Medieval Byzantine Physics. The development of science and education in Byzantium
All the most important branches of knowledge in the Byzantine Empire basically continued and developed the heritage of classical Greece of the Hellenistic and Roman period; this heritage was given a theological orientation or it was processed in accordance with Christian doctrine. The development of scientific theory, however, stopped: after all, the basis of ancient science was philosophy, which in the Middle Ages gave way to theology. Due to the fact that “the worldview of the Middle Ages was essentially theological,” and “church dogma was the starting point and basis of all thinking,” secular sciences usually took on a theological coloring in Byzantium, as elsewhere in the Middle Ages; information on natural science, geography, mathematics, history can often be found in theological writings. The peculiarity of the medieval sciences also consisted in the fact that rarely any of the thinkers (the same took place in antiquity) was limited to any one area of knowledge: the majority was engaged in science in the broad sense of the word; many wrote essays on philosophy, theology, mathematics, medicine - in a word, on a number of sciences, later differentiated.
The development of mathematical theory stopped in Greece long before the rise of the Eastern Roman Empire. During the period under review, mathematics develops in accordance with practical needs. In addition, the study and commentary of ancient authors, especially Euclid and Archimedes, continued.
Mathematical calculations were widely used in astronomy, which was of paramount importance for navigation and in determining calendar dates, necessary, for example, for calculating taxation, as well as for church chronology. It was important for the chroniclers to determine the year of the "creation of the world", from which the entire secular and theological historical chronology was counted; in addition, the clergy needed to know exact dates the main events of the life of Christ (his birth, baptism, etc.), to which church services and holidays were timed. The most significant of the latter was the feast of Easter: in accordance with it, the days of celebrating many events of the church year were established. Special methods for calculating the time of this most revered holiday in the church calendar were quite complicated. They were associated with a serious mathematical processing of the results of astronomical observations.
A prominent mathematician of this period was Theon, father of the famous Hypatia, who commented on the mathematical writings of the ancients and taught in Alexandria. The Neoplatonist philosopher Proclus (5th century) compiled commentaries on the writings of ancient mathematicians. Domninus (5th century) wrote a treatise on arithmetic. Stephen of Alexandria, a professor at the University of Constantinople (first half of the 7th century), was educated in Alexandria and lectured on the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, on arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music.
As for the practical application of mathematical knowledge, here the most important was the improvement of the astrolabe by Sinesius of Kirensky, who also compiled a special treatise on this most important instrument for navigators. Treatises on the design and use of the astrolabe were also written by the above-mentioned Stephen of Alexandria and the philosopher John Filonov (late 6th century), professor at the University of Constantinople. Finally, the names of two outstanding mathematicians of the 6th century should be mentioned. - Anthimius from Thrall and Isidore of Miletus, who practically applied their knowledge in the field of architecture in the construction of the church of St. Sophia in Constantinople; Anthimius was also prone to theoretical research, as evidenced by his work on incendiary mirrors, which has survived only in fragments.
In the eyes of the Byzantines, scholarly writings on geography were only descriptions of the earth compiled by ancient authors, such as Strabo. These writings were studied and commented on throughout Byzantine history. But for the practical needs of the state, church and trade, other kinds of works are also compiled, dedicated to the description of the land and contemporary countries and peoples of that era. A number of works belonged to merchants who described the countries they saw and collected information about the routes of communication.
In the middle of the IV century. An unknown Syrian compiled a "Complete Description of the World and Peoples", containing information about the countries and peoples of the East, about the most important centers of the empire for trade and economy. This work has survived only in Latin translation.
Among the Byzantine geographical and cosmographic treatises of the early period, a very special place is occupied by the work of Kosmas Indikoplov, widely known throughout the Middle Ages, "Christian Topography". This book, like the life of its author, is deeply controversial. Cosmas was born at the turn of the 5th-6th centuries. He spent his youth in business dealings. Cosmas could not get an extensive education, but he visited many countries. As an adult, he lived in Alexandria, and then, apparently, entered a monastery in Sinai, where he ended his days.
Along with interesting, reliable geographical and ethnographic data, his "Christian topography" included cosmogonic and philosophical ideas about the universe, adapted to Christian doctrine. And here the brave merchant, the inquisitive traveler, the entertaining storyteller faded into the background: he gave way to a fanatical, ignorant, narrow-minded monk. In his "Christian Topography" Cosmas tries to refute the ancient cosmogony and replace it with the biblical concept of the universe. On the basis of the Bible and the works of the Church Fathers, Cosmas opposes the Christian cosmography to the Ptolemaic system. Considering the teachings of Ptolemy not only wrong, but harmful and dangerous. Cosmas argues that the Earth is by no means spherical, but is a flat quadrilateral, like Noah's Ark, surrounded by the ocean and covered by the vault of heaven, where "paradise" is located.
The philosophical and theological views of Cosmas were influenced by the theologian of the 4th-5th centuries. Theodore of Mopsuestia, as well as one of the scholars of the Nisibis Nestorian school of theology - Mar-Aba (Patricia). The main thing in the worldview of Cosmas is the doctrine of two states (χααστασεις). God strives, according to Cosmas, to communicate his wisdom and his beneficent beings created by him, but the difference between the creator and the creation is so great that the direct spread of divine wisdom to the creation is impossible. Therefore, God creates two states: one is perishable and finite, full of contradictions and subject to trials, the other is eternal and perfect. Based on this teaching, Cosmas comes to a dualistic understanding of everything that exists. The universe is divided into two worlds - earthly and heavenly, and the history of mankind - into two periods: one beginning with Adam, the other - with Christ. Christ's victory over death creates a guarantee for humanity to achieve eternal bliss. In Christological matters, the ideas of the author of "Christian Topography" are close to Nestorianism, the influence of which is felt quite strongly in his work.
The cosmographic and theological-philosophical views of Cosmas met with a decisive rebuff from the Alexandrian philosopher, a contemporary of Cosmas, Filopov, who defended the ancient views on the universe, dating back to Aristotle. The sharp controversy between Cosmas and Philopon largely reflects the philosophical and theological struggle in Alexandria in the 6th century.
It is also characteristic of that transitional era that Cosmas, with all his Christian fanaticism and hatred of Hellenic science, himself could not avoid to a certain extent the influence of Aristotelian philosophy and the teachings of the Stoics.
On the whole, the cosmographic representations of Cosmas were a step backwards in comparison with the Ptolemaic system and brought great harm to the development of the science of the universe. In the Middle Ages, the "Christian topography" of Cosmas largely slowed down the progress of the science of the universe. At the same time, it should be taken into account that the work of Cosmas was widespread not only in Byzantium, but also in the West, and in Ancient Russia. Colorful stories of Cosmas about various countries world made his work entertaining reading. The popularity of "Christian Topography" was largely facilitated by unusually interesting, sometimes highly artistic illustrations - miniatures and drawings that adorned it. Especially famous are the miniatures of the Vatican manuscript of Cosmas of the 9th century.
It is still debatable which drawings were in the original "Christian Topography" and whether they were drawn by Cosmas Indikoplus himself or by some other artist. In the text of his work, Kosma not only often mentions, but also explains the drawings. It seems likely that the image of the rhinoceros, the statues in the palace of the king of Aksum, and some other drawings belonged to the author himself. The drawings related to cosmography itself, apparently, are borrowed from Mar-Aba (Patricius). In any case, in the drawings of Cosmas (or another artist) one can feel the influence of the best examples of the artistic school of Alexandria - mosaics, frescoes, statues in the catacombs and basilicas; miniatures and drawings of "Christian Topography" by Cosmas occupy a prominent place in Byzantine art of the 6th century.
