Chronological framework of the Middle Ages: ser. V - ser. 15th century Feature of the period: the contact of Western and Eastern cultures, the mutual borrowing of scientific, technical and cultural achievements. specific tradition medieval culture was the transfer of technical knowledge and skills by inheritance. With the growth of population and cities, the specialization of craftsmen begins and their unification into workshops, which leads to mass production At the same time, the opportunities for introducing technical innovations decreased, since the right to make inventions belonged to the masters, and they, using apprentices, did not need to improve production.
Technical advances medieval Europe and Byzantium. After the death of ancient civilization, Europe slowed down in its development. Much of the ancient heritage was forgotten, skills and abilities were lost. Handicraft skills were preserved in metallurgy, in the manufacture of tools and weapons, produced in craft workshops that worked for new customers in accordance with their tastes. Ancient machines for lifting weights, pumps for pumping water, water mills, sometimes supplemented with new devices, were preserved in places.
With the predominance of manual technology, some mechanical devices appeared, then the first machines. The engine was the power of man and animals, water, wind. For the needs of construction, mining, lifting, road, earth-moving mechanisms (lifting devices, hand and foot or pedal machines: turning, grinding, spinning and weaving) were required.
The first machines can be considered a mill and a clock. The Romans were familiar with the water mill, the use of which was revived in Europe from the 6th century BC. This machine has been modified to increase its efficiency. It was used to pump out water, as an engine for the operation of machine tools and other mechanisms. Later, from the East, a windmill penetrated, which began to be used first in Arab Spain, then in France, England, and Holland. The revolution in technology is associated with a mechanical clock, which became the first automatic machine. First, a wheel clock with a fight appeared, in the XIII century. a weight-lifting mechanism with a pull-up load is used, a ratchet as a stroke regulator. In 1335, a tower clock was created at the Visconti Palace (Milan), by the 15th century. pocket watch appears.
Some of the innovations were the result of borrowing from other peoples, mainly from the Arabs. These innovations include gunpowder, the appearance of which led to the creation of gunpowder production, the development of gunpowder granulation technology. German alchemist Berthold Schwartz created gunpowder from saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal. The first European firearms appeared. These weapons changed the way war was waged and led to the development of new foundry technologies.
During the period of the Crusades (1096-1261), the technology of making paints, paper, Damascus steel, rice, sugar cane, etc. penetrated into Europe. New industries were organized, for example, borrowing paper (XII century) led to the emergence of their own workshops for its manufacture. Printing is associated with paper, which has created new opportunities for the exchange of information, mass production of documents and books, maps. A set of tools for printing was created (collapsible metal type; molds for standard casting of letters; an alloy of lead, antimony and tin for letters; a press with a system for its maintenance). In Europe, printing was introduced in the 40s of the XV century. in Germany by Johannes Gutenberg.
By the 11th century in the West, the technique of making window glass, the art of mosaics and wall painting was revived. Venice was especially famous, where the production of glass mirrors was launched, which were exported to all European countries. On the basis of glassmaking, lens grinding arose, and from the 14th century. - production of optical glass for glasses.
Progress in natural science and technology is associated with the development of cities. Appearing as a result of the growth of the productive forces of feudal society, the division of labor, the separation of craft from agriculture, the city becomes the center of craft and trade. Cities are growing rapidly due to the massive influx of peasantry breaking away from agriculture.
The development of European countries required the improvement of all types of communications. Hence the widespread use of the horse, the invention of the stirrup led to the spread of riding. The appearance of the collar made it possible to use the horse on arable land, instead of bulls. Horse-drawn carts and carriages became the main means of land transport. The needs of the economy contributed to the revival of maritime navigation. Capacious sailing ships began to be built on the Mediterranean Sea, and the invention of the magnetic compass (XII-XIII centuries) expanded the possibilities of navigation.
Of the characteristic features of architecture, one can note the widespread use of baked bricks, tiles, and cement. A new architectural style. In the 11th-12th centuries, Gothic, whose birthplace was France, became widespread. Notre Dame Cathedral is the largest Gothic monument. In Gothic architecture, a new design of the vault was invented, characterized by lightness, openwork and a variety of forms.
