. On the other hand, a more radical distinction between the concepts of "group" and "organization" was introduced (although there is no sufficiently clear distinction between these concepts, since any formal group, unlike an informal one, has the features of an organization).

7. According to the degree of psychological acceptance on the part of the individual: membership groups and reference groups.

This classification was introduced by G. Hyman, who owns the discovery of the very phenomenon of the "reference group". In Hyman's experiments, it was shown that some members of certain small groups (in this case, these were student groups) share the norms of behavior adopted by no means in this group, but in some other one, to which they are guided. Such groups, in which individuals are not really included, but whose norms they accept, Hyman called reference groups.

J. Kelly identified two functions of the reference group:

Comparative function - consists in the fact that the standards of behavior adopted in the group, values act for the individual as a kind of "reference system" on which she is guided in her decisions and assessments;

Normative function - allows a person to find out to what extent her behavior corresponds to the norms of the group.

Currently, the reference group is understood as a group of people who are somehow significant for the individual, to which he voluntarily considers himself or which he would like to become a member, acting for him as a group standard of individual values, judgments, actions, norms and rules of behavior.

The reference group may be real or imagined, positive or negative, may or may not coincide with the membership group.

A membership group is a group of which the individual is a real member. A membership group may have, to a greater or lesser extent, referential properties for its members.

· The group is…

A group is a certain set of people considered from the point of view of social, industrial, economic, household, professional, age, etc. community. It should immediately be noted that in the social sciences, in principle, there can be a double use of the concept of “group”. A social group is a collection of individuals interacting in a certain way based on the shared expectations of each member of the group regarding others.

· What angles of view regarding the study of the concept of "group" are typical for such approaches as sociological and socio-psychological?

Sociological approach

Socio-psychological approach

In the sociological approach, the focus is on identifying an objective criterion for distinguishing groups. This criterion is considered to be a certain place that the group occupies in the system of social relations. From the point of view of the sociological approach, the most important thing is to find an objective criterion for distinguishing groups, although in principle there may be many such criteria. Group differences can be seen in religious, ethnic, and political characteristics. For every system of sociological knowledge, it is important to take some criterion as the main one. From the point of view of this objective criterion, sociology analyzes each social group, its relationship with society, with the individuals included in it.

The socio-psychological approach consists in studying the socio-psychological phenomena and processes that arise and function in groups during the joint activities of people included in them. The inclusion of a group in a certain type of social relations serves as a factor that determines the commonality of the content and forms of activity of people in the group, and along with this, the commonality of the psychological characteristics of the group. The socio-psychological approach is characterized by a different angle of view. Performing various social functions, a person is a member of numerous social groups, he is formed, as it were, at the intersection of these groups, is the point at which various group influences intersect. This has two important consequences for the individual: on the one hand, it determines the objective place of the individual in the system of social activity, and on the other, it affects the formation of the individual's consciousness. The personality is included in the system of views, ideas, norms, values of numerous groups. Therefore, it is extremely important to determine what will be the "resultant" of these group influences, which will determine the content of the consciousness of the individual. But in order to answer this question, it is necessary to establish what a group means for a person in psychological terms; what its characteristics are significant for the person included in it. It is precisely here that social psychology encounters the need to correlate the sociological approach, with which it cannot but reckon, with the psychological one, which also has its own tradition of considering groups.

· Schematically depict the classification of groups.

Topic 11. Large group

· How can large social groups be classified? Give examples for each type.

Classification according to various criteria:

1) in time, long-existing large groups are distinguished - classes, nations and short-existing - rallies, audiences, crowds.

2) by the nature of organization - disorganization: crowd, parties, unions. A number of large groups arise spontaneously (crowd), others are organized consciously (parties, associations).

3) following the example of the classification of small groups, we can talk about conditional (gender and age, professional) and real groups (rallies, meetings).

4) large groups can be open and closed. Membership in the latter is determined by the internal settings of the groups.

The criterion for the division of large social groups can be an indicator of the presence of a certain number of common features and the mechanism of links with the community. (according to Diligensky)

A typological group is an association of people who have a common objectively existing and socially significant sign. Such a characteristic can be a demographic indicator (men, women, generation, youth, middle age, elderly people, etc.). the characteristic of these groups as social is determined by their significance in the life of society, their role in the system of social relations (at work, in the family). In their composition, they are homogeneous, homogeneous.

Consciously striving for unification (religious groups, parties, unions, social movements). In terms of social composition, these groups are heterogeneous, heterogeneous; in terms of socio-psychological characteristics, they are more homogeneous than typological groups.