In the VI century. Hierocles compiled a geographical survey of the Eastern Roman Empire called Συνεχδημος; it lists 64 provinces and 912 cities; this essay had great importance in the development of the political geography of the era. Some information of a geographical nature is found in historical works of the 4th-7th centuries. For example, the works of Procopius contain invaluable data on the geography of the empire and its adjacent lands, including Africa, Italy, Spain, distant England and Scandinavia, the Balkan Peninsula, the Caucasus, and many other countries and peoples.
In Byzantium of the period under consideration, a number of works on zoology and botany appeared. They either described the wonders of the animal world of distant countries (India), or contained information intended for practical needs related to agriculture. The earliest of these works was a treatise on the animals of India, written by Timothy of Gaz (5th-6th centuries); this treatise, preserved only in fragments, is based on the writings of ancient authors - Ctesias (4th-5th centuries BC) and Arrian of the 2nd century. n. e.). In the II century. n. e. an unknown author compiled a description of real-life and fantastic animals: it became widespread in the Middle Ages under the name "Physiologist"; later, in order to adapt this work to Christian ideology, comments were made, according to which each described animal was given a symbolic aspect, the properties of individual animals were compared with Christian virtues or, conversely, with human vices and sins condemned by Christian morality.
Botany in this period is known only practical. The only work on plants common in Byzantium was the treatise of the physician Dioscorides (II century), in which plants are described from the point of view of their use in medicine. The manuscripts of this treatise are of particular interest, as they are usually provided with realistic representations of plants.
Descriptions of individual animals and plants are also found in some works of geographical content, for example, in the work of Kosma Indikoplova or the author of the 5th century. Philostorgius, who wrote about the island of Ceylon. Theological writings - "six days" - were also popular. They got their name from the biblical tradition about the creation of the world by God in six days. The best known are the six-day books compiled by Bishops Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nyssa. The goal of the authors of these works was to harmonize the natural-scientific ideas of antiquity with the Christian religion. To do this, it was necessary to emphasize the expediency of the world, supposedly created according to the creator's plan. But, despite the teleological orientation of the six days, they contain information about the animal and plant world, based on the centuries-old experience of previous generations, on observations of wildlife. However, this information, in all likelihood, was drawn by the authors from the writings of more ancient writers, and was not the result of their own observations.
Chemistry in the IV-VII centuries. developed most fruitfully in its practical application - therefore, to study its history, the recipes used by artisans in the production process are important. Unfortunately, there are almost no records of such recipes in Greek. Only recipes for some dyes and medicines are known. Syrian sources mention the existence of special manuals used by artisans. The theory of chemistry developed within alchemy, which was considered a secret, sacred science of the transmutation of metals in order to produce and increase the volume of silver and gold, as well as the philosopher's stone - a miraculous remedy that supposedly was supposed to turn other metals into gold, would serve as a panacea for all diseases contributed to life extension. There is no doubt that special signs were known in early Byzantium for the designation of chemical substances; these signs were not of a magical nature, but replaced the chemical formulas of our time.
The most remarkable achievement of practical chemistry at that time was the invention of Greek fire, which for a long time gave Byzantium an advantage in naval battles. Greek fire was proposed in Constantinople by the Syrian architect Callinnicus in 678; this composition included oil mixed with asphalt, resins and other combustible substances, as well as with quicklime; the mixture ignited on contact with water and was successfully used against enemy ships; True, the Arabs soon learned to protect their ships from Greek fire by covering them up to the waterline with lead sheets.
In the IV century. a certain Synesius from Alexandria compiled a commentary on the alchemical treatise of Pseudo-Democritus (III century). The previously mentioned Stephen of Alexandria, among his other works, is credited with the treatise On the Production of Gold. Stephen of Alexandria enjoys the fame of the creator of alchemy. Four alchemist poets adjoin him - Iliodor, Theophrastus, Hierotheus, Archelaus, who repeated his treatises in their works. Separate alchemical works were also attributed to the emperors Justinian I and Heraclius.
The basis of medical knowledge throughout the existence of the Byzantine Empire was the writings of two great physicians of antiquity: Hippocrates (c. 460-377 BC) and Galen (131-201). Extracts from the writings of these two ancient authors were included in the newly compiled compilations and have been preserved in many lists.
In Hellenistic times, the Alexandrian medical school enjoyed the greatest fame, retaining its former glory until the 7th century. Special attention was given in Alexandria to the study of anatomy, and some progress was made in this area. Christianity delayed the further development of anatomy, since the church forbade the autopsy of human corpses. The doctors of Antioch were renowned as physicians.
In the IV-VII centuries. a fairly large number of medical manuals were compiled, of which we will name the most remarkable. By the 4th century includes the activities of the physician Orivasius (325-403), a friend of the emperor Julian the Apostate; under the title "Medical Manuals" (Συναγωγαι ιατριχαι) Orivasius compiled a collection of excerpts from the best medical writings of antiquity.
In the VI century. the doctor Aetius of Amida, who studied in Alexandria, wrote a guide to medicine (in 16 books). Aetius is the first Byzantine Christian doctor, as there are direct indications in his book. So, according to this doctor, in order to remove foreign objects from the throat or larynx, it is recommended to turn to the help of St. Vlasia; some recipes mention incense made in the church.
In the first half of the 7th c. Doctor John of Alexandria and Stephen of Alexandria wrote comments on Hippocrates and Galen. In Alexandria, Paul of Eginsky (625-690) also received a medical education and compiled a manual on surgery. All of these works are of a compilation nature, the authors only added to the achievements of ancient medicine some observations concerning the symptoms of diseases and pharmacology.
The prohibition by Justinian of any critical study of the texts included in the Corpus juris civilis, at first, to a certain extent, slowed down the development of jurisprudence, the scientific creativity of lawyers. However, already under Justinian, prohibitions were circumvented in every possible way. In the schools of law, intensive work was carried out to translate the code of laws into Greek language in order to make the code available to the majority of the population of the Byzantine Empire.
The creation of Justinian's Code of Laws spawned a large scholarly literature. It includes Greek translations separate parts Corpus juris civilis, abbreviated extracts (επιτομη, συντομος) from Justinian's legislation, various interpretations and paraphrases, dictionaries explaining Latin terms found in legislative prescriptions, writings on particular issues of law. Most outstanding work lawyers of the second half of the VI century. were associated with commenting on the Digest, the study of which gave a particularly fruitful impetus to legal thought. Already the compilers of the Digest - professors of law Theophilus and Dorotheus - under the guise of compiling Greek indices and paraphrases, began to actually comment on the Digest. Soon after them, while Justinian was still alive, Stephen, another professor of law, also under the guise of compiling an index, wrote an extensive Greek commentary on the Digests, based on lectures he had given and containing many excerpts from the works of other jurists, in particular Theophilus. A Greek paraphrase of the Institutions written by Theophilus, and Greek commentaries on the Justinian Code compiled in the 6th century. Falaley, Isidore and Anatoly, became widely known in the empire and beyond. Between 570-612 work was done on commenting on the Digest and their scientific study; it is known from the scholia to Basilica as the work of Anonymus. And although with the creation of Corpus juris civilis, legal thought in Byzantium for many centuries closed in the circle of studying this grandiose monument, nevertheless, scientific creativity in the field of jurisprudence did not stop: the development of law as a science continued in subsequent centuries.