The decline of ancient civilization in Europe almost did not affect the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. In many technical achievements, due to a more stable environment and proximity to the East, Byzantium was ahead of Europe. Having picked up the tradition of ancient leather making “in Pergamon style”, the Byzantines set up the production of the writing material “parchment”, which from the 6th century replaced papyrus scrolls.
In cities, when constructing large buildings, they continued to proceed from ancient traditions. A famous building is the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. The layout, building material, technology, fixtures, building system - everything kept the features of the ancient building business.
The Byzantines introduced silk to Europe when they succeeded in breaking the monopoly of the Chinese. Processed in the workshops of Constantinople, raw silk was exported to the West. Later, silk business will begin to develop in Italy and France. But the manufacture of more expensive fabrics remained the Byzantine prerogative, such as gold-woven brocade.
Byzantium was famous for handicrafts made according to ancient recipes: glass, ceramics, mosaic smalt, enamels and paints. Having retained the military art of the previous era, the Byzantine army had first-class military equipment and weapons, and Byzantium was also able to maintain a combat-ready navy. The invention of a mixture known as "Greek fire" gave special glory and power. It included sulfur linseed oil, rock salt, resin, oil, quicklime, crushed sintered sand, tar and saltpeter. Byzantines in the 7th century to splash out this liquid, a catapult was built with three flat spouting pipes. The composition of the "Greek fire" was kept secret, and this invention for a long time provided Byzantium with an advantage in naval battles.
Medieval Science in Europe. The science of the Middle Ages differed from the previous stage, the reason was the spread of Christianity. Religion was the dominant form of comprehension of being, so there were no significant breakthroughs in science in the Middle Ages. On the other hand, churches and monasteries were the vehicles of literacy and education. It was in the monastic libraries that the scientific heritage was preserved. But this monopoly on scholarship and education provoked scientific thinking, limited by religious dogmas and inclined towards scholasticism. The divine Word was the source of knowledge for the medieval scholar. The science of the divine becomes the most worthy of study, while all other sciences obey it, i.e. become "servants of theology". But with all the complexities of the development of scientific knowledge, there was a connection between science and practice and the formation of experimental science. This was facilitated by the development of mechanics, caused by the evolution of handicraft production and the emergence of manufactories.
Perhaps the most significant sciences during this period were alchemy and astrology, although they were contrary to Christianity. The alchemists of Western Europe tried to turn ordinary metals into precious ones and get the elixir of youth. In the process of searching for a miraculous remedy, methods for obtaining glass, enamel, paints, and medicines were discovered or improved. Alchemy marked the beginning of the emergence of chemistry as a science. The East was the birthplace of alchemy, the Europeans got to know it through the Arabs who captured the Spanish territories. The ideas of Arab scientists were picked up by researchers - Albert the Great, Roger Bacon, Arnold of Villanova, Raymond Lull, and others. They were able to chemically separate substances into components, sublimate, purify, and sequentially combine initial reagents into more complex substances. As a result, technologies and skills have been developed for obtaining a number of chemicals that have found application in everyday life and production: acids, alcohol, essential oils, incendiary compositions, soap from a mixture of fats with detergent ingredients, gunpowder and paints.
After the crusades, scientific ideas and views began to penetrate from the East. The works of Arab scholars were translated into Latin. Latin was used in writing documents, compiling reports, letters and scientific literature, Latin was the common European "scientific" language. However, the use of Latin contributed to the fact that long years this literature was the property of the privileged elite of feudal society.
At the end of XII - beginning. 13th century popular European schools began to be transformed into universities. In the Middle Ages, universities were called studium, which meant an educational institution with a universal program. Education was based on three main areas: mastery of the word (eloquence, the art of persuasion, the art of text interpretation - grammar, rhetoric, dialectics); building a coherent and fairly visual picture of the world within the framework of Christian doctrine (theology); justification of a righteous life (ethics, economics, law, politics). Universities had different specializations, but, as a rule, there were 4 faculties: general education (faculty of arts); medicine; rights; theology. The first universities in Europe were formed in Bologna, Paris, Oxford.