· What is meant by the term "mentality"? List the features of the so-called Russian mentality.

mentality [from lat. mens, mentis - mind and alis - others] - a system of originality of the mental life of people belonging to a particular culture, a qualitative set of features of their perception and assessment of the world around them, which are of a supra-situational nature, due to the economic, political, historical circumstances of the development of this particular community and manifested in unusual behavioral activity.

Features of the Russian mentality:

Great willpower, perseverance, habit of paternalism, unpretentiousness, hospitality, patient and obedient, practical orientation of their mind, dexterity and rationality, tease happiness, play luck, optimism, constancy, preference for stability, ability to hard work, prudence, observation, thoughtfulness, concentration and contemplation, a sense of powerful unity with each other, a conciliatory attitude towards neighboring peoples; laziness, carelessness, lack of initiative, a poorly developed sense of responsibility, spirituality, all-forgiving love, responsiveness, sacrifice, spiritual kindness, perseverance and thoroughness.

· Diligensky presented his classification of large groups. Try to complete it.

1. Groups functioning across society:

Social classes and strata + socio-professional groups, ethnic groups and nations, socio-demographic groups (gender and age, territorial), mass public organizations, large groups - organizations.

2. Specifically large groups:

Audience (local, dispersed), the public, spontaneous mass formation by the type of the crowd.

· Describe the characteristics of these groups.

· Decipher the concept of "ethnocentrism".

Ethnocentrism (Greek ethnos - people, tribe, lat. centrum - center of the circle, focus) - a mechanism of interethnic perception, consisting in the tendency to evaluate the phenomena of the world around them through the prism of the traditions and norms of their ethnic group, considered as a universal standard; an attitude of prejudice or distrust towards outsiders that may exist within a social group.

· Highlight the types and features inherent in the crowd.

Crowd types:

expressive crowd

Conventional crowd

acting crowd

Aggressive crowd

panic crowd

Rebellious (or rebel) crowd

Crowd features:

Inability to realize, categorical, conservatism, suggestibility, contagiousness, emotionality, high sensuality, extremism, irresponsibility, physical activity, diffuseness, morality, religiosity.

· Fill in the table that allows you to consider the features of different spontaneous groups.

· Describe the main problems of the psychology of intergroup relations.

Problems:

1.what are the sources of intergroup hostility;
2. whether a positive attitude towards one's group is always accompanied by a negative attitude towards a stranger;
3.as far as the perceived differences between one's own and another's group correspond to reality;
4. how intergroup interaction affects intergroup relations and intragroup processes.

TOPIC 12 Small group

· Define a small group. What are the main characteristics of small groups?

A small group is understood as a small group whose members are united by common social activities and are in direct personal communication, which is the basis for the emergence of emotional relationships, group norms and group processes. The main parameters of a small group, the most important socio-psychological characteristics that comprehensively reveal its essence are:
- Group type (name, purpose, place in the system of other groups).
- Composition (composition) of the group
- Group processes (the dynamics of group life

The dynamic structure of the group includes the following dimensions:
a) functional-role relationships (activity dimension);
b) communications (communicative dimension);
c) emotional interpersonal preferences (sociometric measurement);
- Group formations.

· How can you describe the composition (composition) of the group? Try to describe the group where you study.

The composition of the group can be described depending on whether, for example, the age, professional or social characteristics of the group members are significant in each particular case. The composition of the group is revealed through quantitative, age, professional, social, educational, ethnic characteristics.

The group in which I study consists of 20 people. There are only girls in our group, i.e. the group is homogeneous.

· Schematically depict the structure of communications in the group. Which of them are more favorable for interpersonal relationships and why?

Types of communication networks:
a - circle; b - chain; in - "U"; g - wheel; d - a complex circle.

Points are members of the group; lines are communication channels.

The most favorable networks for interpersonal relationships are the wheel type and the complex circle. in these networks, all members of the group can interact with each other.

· What is meant by the term "group dynamics"? What is included in this concept?

Group processes (dynamics of group life) are the processes of implementation and regulation of group social interaction: joint activities, communication and intra-group behavior of the individual. Group processes lead not only to the solution of professional problems, but also to the differentiation and integration of the group (the formation of microgroups, role differentiation, conflicts, group cohesion, compatibility, harmony, forms of regulation of the behavior of an individual in a group).
Group processes lead to the formation of structural components of the group - a multi-level dynamic structure and group socio-psychological formations, which, in turn, regulate these processes, stimulating, directing and correcting them.

The dynamic structure of the group includes the following dimensions:
- functional-role interrelations (activity dimension);
- communications (communicative dimension);
- emotional interpersonal preferences (sociometric measurement).

· What is the phenomenon of group pressure?