The most important feature of the Byzantine education of the period under review should be considered the gradual replacement of the system of pagan education inherited from the Hellenistic period with a new system created under the auspices of the church in the interests of the monarchy. While trying to eradicate pagan education and replace it with Christian education, the church at the same time borrows the methodology that has developed over hundreds of years in ancient and Hellenistic Greece. Many church leaders of the IV-V centuries. studied in pagan schools. Thus, the "fathers of the church" Basil of Caesarea and Gregory, bishop of the city of Nazianzus (c. 330-389), were educated in a pagan school in Athens and subsequently actively fought against the prejudice of Christians against ancient Greek literature; Basil of Caesarea owns an essay where, with the help of numerous quotations, it is proved that ancient literature in many respects anticipated Christianity and prepared minds for its perception. Christian Byzantines were proud of what they kept cultural heritage Hellas, and unlike the barbarians, they called themselves "Romans". In this sense, relying largely on the old classical traditions, the Byzantine Church played a certain positive role. The first Christian schools appeared during the years of persecution of Christianity; but at that time they could only compete with the pagan schools. In the IV century. active offensive begins christian church to pagan schools.
Primary education consisted of the study of spelling, the basics of arithmetic and grammar, which meant familiarization with the works of classical authors, primarily Homer's Odyssey and Iliad. Over time, along with Homer, they began to read the books of the Old and New Testaments, and especially carefully studied the Psalter, which for many centuries served as the first book to be read not only in Byzantium, but also in Russia.
The general primary stage of education was followed by higher education. The secular sciences studied in higher education according to the system proposed by Plato (in his "Republic") were divided into two groups, namely:
1) "trivium", which included grammar, rhetoric and dialectics,
2) "quadrivium", which consisted of arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy. However, the range of Byzantine scientific studies was not limited to the branches of knowledge included in these cycles. In addition to them, they studied law, medicine, and theology.
Higher educational institutions were controlled by the imperial power. There were also private schools. According to traditions, teaching was conducted orally, the lesson was improvised by the teacher. Approximately until the 5th century. n. e. the method of reading aloud the studied text, adopted in ancient Greece, was also preserved. Only in the 5th century, in connection with the spread of monasticism, which considered silence one of the highest Christian virtues, did they begin to read silently. The most important teaching method was the exegetical method, i.e., interpretation, commenting on the works chosen for study. In addition to Homer's poems, during the passage of the "trivium" they studied in extracts the works of tragedians - Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, historians - Herodotus and Thucydides, orators - Isocrates and Lysias. During the passage of the "quadrivium" the works of mathematicians - Archimedes, Euclid, physicians - Hippocrates and Galen were interpreted. Individual words or passages of the studied text were subject to interpretation. Exegetical literature was so widespread in Byzantium precisely because it corresponded to the main method of teaching. Quite often, students wrote down in the classroom behind the teacher his interpretation of απο φωνης (with voice), and then distributed them in lists.
Christian theological schools, of course, borrowed this technique and applied it to the study of the books of the Old and New Testaments, the works of the “Church Fathers”. Many works of medieval writing, commenting on the writings of ancient authors, the Bible, theological treatises, monuments of civil and canon law, arose precisely as lecture courses.
Legal education played a special role, since lawyers were very much needed in the state apparatus. Law was one of the main subjects of teaching in the Athens, Alexandria and Beirut schools. The most celebrated of these was the Beirut school, which reached its highest prosperity in the fifth century. The basis of teaching in higher schools of law was the study of the texts of lawyers of the classical era. Criminal law and legal proceedings were not studied. The method of teaching was wholly exegetical and suffered from confusion and incompleteness. As a result of training, students did not receive any practical skills. Meanwhile, the need for knowledgeable practicing lawyers in the empire was very significant, legal education was also required for public service. The need for a reform of legal education became especially urgent after the completion of work on the codification of law under Justinian. This reform consisted of a categorical prohibition to study anything other than the Corpus juris civilis. It is the new, codified law that has now become the only subject of study.
In the Constantinople and Beirut schools, 4 positions of professors of law were established. Instead of a four-year course, a five-year course of study was introduced. During all the years of their stay in higher education, students studied only the Institutions, the Digests and the Code of Justinian. On the basis of the new program, 1st year students passed the Institutions and the first four books of the Digest. Justinian, as a sign of special favor, abolished the old humiliating name for first-year students - "insignificant" (dupondii) and replaced it with a more pleasant one - Justiniani novi. The second, third and fourth years of study were entirely devoted to the assimilation of the Digest. In the fifth year, students studied the Code of Justinian; they received the honorary title of prolytae - "exempted" from listening to lectures. During the reign of Justinian, the professors of law Theophilus, Anatoly, Falaley from Constantinople, Dorotheus and Isidore from Beirut, and John Scholasticus from Antioch acquired great celebrity. They not only participated in the codification of law, but were widely engaged in pedagogical activities.
The reform of the teaching of law under Justinian seems to have produced some positive results. Not only did the range of students study legal issues, but teaching became more specific, closer to the needs of legal practice. Since the Corpus juris civilis became the only valid law, it is natural that for an educated judge or lawyer in his practical activities, first of all, it was necessary to master this particular Code of Laws well.
There is almost no direct evidence of the teaching of history as an independent discipline in Byzantine educational institutions. Only Theophylact Simokatta, in the preface to his famous work, puts history on a par with philosophy in a single series of sciences and indicates that history was taught at the University of Constantinople. The study of history in educational institutions can also be judged on the basis of numerous brief historical compendia preserved in many medieval manuscripts; such compendiums, apparently, served as teaching aids.
Under the influence of Christianity, not only the view of the purpose of history has changed, but also the content of historical writings. The study of history was based on the Bible; to the material gleaned from the Bible, Christian authors, who considered themselves at the same time the heirs of ancient Hellas, added myths, transcriptions of Homer's poems, and retellings of the works of ancient tragedians. The presentation of history in accordance with the requirements of the church also entailed the inclusion in the historical writings of information about all the peoples known at that time, it assumed the consideration of the fate of all mankind from the mythical creation of Adam.
Historical knowledge was disseminated in Byzantium not only in historical writings proper or in chronicles. Commentaries on the poems of Homer, on the Bible and other works studied by the Byzantines, contained many historical information, the names of really existing and mythical personalities who were perceived as really living. One of the most important and most common methods of commenting on biblical texts was to compare the traditions (or sayings) of the Old Testament with the events mentioned in the New Testament.
The study of the past of Hellas and the comparison of the Old Testament history with the New Testament contributed to the spread of the view of the historical process as the progressive movement of society.
The development of the philological sciences was closely connected with the needs of education, and took place mainly in the process of studying and commenting on the works of ancient literature, and later also on the works of early Christian literature.
The concept of "philology" did not exist in Byzantium. Grammar meant not only grammar in the modern sense of the word, but also lexicography and metrics. There were special grammatical treatises. The most significant of these were written by George Khirovosk, who lectured on grammar at the University of Constantinople at the end of the 6th or the beginning of the 7th century. Lectures by Hirovoska commenting on the works of the grammarians Theodosius of Alexandria and Dionysius of Thrace (both lived around 100 BC) have been preserved; Hirovosk also owns a treatise on prosody and a spelling guide.