In Byzantium, the ancient tradition was never interrupted. Manuscripts of ancient authors were collected, excerpts were made from them, and through Byzantium, the works of Greek authors were distributed to eastern countries. The Byzantines treated education, knowledge and science with respect. Many emperors wanted to be considered enlightened, so they patronized scientists and helped preserve the heritage of ancient science. But the church brought theology to a prominent place in the system of knowledge, which limited the development of sciences. But there were exceptions, for example, the activities of the Byzantine scientist Leo the Mathematician led to the laying of the foundations of algebra, the emergence of advanced ideas, in particular the light telegraph and cunning mechanisms for the imperial palace in Constantinople. In the middle of the ninth century under his leadership, a higher school was opened. The teachers of this school began to collect old books kept in monasteries. The famous grammarian Photius compiled a collection of retellings of 280 ancient manuscripts.
In the Middle Ages, the consciousness of a person changes, the idea arises that a person is the master of the world, and he can remake this world to suit his needs. There is a shift from contemplation to experiment and practice. The systematization and classification of knowledge begins, encyclopedias appear. The craving for knowledge was encouraged by medieval schools and the university, all of which led to a high level of mental discipline in the late Middle Ages.
Total:
With a certain one-sidedness in the development of European society and the death of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century, the achievements of the civilization of the Middle Ages in the field of technology were great. An important milestone was the X-XI centuries, associated with the formation of cities as centers of handicraft production and trade. A new breakthrough in the development of productive forces was made in the XIV-XV centuries, when technical achievements spread across the continent, and the progress of handicrafts pushed the development of agriculture.
Medieval science was inferior to ancient science, but gradually progressive tendencies began to develop in it. A certain role was played by discoveries that were used in production. For example, printing played a revolutionary role, becoming an important factor in technical, social and intellectual progress. Along with looms, mills and optical instruments, clocks formed the technical foundation on which "systematic experimental science" began to emerge. The main results of the development of science and technology in the Middle Ages are: the connection of science with practice, the development of mechanics, the development of handicraft production and the emergence of manufactories. The scope of water and windmills is expanding. In military affairs, throwing, wall-beating and siege towers, incendiary and explosive means, gunpowder, and firearms are used. Paper production is being improved, the alphabet is being developed, books are being printed.
Thus, in the Middle Ages in Europe, the number of inventions and discoveries increased at an increasing pace, and qualified technical personnel were formed. There is no doubt that the technical achievements of the Middle Ages determined the development of scientific thought in the Renaissance.
The Eastern Roman Empire was a predominantly Greek state, overwhelmingly Christian, and outlived the Western Empire for a long time.
The name of the empire "Byzantine" (from the name of the city of Byzantium, on the site of which Emperor Constantine I the Great founded Constantinople) was introduced into use by Renaissance humanists after its fall, who did not dare to call it Roman. Despite the rather dubious choice of name, the term "Byzantine Empire" is widely used in modern historical science.
The inhabitants of the eastern Roman Empire themselves called themselves "Romans" (ρωµαίοι), that is, "Romans", and the empire - "Romean" or "Romania" (Ρωµανία). Western contemporaries called it the "Empire of the Greeks" because of decisive role in it the Greek population and culture. In Russia, it was also usually called the "Greek Kingdom".
Byzantine science had a powerful impact on many neighboring countries and peoples. Spiritual life in Byzantium was of a complex, contradictory nature, combining ancient pagan traditions and Christian world outlook, which was reflected in the ways of development Byzantine science.
Despite the fact that Christianity in the empire of the Romans was recognized as the state religion, a deep respect for the knowledge of ancient philosophy remained, since in the minds of the Byzantines the most important role was played by their connection with the Greco-Roman ancient world.
At a time when barbarian Western Europe entered the "dark night of the Middle Ages", the Eastern Roman Empire turned out to be the only center of civilization and culture in all of Europe, providing a higher socio-economic and cultural level in the territories that fell into its sphere of influence.
Science in Byzantium was intricately interconnected with Christian teaching. At the same time, special interest was directed to ancient philosophy, and an attempt to develop it.
Byzantine scientific thinking took shape in a contradictory atmosphere of the assertion of the Christian worldview on the basis of the ethical and natural-scientific views of antiquity.
Thus, science was based on two different pictures of the world: pagan Hellenism, on the one hand, and official Christian doctrine, on the other.
Byzantine culture as a whole is characterized by the desire for systematization, which is characteristic of the Christian worldview in general, and also due to the influence of ancient Greek philosophy, primarily Aristotle, who set the trend towards classification.