From the point of view of the person included in the group, this phenomenon will be called the phenomenon of conformity. Conformity is a change in behavior or beliefs as a result of real or imagined group pressure. More often they talk about conformal behavior, meaning a purely psychological characteristic of the individual's position relative to the group's position, his acceptance or rejection of a certain standard, an opinion characteristic of the group, the measure of the individual's subordination to group pressure. Conformity is stated where the conflict between the opinion of the individual and the opinion of the group is overcome in favor of the group. A measure of conformity is a measure of subordination to a group in the case when the opposition of opinions was subjectively perceived by the individual as a conflict. In external conformity, the individual reverts to his original opinion after the group pressure is removed. With internal conformity, the individual retains the opinion of the group even after the group ceases to exert pressure on him.

What points of view exist regarding the concept of “group cohesion”? (Levin, Cartwright, Petrovsky). Highlight the main dominants.

A "total force field" that forces members of the group to stay in it. The group is the more cohesive, the more it meets the needs of people in emotionally rich interpersonal relationships.

D. Cartwright noted that group cohesion characterizes the degree to which members of the group wish to remain in it. Group cohesion forces have two generators: firstly, the degree of attractiveness of one's own group, and secondly, the force of attraction of other accessible groups. A group can therefore be defined as a collection of individuals connected in such a way that each regards the benefits of the association as greater than can be obtained from outside.

A.V. Petrovsky:

“Cohesion as a value-oriented unity is a characteristic of the system within: group ties, showing the degree of coincidence of assessments, attitudes and positions of the group in relation to objects (persons, tasks, ideas, events) that are most significant for the group as a whole.”

· Fill in the table with data that testifies to the differences between such concepts as leadership and leadership, based on the statements of B.D. Parygin.

Supervisor

Leader

1. The leader regulates the official relations of the group as some kind of social organization; 2. Leadership is an element of the macro environment, i.e. it is connected with the whole system of social relations; 3. The head of any real social group is either appointed or elected, but one way or another this process is not spontaneous, but, on the contrary, purposeful, carried out under the control of various elements of the social structure; 4. Leadership is a more stable phenomenon; 5. Leadership of subordinates has a certain system of various sanctions; 6. The decision-making process of a leader (and in general in the management system) is much more complex and mediated by many different circumstances and considerations, not necessarily rooted in this group; 7. The scope of the leader is wider because he represents a small group in a larger social system.

1. The leader is mainly called upon to regulate interpersonal relations in the group; 2. Leadership can be stated in a microenvironment (which is a small group); 3. Leadership arises spontaneously; 4. The phenomenon of leadership is less stable, the nomination of a leader to a large extent depends on the mood of the group; 5. Leadership does not have a specific system of various sanctions; 6. The leader makes more immediate decisions regarding group activities; 7. The leader's field of activity is basically a small group, where he is the leader.

· What are the performance indicators of group activities?

Goals. They are absolutely clear to all members of the group and are largely shared by them, that is, they are agreed and supported by all members of the group.

Communication. It is effective and includes both feelings and meaningful points, such as information related to a task.

Leadership. It does not belong to a formal leader, but is widely shared and exercised by all members of the group. The group follows a participating style.

Influence. Influence in a group shifts on a rational basis, such as information or competence.

Conflict. Conflict is seen as a natural consequence of being passionate about something. The absence of conflict will generate anxiety, as it will indicate a lack of participation. Conflict is openly expressed and resolved and seen as a positive source of higher quality solutions.

Making decisions. In general, decisions are made through open debate, although processes are adjusted according to the nature of the decision and its implications or importance to group members.

Interpersonal relationships. Their importance for group unity is emphasized. Each individual member of the group is equally valuable for their unique contribution to the common cause.

Monitoring and review. Group work and processes are subject to continuous monitoring and regular review. Evaluation of performance is an indicator of the work of the group.

The elementary parameters of any group include:

The composition of the group (or its composition),

group structure,

group processes,

Group norms and values

system of sanctions.

Composition of the group: can be described differently depending on whether, for example, age, professional or social characteristics of group members are significant in each particular case. A single recipe for describing the composition of a group cannot be given due to the diversity of real groups; in each specific case, it is necessary to start with which real group is chosen as the object of study: a school class, a sports team, or a production team. In other words, we immediately set a certain set of parameters to characterize the composition of the group, depending on the type of activity with which this group is associated. Naturally, the characteristics of large and small social groups differ especially strongly, and they must be studied separately.