The influence of Hirovosk on subsequent Byzantine grammarians was insignificant until the 15th century, when the learned Greek Constantine Laskaris, who moved to Italy, used his writings in compiling the grammar of the Greek language.
In addition, the grammatical writings of John Philipon and his historical and grammatical scholia to the Bible are known.
The lexicography of the period under review has not yet become such an important branch of knowledge as in subsequent centuries. In this area, the most interesting are bilingual dictionaries (Greek-Latin, Latin-Greek, Coptic-Greek), the compilation of which was caused by the needs of the vast international relations of the empire.
It is also necessary to note the dictionary attributed in the manuscripts to Patriarch Kirill of Alexandria; This dictionary was compiled in the 5th century. - or at the beginning of the VI century. on the basis of old, insignificant rhetorical dictionaries; throughout the Byzantine era, the dictionary of Cyril played huge role in school affairs and served as a necessary aid in the processing and compilation of new lexical aids.
During the IV-V centuries. on the territory of the Eastern Roman Empire, the pagan centers of education that arose in previous centuries were preserved. Christian schools appear for the most part in such cities as Alexandria, Athens, Beirut, Constantinople, that is, in the ancient centers of education. As an interesting detail, we note that there was an exchange of scientists between prominent centers; there is even information about what took place in the VI century. "congress" of scientists, at which the philosophers of Athens and Thebes met with the philosophers of Constantinople.
In the first centuries of the existence of the Eastern Roman Empire, the old universities of Athens and Alexandria, which arose in the ancient or Hellenistic era, still retained their former glory. The role of these universities in the period under review consisted not so much in the creative development of science, but in the preservation of the scientific heritage of the past, in the transfer of the culture of pagan Greece and Rome to a new generation, already brought up in the spirit of Christian doctrine. Athens, a city remote from the areas where the Christian religion arose, remained the last stronghold of paganism - in contrast to Alexandria, where theological schools appeared very early. In Alexandria already in the II century. there is a so-called Alexandrian trend in theology. As the mental center of the empire, this city appears later than Athens. Perhaps it was for this reason that the University of Athens was closed by Justinian in 529, while the University of Alexandria turned out to be more viable and existed until the middle of the 7th century, when the city was occupied by the Arabs. The study of philosophy dominated the University of Athens. In Alexandria, in the 4th and 5th centuries, as before, not only pagan poetry and philosophy flourished, but also mathematics, astronomy, medicine and theology.
Gradually, both the best academic forces and the young students moved to Constantinople, the metropolitan university, which enjoyed special privileges even by the 6th century. ranked first among others educational institutions empire.
The university in Constantinople was organized around 425 by the decree of Theodosius II. The university was designed to train not only scientists, but also government officials. Among the university professors, the most famous are Georgy Hirovosk and Stefan of Alexandria. Both bore the title of "universal teachers".
The center of legal education was in Beirut20 until 551, when the city was destroyed by an earthquake. The Beirut School of Law was founded at the end of the 2nd century BC. or at the beginning of the third century. Teaching in it was conducted in Latin, only at the end of the 5th century. Greek is introduced into the school. The so-called Sinai scholia have been preserved, which are interpretations of Beirut professors on some monuments of Roman law.
One of the first medieval universities was the university in the Syrian city of Nisibis, founded at the end of the 5th century. Many teachers from the Edessa school, closed in 489, moved to the Nisibis High School. The statute of the Nishi school, which is the oldest statute of a medieval university known to us, has been preserved in several editions.
In addition to the centers of education mentioned above, there was also a high school in Edessa, a school of rhetoricians and sophists in Gaza, a medical school in Nisibis, a Christian school in Caesarea, founded by Origen in the Syrian city of Amid. Already by the beginning of the 4th century, there was undoubtedly a theological school in Antioch, but information about it is extremely scarce. In any case, there is every reason to assume that the educational work here was well organized: a whole theological and exegetical trend was called the Antioch School.
Statement of education in the Byzantine Empire IV-VII centuries. was at one time widely known in the world and, apparently, was considered exemplary. This can be judged on the basis of the words of Cassiodorus, the most enlightened person and the most important statesman of the Ostrogothic kingdom: in 535 he intended to open a school in Rome, similar to the schools in Alexandria and Nisibis. This plan was not carried out, but later, at the monastery founded by Cassiodorus under the name "Vivarium", among the teaching aids, a textbook compiled in Nisibis and translated from Syriac into Latin was used.
For the successful development of science in any era, books and book depositories are necessary; book depositories in the Middle Ages were closely associated with writing workshops - scriptoria, since books were acquired mainly through their correspondence. As a writing material in the IV-VII centuries. papyrus and parchment were used. In the sands of Egypt, many fragments of papyrus books, both secular and religious, have been preserved, representing the remains of private libraries. Among the surviving parchment manuscripts of this time, liturgical texts predominate. All higher educational institutions, monasteries and churches had their own libraries. Of the libraries that arose in Byzantium in the 4th-7th centuries, only one has survived to this day - the library of the monastery of St. Catherine at Sinai, and even in that one there are manuscripts of a later time. However, it is known that the books were already in Diocletian's palace in Nicomedia. When Constantine later moved the capital to the shores of the Bosporus, a library was set up in the portico of the imperial palace, consisting of almost seven thousand books.
By decree of Emperor Valens in 372, four Greek and three Latin scribes were appointed to copy manuscripts for the imperial library; it contained 120,000 volumes. Among other books in the imperial palace were kept lists of Homer's poems, written on snake skin in gold letters. All these riches burned down during a fire in 476.
Up to the VI century. there was the famous Library of Alexandria, the largest and best organized library of the Hellenistic era. There were also private book depositories, for example, the library of the Bishop of Alexandria George, who was killed in 361, which contained books on philosophy, rhetoric, history and theology, or the library of the scientist Tychicus - mathematical and astrological works predominated in it. Despite the fragmentary information of the sources, it can be reasonably assumed that the book wealth, both in the capital of the empire and in the provincial cities, was significant; this consideration is confirmed by numerous finds of papyri of literary content.
In the IV century. the most common writing material of antiquity, papyrus, was replaced by parchment, and as a result, the form of the book also changed. For a long time, before the rejection of Egypt by the Arabs in the 7th century, papyrus was used for writing documents, letters, and for educational records. But the book in the form of a papyrus scroll gives way to the parchment code already in the 4th century. Unfortunately, manuscripts of the 4th-7th centuries. little has been preserved.
Of the manuscripts of this period that have survived to this day, the most noteworthy are the Vatican and Sinaiticus codes of the Bible, as well as the Vienna copy of Dioscorides. The Vatican (named after the place of storage) and the Sinai (named after the place where it was kept until the middle of the 19th century) codes date back to the middle of the 4th century. Both manuscripts are written in uncial script on parchment.
In his Vita Constantini, Eusebius reports that the emperor Constantine in 331 ordered the production of 50 copies of the Bible, necessary for the celebration of worship in the newly built churches. Of these 50 lists, only two have survived - namely the Vatican and Codex Sinaiticus. The list of Dioscorides, kept in Vienna, dates back to about 512. This list is written in uncial writing and is provided with beautiful miniatures, which depict the plants described in the text. There are also several luxurious lists of the Gospel, written on purple parchment in gold and silver and decorated with miniatures; these lists also date back to the 6th century. Manuscripts of the 7th century little is known, and among them almost no complete codex has been preserved.