In Byzantium, works of a generalizing nature are being created, in which there is a classification and systematization of everything that has been achieved by that time in science. The main intellectual efforts of Byzantine scholars consisted in the formal study of newly rewritten texts, their compilation, fixing what had already been achieved, which led to encyclopedia.
A lot of work was done to systematize and comment on ancient authors. Encyclopedias on history, agriculture, medicine are compiled, and rich ethnographic material is collected about the inhabitants of neighboring countries.
Science in Byzantium was understood in accordance with the ancient tradition as speculative knowledge, as opposed to practical, empirical knowledge, which was considered a craft.
Following the ancient model, all sciences were united under the name of philosophy - mathematics, natural science, ethics, grammar, rhetoric, logic, astronomy, music and jurisprudence, etc. John of Damascus divided philosophy into theoretical, relating to knowledge, and practical, relating to virtues. In the theoretical section, he included physics, mathematics, and theology, and in the practical section, ethics, economics (household ethics) and politics. He considered logic to be an instrument of philosophy. John of Damascus gave a systematic presentation of philosophical and logical concepts, as well as cosmological, psychological and other scientific information based on ancient writings.
It cannot be said that Byzantine scholars were engaged only in the passive processing of the ancient heritage. Not limited to the simple assimilation of knowledge acquired in previous centuries, the Byzantines made certain steps forward in a number of industries. For example, John Philopon came to the conclusion that the speed of falling bodies does not depend on their gravity; Leo the Mathematician was the first to use letters as algebraic symbols. With the growth of provincial cities, the rise of handicraft production greater value began to be given to the development of knowledge aimed at solving practical problems in the field of medicine, agriculture, construction. Shipbuilding, architecture, mining industry successfully developed. There is an accumulation practical knowledge caused by the needs of navigation, trade.
The natural sciences are developing, which is accompanied by an expansion of ideas about nature. The rise of scientific knowledge is associated with the birth of rationalism in the philosophical thought of Byzantium. Representatives of the rationalist trend in Byzantine theology and philosophy tried to reconcile faith and reason, just like the Western European scholastics. In an effort to combine faith with reason, they stated that in order to approach the comprehension of God, it is necessary to study the world around him, which is why they introduced natural science knowledge into theology. Rationalism was accompanied by a new stage in the comprehension of the ancient heritage. Blind faith based on authority is being replaced by the study of the causality of phenomena in nature and society.
One of the most striking figures of the rationalist trend is Michael Psellos. The writings of Psellus are permeated with the desire to master and use the ancient heritage, to provide it with a worthy place in the system of the Christian worldview. Even describing the world of the spiritual essences of Christian teaching, Psellus uses statements about the nature of the soul of Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus. Psellos dealt with the problems of natural science and cosmology. Moreover, theology almost does not interfere in the questions of natural science in Psellos. In his opinion, the sciences should take from mathematics its numerical method and geometric proof, which have the property of logically forcing the recognition of propositions as true or false.
The ideas of the rationalists were condemned by the church, and were not widely adopted in Byzantium. Unlike Western Europe, rationalism did not become the leading trend in Byzantine theological and philosophical thought.
Despite the general speculative tradition dating back to antiquity, practical science in Byzantium managed to achieve certain results in solving many utilitarian problems, which for a long time ensured the material and technical superiority of the empire. The most famous example in the literature is the so-called "Greek fire" used in military affairs, which was a mixture of oil and sulfur. Mining was actively developing in the empire as a branch of science and technology, covering a complex of processes of exploration, extraction from the bowels and primary processing of minerals. Using the experience gained in the ancient period, building, finishing and semi-precious stones, sulfur, saltpeter, iron, copper, lead ores, silver, gold, mercury, and tin were mined in Byzantium. The degree of development of metallurgy - important indicator technical and economic country level, since it is a very extensive area of economics, science and technology, covering the processes of obtaining metals, changing their chemical and physical composition and giving certain forms. Byzantium produced copper, tin, lead, mercury, zinc oxide, silver and gold. Non-ferrous metals and their alloys were used in shipbuilding, agriculture, craft production, military affairs. The production of ferrous metals - cast iron, steel, iron, was the leading branch of the Byzantine economy, along with agriculture.