Group structure: There are several rather formal signs of group structure, which, however, are mainly revealed in the study of small groups: the structure of preferences, the structure of "power", the structure of communications. However, if we consistently consider the group as a subject of activity, then its structure must be approached accordingly. Apparently, in this case, the most important thing is the analysis of the structure of group activity, which includes a description of the functions of each member of the group in this joint activity. At the same time, a very significant characteristic is the emotional structure of the group - the structure of interpersonal relations, as well as its connection with the functional structure of group activity. In social psychology, the relationship between these two structures is often seen as the relationship between "informal" and "formal" relationships.

Group processes: the list of group processes depends both on the nature of the group and on the point of view adopted by the researcher. If we follow the accepted methodological principle, then the group processes should first of all include those processes that organize the activities of the group, and consider them in the context of the development of the group. A holistic view of the development of a group and the characteristics of group processes has been developed in particular detail in domestic social psychology, which does not exclude a more detailed analysis, when the development of group norms, values, the system of interpersonal relations, etc. is separately studied.

Group norms and values: All group norms are social norms; represent “establishments, models, standards of proper behavior, from the point of view of society as a whole and social groups and their members” (Bobneva, 1978. S.Z). In a narrower sense, group norms are certain rules that are developed by the group, adopted by it, and to which the behavior of its members must obey in order for their joint activities to be possible. Norms perform, thus, a regulatory function in relation to this activity. Group norms are associated with values, since any rules can be formulated only on the basis of acceptance or rejection of some socially significant phenomena (Obozov, 1979, p. 156). The values of each group are formed on the basis of the development of a certain attitude to social phenomena, dictated by the place of this group in the system of social relations, its experience in organizing certain activities.

Another part of the conceptual scheme that is used in group studies concerns the position of the individual in the group as a member. The first of the concepts used here is the concept of "status" or "position", denoting the place of the individual in the system of group life. The concept of “status” finds the widest application in describing the structure of interpersonal relations, for which the sociometric technique is most suitable. But the designation of the individual's status in the group thus obtained is by no means satisfactory. First, because the place of an individual in a group is not determined only by his sociometric status; it is important not only to what extent the individual as a member of the group enjoys the affection of other members of the group, but also how he is perceived in the structure of the activity relations of the group. On that

The question cannot be answered using sociometric methods. Secondly, status is always a certain unity of the characteristics objectively inherent in the individual, which determine his place in the group, and his subjective perception by other members of the group. In the sociometric methodology, there is an attempt to take into account these two components of the status (communicative and gnostic), but at the same time only the components of emotional relations (those that the individual has for other members of the group, and those that others have for him) are assumed. The objective characteristics of the status simply do not figure in this case. And thirdly, when characterizing the status of an individual in a group, it is necessary to take into account the relations of the wider social system in which this group is included - the "status" of the group itself. This circumstance is not indifferent to the specific position of a member of the group. But this third sign is also not taken into account in any way when determining the status of the sociometric method.

The second characteristic of an individual in a group is "role". Usually, a role is defined as a dynamic aspect of status, which is revealed through a list of those real functions that are assigned to the individual by the group, the content of group activity.

An important component of the characteristics of the position of an individual in a group is the system of "group expectations". This term denotes the simple fact that each member of the group not only performs its functions in it, but is also necessarily perceived, evaluated by others.

Group classification:

The American researcher Eubank singled out seven different principles on the basis of which such classifications were built. These principles were the most diverse:

The level of cultural development,

structure type,

Tasks and functions,

The predominant type of contacts in the group,

As the time of the existence of the group,

The principles of its formation,

Principles of accessibility of membership in it and many others.

If, however, we accept the principle of considering real social groups as subjects of social activity, then, obviously, another principle of classification is required here. It should be based on the sociological classification of groups according to their place in the system of social relations. But before giving such a classification, it is necessary to bring into a system those uses of the concept of a group, which were discussed above.

First of all, for social psychology, the division of groups into conditional and real ones is significant. She focuses her research on real groups + real laboratory and natural groups.

Socio-psychological analysis is possible with respect to both varieties of real groups, but the real natural groups identified in sociological analysis are of the greatest importance. In turn, these natural groups are subdivided into the so-called "large" and "small" groups. Small groups are a habitable field of social psychology. As for large groups, the question of their study is much more complicated and requires special consideration. It is important to emphasize that these large groups are also unequally represented in social psychology: some of them have a solid tradition of research (these are mainly large, unorganized, spontaneously arisen groups, the term “group” itself is very arbitrary in relation to which), while others are organized , long-existing groups - like classes, nations, are much less represented in social psychology as an object of study.

Small groups can be subdivided into two varieties: emerging groups, already set by external social requirements, but not yet united by joint activity in the full sense of the word, and groups of a higher level of development that have already taken shape.

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