The Eastern Roman Empire was predominantly a Greek state, overwhelmingly Christian, and outlived the Western Empire for a long time.
The name of the empire "Byzantine" (from the name of the city of Byzantium, on the site of which Emperor Constantine I the Great founded Constantinople) was introduced into use by Renaissance humanists after its fall, who did not dare to call it Roman. Despite the rather dubious choice of name, the term "Byzantine Empire" is widely used in modern historical science. The inhabitants of the eastern Roman Empire themselves called themselves "Romans" (ρωμαίοι), that is, "Romans", and the empire - "Romean" or "Romania" (Ρωμανία). Western contemporaries called it the "Empire of the Greeks" because decisive role in it the Greek population and culture. In Russia, it was also usually called the "Greek Kingdom".
Byzantine science had a powerful impact on many neighboring countries and peoples. Spiritual life in Byzantium was of a complex, contradictory nature, combining ancient pagan traditions and Christian worldview, which was reflected in the development of Byzantine science. Despite the fact that Christianity in the empire of the Romans was recognized as the state religion, a deep respect for the knowledge of ancient philosophy remained, since in the minds of the Byzantines their connection with the Greco-Roman ancient world played an important role. At a time when barbarian Western Europe entered the "dark night of the Middle Ages", the Eastern Roman Empire turned out to be the only center of civilization and culture in all of Europe, providing a higher socio-economic and cultural level in the territories that fell into its sphere of influence.
Science in Byzantium was intricately interconnected by Christian teaching. At the same time, special interest was directed to ancient philosophy, and an attempt to develop it. Byzantine scientific thinking took shape in a contradictory environment of the assertion of the Christian worldview based on the ethical and natural-scientific views of antiquity. Thus, science was based on two different pictures of the world: pagan Hellenism, on the one hand, and official Christian doctrine, on the other.
Byzantine culture as a whole is characterized by the desire for systematization, which is characteristic of the Christian worldview in general, and also due to the influence of ancient Greek philosophy, primarily Aristotle, who set the trend towards classification. In Byzantium, works of a generalizing nature are being created, in which there is a classification and systematization of everything that has been achieved by that time in science. The main intellectual efforts of Byzantine scientists consisted in the formal study of newly rewritten texts, their compilation, fixing what had already been achieved, which led to encyclopedia. A lot of work was done to systematize and comment on ancient authors. Encyclopedias on history, agriculture, medicine are compiled, and rich ethnographic material is collected about the inhabitants of neighboring countries.
Science in Byzantium was understood in accordance with the ancient tradition as speculative knowledge, as opposed to practical, empirical knowledge, which was considered a craft. Following the ancient model, all sciences were united under the name of philosophy - mathematics, natural science, ethics, grammar, rhetoric, logic, astronomy, music and jurisprudence, etc. John of Damascus divided philosophy into theoretical, relating to knowledge, and practical, relating to virtues. In the theoretical section, he included physics, mathematics, and theology, and in the practical section, ethics, economics (household ethics) and politics. He considered logic to be an instrument of philosophy. John of Damascus gave a systematic presentation of philosophical and logical concepts, as well as cosmological, psychological and other scientific information based on ancient writings.
It cannot be said that Byzantine scholars were engaged only in the passive processing of the ancient heritage. Not limited to the simple assimilation of knowledge acquired in previous centuries, the Byzantines made certain steps forward in a number of industries. For example, John Philopon came to the conclusion that the speed of the fall of bodies does not depend on their gravity; Leo the Mathematician was the first to use letters as algebraic symbols.
With the growth of provincial cities, the rise of handicraft production greater value began to be given to the development of knowledge aimed at solving practical problems in the field of medicine, Agriculture, construction.
Shipbuilding, architecture, mining industry successfully developed. There is an accumulation of practical knowledge, caused by the needs of navigation, trade. The natural sciences are developing, which is accompanied by an expansion of ideas about nature. The rise of scientific knowledge is associated with the emergence of rationalism in the philosophical thought of Byzantium.
Representatives of the rationalist trend in Byzantine theology and philosophy tried to reconcile faith and reason, just like the Western European scholastics. In an effort to combine faith with reason, they stated that in order to approach the comprehension of God, it is necessary to study the world around him, which is why they introduced natural science knowledge into theology. Rationalism was accompanied by a new stage in the comprehension of the ancient heritage. Blind faith based on authority is being replaced by the study of the causality of phenomena in nature and society.
One of the most prominent figures of the rationalist movement is Michael Psellos. The writings of Psellos are permeated with the desire to master and use the ancient heritage, to provide it with a worthy place in the system of the Christian worldview. Even describing the world of spiritual essences of the Christian doctrine, Psellus uses statements about the nature of the soul of Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus. Psellos dealt with the problems of natural science and cosmology. Moreover, theology almost does not interfere with the questions of natural science in Psellos. In his opinion, sciences should take from mathematics its numerical method and geometric proof, which have the property of logically forcing the recognition of propositions as true or false.
The ideas of the rationalists were condemned by the church, and were not widely adopted in Byzantium. Unlike Western Europe, rationalism did not become the leading trend in Byzantine theological and philosophical thought.
Despite the general speculative tradition dating back to antiquity, practical science in Byzantium managed to achieve certain results in solving many utilitarian problems, which for a long time ensured the material and technical superiority of the empire. The most famous example in the literature is the so-called "Greek fire" used in military affairs, which was a mixture of oil and sulfur.
Mining was actively developing in the empire as a branch of science and technology, covering a complex of processes of exploration, extraction from the bowels and primary processing of minerals. Using the experience gained in the ancient period, building, finishing and semi-precious stones, sulfur, saltpeter, iron, copper, lead ores, silver, gold, mercury, and tin were mined in Byzantium. The degree of development of metallurgy - important indicator the technical and economic level of the country, since it is a very extensive area of economics, science and technology, covering the processes of obtaining metals, changing their chemical and physical composition and giving certain forms. Byzantium produced copper, tin, lead, mercury, zinc oxide, silver and gold. Non-ferrous metals and their alloys were used in shipbuilding, agriculture, handicrafts, and military affairs. The production of ferrous metals - cast iron, steel, iron - was the leading branch of the Byzantine economy, along with agriculture.
A characteristic feature of Byzantine production and urban crafts was a comprehensive state regulation. On the one hand, government support
ensured the protection of handicraft corporations, the presence of state orders, safety on the roads and in the cities of the empire, on the other hand, the workshops lost their independence and fell under the strict control of the central government, which led to a loss of initiative and stagnation in development. Contradictory consequences for the development and implementation of practical knowledge had the installation of the Byzantines to preserve the ancient heritage. Initially, it allowed Byzantium to remain the most advanced state in Europe until the 12th century in the production of ceramics, glass, construction, shipbuilding, and so on. But over time, a rigid orientation towards the preservation of ancient traditions inevitably became a brake on technical development, and the majority of Byzantine crafts gradually lagged behind Western European ones.
Education in the empire was given special importance.
The reign of Justinian I was marked by a struggle against paganism, in particular, in 529 he closed the Platonic Academy in Athens, where the pagans studied and taught classical Greek philosophy. Pagans, Jews and heretics were forbidden to teach.