A characteristic feature of Byzantine production, urban crafts was a comprehensive state regulation. On the one hand, state support ensured the protection of handicraft corporations, the availability of state orders, safety on the roads and in the cities of the empire, on the other hand, the workshops lost their independence and fell under strict control central government, which led to the loss of initiative, stagnation in development.
The attitude of the Byzantines to the preservation of the ancient heritage also had contradictory consequences for the development and implementation of practical knowledge. Initially, it allowed Byzantium to remain the most advanced state in Europe until the 12th century in the production of ceramics, glass, construction, shipbuilding, and so on. But over time, a rigid focus on the preservation of ancient traditions inevitably became a brake on technical development, and the majority of Byzantine crafts gradually lagged behind Western European ones.
Education in the empire was given special importance. The reign of Justinian I was marked by a struggle against paganism, in particular, in 529 he closed the Platonic Academy in Athens, where the pagans studied and taught classical Greek philosophy. Pagans, Jews and heretics were forbidden to teach. But, despite the persecution of pagan teachers, the loss of their pre-existing privileges, educational institutions continued to work.
The University of Constantinople occupied a key place in the cultural life of the state, representing the largest educational and scientific center. Throughout the history of Byzantium, its inhabitants, in comparison with the inhabitants of medieval Western Europe as a whole, were significantly more educated. Byzantine schools were the most important source of knowledge about antiquity. Of course, gradually church literature penetrated into educational programs secular educational institutions. But, despite the teaching of some church disciplines, the schools remained secular, and the education system itself, especially in elementary school, was very close to the ancient one. Not only the Psalter was studied, but also the works of Homer, Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, the works of Plato and Aristotle. For a better understanding of ancient works, students were given information on ancient history and mythology.
In the treatise “For Young Men on How to Usefully Read Pagan Writers,” Basil of Caesarea, although he calls for caution in reading the works of ancient authors and interpreting them in the light of Christian morality, he considers these works unconditionally useful. Interestingly, the notebooks of Byzantine schoolchildren show a certain similarity with ancient textbooks. The students rewrote the same excerpts from ancient myths, the same maxims as the ancient Hellenes. The only differences are that in Byzantine notebooks, in addition to the usual exercises, verses from the Psalter sometimes appear, as well as in an appeal to God at the beginning of the first sheet and a drawn cross at the beginning of each page.
The school course consisted of the study of grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics, law and music. The inclusion of music, or harmony, in school programs was explained by the fact that harmony was considered a science, which, along with mathematics and astronomy, helped to learn the eternal laws of the Universe. At the same time, not only the quantitative properties of sounds were studied, but also their physical nature. In the study of mathematics, the "Introduction to Arithmetic" by Nicomachus of Gerasa was used as the main tool. Diophantus' Arithmetic, Euclid's Elements, Heron of Alexandria's Metrics were used as educational guides. In the study of astronomy as a science of numbers applied to moving objects, Claudius Ptolemy's Almagest was used. His own work "Tetrabook" was used as a manual on astrology, which was also included in the teaching program. In the 7th century the textbook of Paul of Alexandria "Introduction to Astrology" became more popular.
Rhetoric played an important role. It was considered a means of development and improvement of the individual. There were no class restrictions on obtaining a rhetorical education, but only those who were able to pay enough could master it. expensive education in schools of rhetoric. The standard of style was Gregory the Theologian, who was placed above other speakers. Primary schools in the empire functioned not only in cities, but also in countryside. Higher education could only be obtained from major cities. The main center of education in the state was Constantinople.
In 425, by decree of Emperor Theodosius II, a university was established in Constantinople. The number of teachers in it was determined - 31 people, of which 20 were grammarians, 8 orators, 2 teachers of law and 1 philosopher. They were considered government officials and received a salary from the imperial treasury.
Theodosius secured the task of state control over students by special state acts. Each student was required to provide documentary evidence of the origin, the state of his parents, it was required to indicate the sciences in which he intended to study, the address of residence in Constantinople.
Often the emperors not only assisted in the development of education, but were themselves fond of the sciences. Leo VI the Wise is known as a scholar who wrote a large number of secular and theological works. Caesar Varda founded a school in Magnavra, the leading scientist of his time, Leo the Mathematician, was appointed head. The school was located in the palace and taught philosophy, grammar, geometry and astronomy.
Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus was distinguished by versatile knowledge. By his order and direct participation many encyclopedias (about fifty) were compiled on various branches of knowledge.
Emperor Constantine IX Monomakh created two schools: philosophy and law. The emperor personally attended classes, listened to and took notes of lectures. Michael Psellos was appointed head of the philosophical school. He began his lectures with Aristotle's "Logic", after that he moved on to his "Metaphysics", and completed the course with an interpretation of the works of Plato, whom he considered the most significant thinker and even put on the same level with Gregory the Theologian.
The patronizing attitude of the emperors towards education and science was explained not only and not so much by their love for knowledge, but by practical considerations, since the successful functioning of the Byzantine state apparatus required the presence of literate and educated people in the administrative management structure.
Education served not to obtain certain knowledge and information, and, in the future, to generate new knowledge, but, first of all, to take a place in the bureaucratic structure corresponding to a certain qualification.
Cognitive motivation in Byzantine society was weak, knowledge was not an end in itself, they were subordinated to the principles of the functioning of the bureaucratic machine. The high qualification of civil servants for a long time ensured the advantage of Byzantium in comparison with Western Europe.
Not only the secular, but also the church administration was largely composed of those who successfully completed school. School graduates, regardless of the social status of their parents, could become officials of the imperial or church office. Parents spared no expense in order to pay teachers for their children. (At the same time, the teachers themselves usually also received salaries from the state.) Theoretically, there was free access to the most senior positions the state apparatus, so everyone who had the money for it studied.
An extensive bureaucratic apparatus for its successful functioning needed educated and literate people, in connection with which, secular education acquired a special significance. This explains why the Byzantine schools, unlike those in Western Europe, were not subordinate to the church.
Of course, along with secular schools, there were also church educational institutions. Since the 9th century, for example, there has been a theological school (patriarchal academy), the curriculum of which was focused on the interpretation of sacred texts. But students also studied rhetoric and other secular sciences.
Science (as well as other spheres of public life) in Byzantium was subjected to stateization, and organizational and managerial functions taken over by the bureaucracy. Administrative prescriptions in the field of science and the production of information become one of the criteria for truth, which must comply with formal requirements controlled by the bureaucracy.
Bureaucratization and state regulation had dual consequences, and, in some cases, contributed to the development of Byzantine science and education, while in other conditions they became an obstacle to their development. Over-formalization has become feature Byzantine science, bureaucratization led to its ossification.
A utilitarian attitude to science dominated: its goal was to educate students and process previously acquired knowledge. The prevailing attitude was that scientific wisdom can be found in the ancient past, the direct heirs of which the Byzantines considered themselves to be.
As a result, the formalized ancient heritage turned into the cause of stereotypical thinking, which did not give development to original scientific creativity. antique classics, as well as the Bible, constituted the totality of all the necessary knowledge.
The basis of knowledge was tradition, which, according to the Byzantines, turned to the essence, while experience made it possible to get acquainted only with superficial manifestations of the surrounding world.
Experiment and scientific observation were poorly developed. Ideas that could not be confirmed by bookish authority were perceived as rebellious.
Since the 14th century, there has been an ever-increasing pressure on Byzantine Empire Ottoman Turks. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople fell. This rainy day marked the end of Byzantium, where for eleven centuries the science of the ancient past was carefully studied and protected.
The political decline of Byzantium led to an active transmission of scientific experience to the West, which became the most important factor that prepared the Western European Renaissance.
Questions
1. Ancient heritage and Christian ideology in Byzantium.
2. Features of Byzantine science.
3. Works on the systematization and commenting of ancient authors. John of Damascus.
4. Rationalist trend in Byzantine theology. Michael Psell.
5. Material and technical achievements of Byzantium.
6. Education in Byzantium.
Byzantine geographers achieved success: they skillfully drew maps of the country and the seas, plans for city blocks and buildings, which was still unattainable for the West. At the beginning of this stage, scientific creativity did not stop in Byzantium. In the IV century. prominent mathematicians, researchers in the field of astronomy and astrology, as well as optics worked here. Significant advances were made in medicine. Doctor Oribasium(326-403) made up medical encyclopedia which included 70 books. It contained extensive extracts from the works of ancient physicians, as well as the author's own conclusions and generalizations.