But, despite the persecution of pagan teachers, the loss of their pre-existing privileges, educational institutions continued to work. Constantinople University occupied a key place in the cultural life of the state, representing the largest educational and scientific center. Throughout the history of Byzantium, its inhabitants, in comparison with the inhabitants of medieval Western Europe, were generally significantly more educated. Byzantineschools were the most important source of knowledge about antiquity.
Of course, church literature gradually penetrated the educational programs of secular educational institutions. But, despite the teaching of some church disciplines, the schools remained secular, and the education system itself, especially in elementary school, was very close to the ancient one.
Not only the Psalter was studied, but also the works of Homer, Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, the works of Plato and Aristotle. For a better understanding of ancient works, students were given information on ancient history and mythology. In the treatise “For young men, how to read pagan writers with benefit,” Basil of Caesarea, although he calls for caution in reading the works of ancient authors and interpreting them in the light of Christian morality, he considers these works unconditionally useful.
It is interesting that the notebooks of Byzantine schoolchildren reveal a certain similarity with ancient textbooks. The students copied the same excerpts from ancient myths, the same maxims as the ancient Hellenes. The only difference is that in Byzantine notebooks, in addition to the usual exercises, sometimes there are verses from the Psalter, as well as an invocation to God at the beginning of the first sheet and a drawn cross at the beginning of each page. The school course consisted of the study of grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, mathematics, law and music. The inclusion of music, or harmony, in school programs was explained by the fact that harmony was considered a science, which, along with mathematics and astronomy, helped to learn the eternal laws of the universe. At the same time, not only the quantitative properties of sounds were studied, but also their physical nature.
In the study of mathematics, the “Introduction to Arithmetic” by Nicomachus from Gerasa was used as the main manual. “Arithmetic” by Diophantus, “Beginnings” by Euclid, “Metrics” by Heron of Alexandria were used as teaching guides. In the study of astronomy as a science of numbers applied to moving objects, Claudius Ptolemy's Almagest was used. His own work "The Four Books" was used as a manual on astrology, which was also included in the teaching program. In the 7th century the textbook of Paul of Alexandria "Introduction to Astrology" became more popular.
Rhetoric played an important role. It was considered a means of development and improvement of the individual. There were no class restrictions on obtaining a rhetorical education, but only those who were able to pay for the rather expensive education in rhetoric schools could master it. The standard of style was Gregory the Theologian, who was placed above other speakers.
Primary schools in the empire functioned not only in cities, but also in rural areas. Higher education could only be obtained in major cities. The main center of education in the state was Constantinople. In 425, by decree of Emperor Theodosius II, a university was established in Constantinople. The number of teachers in it was determined - 31 people, of which 20 were grammarians, 8 orators, 2 teachers of law and 1 philosopher. They were considered state officials and received salaries from the imperial treasury. Theodosius, by means of special state acts, ensured the task of state control over students. Each student was required to provide documentary evidence of the origin, the state of his parents, it was required to indicate the sciences in which he intended to study, the address of residence in Constantinople.
Often the emperors not only assisted in the development of education, but were themselves fond of the sciences. Leo VI the Wise is known as a scholar who wrote a large number of secular and theological works. Caesar Varda founded a school in Magnavra, the leader was appointed the largest scientist of his time, Leo the Mathematician. The school was located in the palace, it taught philosophy, grammar, geometry and astronomy. Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus was distinguished by versatile knowledge. By his order and with direct participation, many encyclopedias (about fifty) were compiled in various branches of knowledge. Emperor Constantine IX Monomakh created two schools: philosophy and law. Imperially attended classes, listened to and took notes of lectures.
Michael Psellos was appointed head of the philosophical school. He began his lectures with Aristotle's "Logic", after which he moved on to his "Metaphysics", and completed the course with an interpretation of the works of Plato, whom he considered the most significant thinker and even put on the same level with Gregory the Theologian.
The patronizing attitude of the emperors to education and science was explained not only and not so much by their love of knowledge, but by practical considerations, since the successful functioning of the Byzantine state apparatus required the presence of literate and educated people in the administrative structure of government.
Education served not to obtain certain knowledge and information, and, in the future, to generate new knowledge, but, first of all, to take a place in the bureaucratic structure corresponding to a certain qualification. Cognitive motivation in Byzantine society was weak, knowledge was not an end in itself, they were subject to the principles of the functioning of the bureaucratic machine.
The high qualification of civil servants for a long time provided the advantage of Byzantium in comparison with Western Europe. Not only the secular, but also the ecclesiastical administration was largely composed of those who had successfully completed school. School graduates, regardless of the social status of their parents, could become officials of the imperial or church office. Parents spared no money in order to pay teachers for their children.
(At the same time, the teachers themselves usually also received a salary from the state.) Theoretically, there was free access to the highest positions of the state apparatus, so everyone who had money for this studied. An extensive bureaucratic apparatus for its successful functioning needed educated and literate people, in connection with which, secular education acquired a special significance. This explains why the Byzantine schools, unlike those in Western Europe, were not subordinate to the church. Of course, along with secular schools, there were also church educational institutions. From the 9th century, for example, there was a theological school (patriarchal academy), the curriculum of which was focused on the interpretation of sacred texts. But students also studied rhetoric and other secular sciences.
Science (as well as other spheres of public life) in Byzantium was subjected to stateization, and organizational and managerial functions were taken over by the bureaucracy. Administrative regulations in the field of science and the production of information become one of the criteria for truth, which must correspond to formal requirements controlled by the bureaucracy. Bureaucratization and state regulation had dual consequences, and, in some cases, contributed to the development of Byzantine science and education, while in other conditions they became an obstacle to their development. Excessive formalization became a characteristic feature of Byzantine science, bureaucratization led to its ossification. The utilitarian attitude to science dominated: its goal was to educate students and process previously acquired knowledge. The prevailing attitude was that scientific wisdom can be found in the ancient past, of which the Byzantines considered themselves direct heirs. As a result, the formalized ancient heritage turned into the cause of stereotypical thinking, which did not give development to original scientific creativity.
The ancient classics, as well as the Bible, made up the totality of necessary knowledge. The basis of knowledge was tradition, which, according to the Byzantines, turned to essence, while experience made it possible to get acquainted only with superficial manifestations of the surrounding world. Experiment and scientific observation were poorly developed. Ideas that could not be confirmed by bookish authority were perceived as rebellious.
Since the XIV century, pressure on the Byzantine Empire of the Ottoman Turks has constantly increased. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople fell. This rainy day marked the end of Byzantium, where for eleven centuries the science of the ancient past was carefully studied and preserved. The political decline of Byzantium led to an active transmission of scientific experience to the West, which became the most important factor that prepared the Western European Renaissance.
Byzantine geographers achieved success: they skillfully drew maps of the country and the seas, plans for city blocks and buildings, which was still unattainable for the West. At the beginning of this stage, scientific creativity did not stop in Byzantium. In the IV century. prominent mathematicians, researchers in the field of astronomy and astrology, as well as optics worked here. Significant advances were made in medicine. Doctor Oribasium(326-403) compiled a medical encyclopedia that included 70 books. It contained extensive extracts from the works of ancient physicians, as well as the author's own conclusions and generalizations.
After the establishment of Christianity as the state religion, the best representatives of science began to be persecuted. Hypatia perished, Oribasius managed to escape with difficulty. Scientific centers were destroyed: in 489, at the insistence of the bishops, the school in Ephesus was closed, in 529 - the school in Athens - one of the largest centers of Greek education. At the end of the IV century. fanatical monks destroyed a significant part of the Alexandrian library. At the same time, church theological schools, and higher ones, were created to spread Christianity.
With the approval of the positions of the church, science becomes theological, which is especially evident in the field of natural sciences. In the middle of the VI century. monk Kosma Indikoplov wrote "Christian Topography" in which he recognized the Ptolemaic system as incorrect and contrary to the Bible. According to Cosmas, the shape of the Earth is a flat quadrilateral, surrounded by the ocean and covered with a vault of heaven, where paradise is located. This work was distributed not only in Byzantium, but also in the West, as well as in Ancient Russia.
In the VI-VII centuries. in Byzantium, alchemy dominated, busy searching for the "divine elixir", with which you can turn any metals into gold, heal various diseases, and restore youth. At the same time, a chemical craft was developed - the manufacture of paints for painting and dyeing fabrics, ceramic products, mosaics and enamels, which were widely used in Byzantine fine arts and the manufacture of fabrics.
Despite the lack of sources, it is known that already at the end of the 7th century. Byzantines invented "greek fire" an incendiary mixture of gunpowder, resin and saltpeter, which had the ability to burn on water. This helped the Byzantines to defeat their enemies in naval battles. "Greek fire" was widely used during the siege of fortresses in the 7th-15th centuries. Byzantine scholar Lev Mathematician improved the light telegraph. Doctor Nikita compiled a collection on surgery (IX century). There were a number of works of a historical nature, in which the social struggle of this period is reflected from the positions of the ruling class.
52 Culture of Byzantium
In the 4th century, after the collapse of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern, a new christian empire- Byzantine (330-1453 years) Its capital was Constantinople, founded by Emperor Constantine on the site of the ancient Greek settlement of Byzantium. Over time, the name of the settlement became the name of a new state. Geographically, Byzantium was located on the border of Europe, Asia and Africa and occupied an area of about 1 million square kilometers. This included the lands of the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrenaica, part of Mesopotamia, Armenia, Crete, Cyprus, part of the lands in the Crimea and the Caucasus, some regions of Arabia The Byzantine Empire existed for more than a thousand years and fell under the onslaught of the Turks in 1453.
The state language in Byzantium in the 4th-6th centuries was Latin, and from the 7th century until the end of the existence of the empire - Greek. A feature of the social system of Byzantium was the stable preservation of the centralized state and the monarchy. Byzantium was a multi-ethnic state, it was inhabited by Greeks, Thracians, Georgians, Armenians, Arabs, Conti, Jews, Illyrians, Slavs and other peoples, but the Greeks predominated.
Byzantine culture originated and developed in the conditions of acute, contradictory processes of the society of that time. The system of the Christian worldview was affirmed in an irreconcilable struggle with the philosophical, ethical, natural-ethical and natural-scientific views of the ancient world. Byzantine culture became a kind of synthesis of late antique and eastern traditions. to Asia and Africa, the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, which also influenced the cultural development of the state
The role of Byzantium in the development of the culture of medieval society was extremely significant. Being the direct heir of the ancient world and the Hellenistic East, Byzantium became the center of a fairly developed and peculiar culture. but it was mostly Christian. At the same time, folk culture also occupies a special place - music, dance, church and theatrical performances, heroic folk epos, humorous creativity, etc. Folk mastery.
Byzantine society treated education and scientific knowledge with respect. In an empire with centralized administration and a developed bureaucracy without good education it was impossible to take a worthy place in society. Traditionally, all sciences were united under the common name "philosophy" (theoretical and practical) Theoretical philosophy included: theology, astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, medicine, music. In practical philosophy, ethics, politics and history Grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, logic, and especially jurisprudence also reached a high level of development.
Started training at primary schools, where they taught to write, read, count, cursive writing and the beginnings of logic The Psalter served as a book for study Such schools were private and paid Often monasteries, church or city communities were forged as burn schools, so education was available to almost all segments of the population Teaching children at churches and monasteries was carried out by clerics and monks, fulfilling their own needs in the cadres of the lower clergy. They continued their studies at grammar schools, where they studied ancient Greek authors and rhetoric - a kind of art of composing and pronouncing their things festively (in honor of Vasilev's victory, the birth of an heir, the conclusion of peace, etc.) Level education and the period of study were determined by practical professional calculations of the hunks.
In the early period, the centers of education and scientific knowledge were Athens, Alexandria, Antioch, Beirut, Gaza. .*nine
* 9: Litavrin GG How the Byzantines lived - M: Aletheia, 2000 - C 197
Education and science in Byzantium had a church-religious character, therefore, the main place in the system of scientific knowledge was occupied by theology The ancient philosophical tradition continued here, and the Byzantine theologians adopted and preserved the richness of thought and the elegance of the dialectic of the Greek philosophers. Theological disputes that took place throughout the empire were aimed at creating a system of Orthodox dogma, at expressing Christian truths in the language of philosophy. Theologians also fought against heresies and supporters of paganism .
Church teachers, the so-called "Great Cappadocians" (Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, Gregory of Nyssa), as well as the Patriarch of Constantinople John Chrysostom in IV - V centuries John of Damascus in the 8th century, in their works, sermons, and letters, they systematized Orthodox theology. The dominance of a religious-dogmatic worldview hampered the development of sciences, especially natural sciences. At the same time, the Byzantines raised that knowledge to a sufficiently high level, resolved theological issues. ontology (the doctrine of being), anthropology and psychology - the doctrine of the origin and evolution of man, his personality, soul and body C VI in an important place in theology is logic (the science of methods of proof and refutation) wang).
Starting from the 10th-11th centuries, two trends can be traced in the development of the theological and philosophical thought of Byzantium. The first showed interest in the inner world and its structure, faith in the possibilities of the human mind. The representative of this trend was Michael Psellos (XI century) - a philosopher, historian, philologist and lawyer his famous work - "Logic" In XII, as a result of the strengthening of materialistic tendencies, attention is paid to the philosophy of Democritus and Epicuraur.
The second trend manifested itself in the works of ascetics and religious mystics, the main attention was focused on inner world man, his improvement in the spirit of the Christian ethics of humility, obedience and inner peace Representatives of such views were the Sinai monk ascetic John of the Ladder (about 525-600), the mystic Simeon the New Theologian (948-1022) and the Archbishop of Thessaloniki Gregory Palamas (about 1297 -1360 years).
In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the rationalist direction in philosophy and science was strengthened. Its bright representatives were Theodore Metochites, Manuel Chrysolf, George Gemist Plifon, Bessarion of Nicaea. In general, Byzantine philosophy relied on the study of ancient philosophical teachings of all schools and directions.
The development of natural sciences, mathematics and astronomy in Byzantium were of applied importance for crafts, navigation, trade, military affairs and agriculture. So, in IX century Leo the Mathematician started algebra, the scientist was the author of many inventions, including light telegraph and various mechanisms.
In cosmography and astronomy, there was a struggle between supporters of ancient systems and those who defended the Christian worldview. The representative of the latter was Kozma Indikoplova (exactly what sailed in India). representations were based on biblical statements that the Earth is a flat quadrilateral, which is surrounded by an ocean and covered with heaven. Astronomical observations were closely connected with astrology.