After the establishment of Christianity as the state religion, the best representatives of science began to be persecuted. Hypatia perished, Oribasius managed to escape with difficulty. Scientific centers were destroyed: in 489, at the insistence of the bishops, the school in Ephesus was closed, in 529 - the school in Athens - one of the largest centers of Greek education. At the end of the IV century. fanatical monks destroyed a significant part of the Alexandrian library. At the same time, church theological schools, and higher ones, were created to spread Christianity.
With the approval of the positions of the church, science becomes theological, which is especially evident in the field of natural sciences. In the middle of the VI century. monk Kosma Indikoplov wrote "Christian Topography" in which he recognized the Ptolemaic system as incorrect and contrary to the Bible. According to Cosmas, the shape of the Earth is a flat quadrilateral, surrounded by the ocean and covered with a vault of heaven, where paradise is placed. This work was distributed not only in Byzantium, but also in the West, as well as in Ancient Russia.
In the VI-VII centuries. in Byzantium, alchemy dominated, busy searching for the "divine elixir", with which you can turn any metals into gold, heal various diseases, and restore youth. At the same time, the chemical craft was developed - the manufacture of paints for painting and dyeing fabrics, ceramics, mosaics and enamels, which were widely used in the Byzantine fine arts and fabric manufacturing.
Despite the lack of sources, it is known that already at the end of the 7th century. Byzantines invented "greek fire" an incendiary mixture of gunpowder, resin and saltpeter, which had the ability to burn on water. This helped the Byzantines to defeat their enemies in naval battles. "Greek fire" was widely used during the siege of fortresses in the 7th-15th centuries. Byzantine scholar Lev Mathematician improved the light telegraph. Doctor Nikita compiled a collection on surgery (IX century). There were a number of works of a historical nature, in which the social struggle of this period is reflected from the positions of the ruling class.
Introduction……………………………………………………………… 3 pages
1. Byzantium-Keeper of ancient knowledge………………………. 5 pages
1.1 Byzantine Empire ……………………………………………… 5 p.
1.2 Education and science……………………………………………… 6 p.
1.3 Inventions and achievements ……………………………………… 12 p.
2. Grammar Photius …………………………………………………. 16 p.
3. Lev Mathematician ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………. 25 pages
List of used literature………………………………….26 p.
Introduction
The European Middle Ages has long been considered an era of savagery, ignorance and technical stagnation. Meanwhile, it is to this era that humanity owes such outstanding achievements as the invention of book printing, mechanical clocks, the mass introduction of water mills into production, the development of long-distance navigation technologies, and much more, without which neither the geographical discoveries of the 16th century nor the scientific revolution of the 17th century would have been possible. century, nor the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century.
These were the times when a fortified castle, signifying power, served as a refuge... When pilgrims and crusaders rushed to the East... When monasteries and cathedrals were built in Europe... When fairs roared outside the city walls and a plague raged... When arose from the waves, Venice created a maritime empire on trade.
Science in the Middle Ages, as in any other period of its history, existed simultaneously in two forms: as an impersonal system of knowledge about the world and as one of the spheres of the spiritual life of society. As the latter, it could not help but be exposed to other spheres of public life.
Speaking about the socio-cultural influence on science, one should distinguish between two kinds of influence. Changes in production methods, technical improvements, shifts in social structure, population growth, development of communications, political and ideological movements have a strong influence on science, presenting it with problems for research, focusing scientists' attention on solving certain problems and at the same time predetermining the social organization of scientific research. research, prerequisites and conditions of scientific work.
Since Christianity determined the system of value orientations characteristic of medieval society, it left its mark on any type of activity, including the very attitude of a person to work. A medieval scholar in Western Europe is usually a monk or cleric. Almost all authors of works on natural philosophy wrote essays on theological topics. Naturally, a person who was both a theologian and a scientist was able to transfer the formally ordering principles and intuitions developed within the framework of one system of knowledge to another, just as the same methods of mathematics are currently used in different disciplines.
The dynamic development of technical improvements, the introduction of new technologies in both agriculture and handicraft production could not but affect the spiritual climate of the Middle Ages, including scientific creativity. But this influence was not direct. Science in the Middle Ages was mainly a book business, it relied mainly on abstract thinking, with a direct appeal to nature, it used, as a rule, methods of observation, extremely rarely - experiment, saw its role not in contributing to the transformation of nature, but sought to understand the world as it appears in the process of contemplation. In this respect, medieval science was the antipode of both modern science and medieval technology. Therefore, it was not technical achievements and problems that had a direct impact on medieval science, nor did it, in turn, have any noticeable impact on the development of technology. But the indirect influence of technology and technology on the development of science was enormous. First, the prerequisites were created for expanding the social base of science. The layer of the bourgeoisie, growing in the process of urbanization of Europe, quickly utilize technical innovations. The well-being of the population, despite the protracted periods of economic recession, is increasing. All this gradually prepares the conditions for the ensuing in the XVI - XVII centuries. explosion of scientific activity. Secondly, a special atmosphere of enterprise was created, new practical attitudes towards nature, new value regulators were formed.
Throughout its history, Byzantium has been a multi-ethnic state. Byzantine culture combined the achievements of many peoples inhabiting it (Greeks, Syrians, Romans, Copts, Armenians, Georgians, Cilicians, Thracians, Cappadocians, Dacians, Slavs, Polovtsy, Arabs, etc.). However, the Byzantines were not limited to the simple assimilation of knowledge acquired in previous centuries, and in a number of industries made certain steps forward.
Particular attention was paid to those areas of knowledge that were closely related to practice, primarily medicine, agricultural production, construction, and navigation. At the same time, not ancient philosophy, but theology, was put at the basis of all sciences. Establishing itself on the ruins of the ancient world, Christianity in Byzantium supplanted the life-affirming pagan religion of the Greeks.
For a long time, paganism existed alongside Christianity. Many major church figures of Byzantium IV-V centuries. studied in pagan schools and subsequently actively fought against some Christian prejudices against Greco-Roman ancient literature. Thus, Basil the Great (c. 330-379), a prominent theologian and bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, was educated at a higher pagan school in Athens. In his writings, he spoke with great respect about the ancient cultural heritage and convincingly argued that ancient literature in many respects anticipated the emergence of Christianity. Moreover, Basil the Great and other early Christian writers pointed to the need for Christians to receive a secular education: in their opinion, it would contribute to a better understanding of the "Scripture" and its interpretation using the methods and means of ancient education. Calling themselves Romans, and their empire - Roman, the Byzantines-Christians were proud that they keep cultural heritage Hellas and Rome, so powerful was the historical inertia of the ancient world. However, only that which contributed to the strengthening of Christianity was selected from the ancient heritage. In the field of natural science, the main data were drawn from the works of Aristotle (“Physics”, “History of Animals”, “On the Parts of Animals”, “On the Movement of Animals”, “On the Soul”, etc.). All of them were repeatedly commented on by early Byzantine authors in order to make them accessible to the reading public.
In the early Byzantine period, the so-called "Six-Day" encyclopedias, based on the biblical legend about the creation of the world in six days, became a kind of encyclopedia of natural science. The main purpose of "Conversations on the Six Days" was to present the Christian doctrine of the structure of the Universe and the refutation of the physical theories of antiquity. Basil the Great and George Pisida enjoyed the greatest fame. Engaged in the development of philosophical and theological problems and arguing with ancient writers, they borrowed from antiquity a variety of information on natural science, both real (about plants, birds, fish, reptiles, land animals, etc.), and fantastic (about sacred geese, about the virgin birth of offspring in the kite and silkworm caterpillar - the thesis of the immaculate conception, etc.).
Valuable information about the animal world of Egypt, Ethiopia, Arabia, Ceylon and India is contained in the XI book of "Christian Topography" (c. 549) by Cosmas Indikoplova (i.e. "Sailor to India"). Along with this, it stated that the Earth is a plane, surrounded by the ocean and covered with the vault of heaven, where paradise is located.
Having become the ideology of the Middle Ages, Christianity had a decisive influence on social and political processes. State doctrine of the glorification of the Christian monarchy and the cult Byzantine emperor as the head of everything Christendom had a huge impact on the entire social and ideological life of Byzantium (ideology, culture, philosophy, history, literature, art and various fields of knowledge, including medicine).
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