The Byzantines achieved significant success in medicine. They were familiar with the works Galen and Hippocrates, summarized practical experience and improved diagnostics Possessed knowledge of chemistry, knew how to use ancient recipes in the manufacture of glass, ceramics, mosaic smalt, enamel and paints A wine ahid of the so-called "Greek fire" (a mixture of oil, slaked lime and resin) helped the Byzantines win in naval battles with enemies .
Extensive trade and diplomatic ties contributed to the development of geographical knowledge in Byzantium. Byzantine travelers left valuable geographical information in their pilgrimage works.
The original attraction in the field of agriculture has become encyclopedia "Geoponics" where the experience of farmers was concentrated
Byzantine culture
Periodization of Byzantine culture:
Until the end of the 5th c. - early Byzantine stage (characterized by eclectic culture, a large number of local variants, strong ancient traditions)
End of the 5th - beginning of the 6th - - the formation of culture within the Byzantine Empire, the formation of a kind of "Mediterranean" culture.
The main directions of development of Byzantine culture in 4 - p.p.
Formation of the culture of Byzantium early period relied on the traditions of pre-Christian (Hellenistic) and Christian cultures.
Eclectic culture of Byzantium (a mixture of pre-Christian and Christian elements).
The culture of Byzantium is characterized, first of all, as an urban culture.
Christianity took shape as a qualitatively new structure in the system of culture.
Christianity became the basis for the formation of not only statehood, but also the entire complex of culture. Philosophy, literature, folklore, and the education system were formed on the principles of Christianity. The development of Christianity prompted the formation of new schools of fine arts and architecture.
Christianity is characterized as a complex religious and philosophical system.
In the formation of Christian ideology, two major trends were observed: aristocratic (it was associated with the dominant church, represented state interests, covered the elite strata of society) and plebeian-folk (heresies had a great influence, in social and class terms, this trend was represented by the poorest strata of the population and the poorest monasticism).
The aristocratic current, despite the rigid Christian framework, actively used and promoted the ancient heritage. The second trend included, in addition to the religious component, the ethnic one.
Rather, the ethnic cultures of the local population, characterized by certain local differences. On this, largely folk, basis, many genres of literature are formed (story and chronicle (monastic), church poetry and hagiography).
Historical literature is especially rich. In the 4th - 6th centuries. schools of geographical literature took shape: Antiochian (dogmatic approach, based on Holy Scripture), Cappadocian-Alexandrian (continued the traditions of the Greek geographical school).
Regulatory, normative, subordinating functions are gradually becoming the main function of religion.
Religion has taken on a new emotional coloring. As part of the Christian worship, the traditions of mass spectacles were used with the obligatory participation of all members of society. A counterweight happy holidays ancient culture, in Byzantium new cult traditions are being formed, characterized by splendor, gloominess, the prerogative of individual social and class groups in worship, the use of elements of the Roman imperial cult.
The main qualitative difference is the pessimism of Christian worship, in contrast to the optimism of ancient times. The religious system came to ser. 7th c. to a certain crisis - the iconoclastic movement.
Byzantine culture developed its own musical culture based on religious tradition. The basis for the formation of the tradition was the liturgy and the combination of church and folk music. Specific music can be singled out: state, folk, rural, urban, theatrical, ritual church, etc.
The science
Fields of science: mathematics, astronomy + astrology, medicine, agronomy, philosophy (Neoplatonism), history, geography, alchemy.
● the old centers of science survived (Athens, Berut, Gaza, Alexandria);
● new major scientific centers appeared - Constantinople;
● preserved pre-Roman traditions in scientific knowledge;
● "infusion" of new achievements from the Arabs and Bulgarians.
Philosophy Byzantium is characterized as having a mystical and theistic character.
At the same time, the traditions laid down in Dr. Greece. The most significant was the school of Neoplatonists (Proclus Diadochus, Plotinus, pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite).
There is a formation scientific thought, including philosophical and aesthetic, which is associated with the developed social structure of society and is the prerogative of the elite strata in the period under review; there is a fundamental change in ideas about man, his place in the world, space, society.
A concept is being formed world history based on the Bible (in church historiography).
political thought in the culture of Byzantium is a special integral block of culture.
Political thought was formed on the basis of three components: the traditions of Hellenism, the Roman traditions of statehood and Christianity.
Education system to a greater extent than other spheres of life, preserved the ancient, especially Greek, heritage.
Byzantium inherited classical education with the system of seven liberal arts as its basis. There were elementary, middle and high schools. Higher schools, in turn, were centers of science and art, centers of culture. During the period under review, there has been a change in orientations in the education system. Gradually, they try to reorient education from the principles of ancient culture to a Christian basis.
Development of historical thought in Byzantium.
Historical literature covered short periods of time, the focus was on events contemporary to the authors.
Works of historical literature are written on the basis of contemporary documents, eyewitness accounts, personal experience
Lack of compilability
Limited historical outlook and general historical concept
The strong influence of politics on historical literature
A certain subjectivity
Ideas about cyclical repeating time, borrowed from ancient historians (the creators of the concept - Plato, Aristotle, Neoplatonists), prevailed, circular motion was interpreted as an ideal
The principle of causality is one of the main historical and philosophical principles used by historians (used after Herodotus, Thucydides and Polybius), causal (casual) connections were present both real and mystical
Belief in the omnipotent role of fate, as a result - the substitution of causality by the effect, the search for non-existent mystical reasons etc., the recognition of fatalism as a factor in historical development
The chronological sequence is often replaced by an associative or problematic or associative method of presentation.
In the writings of secular historians of early Byzantium, an indication of the exact time of an event is often replaced by descriptive, vague expressions (associated with the concept of cyclical repeating time)
Eclecticism of the works of Byzantine historians (on the basis of ancient views)
Philosophical views and their presentation constituted a significant part of historical works.
Literature and theater
▬ developed on the basis of the Greek language, and, therefore, Greek literature;
▬ church poetry quickly began to use the folk language for popularization purposes;
▬ form of prose and court romances with quotations from the works of ancient authors; specific court literature developed;
▬ pronounced genre literature (prose, poetry, satire, church canon)
Theatre retained its value.
In the culture of Byzantium, there were also ancient tragedies and comedies and circus arts (jugglers, gymnasts, tamers of horse races, etc.). Circus arts were of great popularity and importance.
Trends in the development of fine arts and architecture.
Applied art.
The heyday of fine arts in the 6th century. AD - the era of Justinian 1 (parallel development in most of the territory of Byzantium).
The problem of the social belonging of art was topical.
art: mosaic, sculpture (sculptural bas-reliefs), carving (ivory), book graphics developed.
Architecture: the development of monumental architecture went in parallel with the spread of Christianity.
During the period of iconoclasm, the spread of plant and zoomorphic motifs in the ornament. In carving - stone carving.
art, as well as the education system, was originally based on the best ancient traditions.
Gradually there was a reorientation in line with Christian ideology. Natural beauty was valued higher than "man-made" beauty. Here one can trace the separation of the spirit and body of a person, divine and earthly, and preference was given to the divine, natural. The works of art created by human hands were a kind of “by-product”, not divine.
The Byzantines, like their predecessors, did not single out for themselves the sphere of the aesthetic.
The ancient biblical motif of God's creation of the world has become the core of a non-rational, aesthetic approach to the perception and transformation of the world, the act of creation in a new Christian tradition. Byzantine culture adopted the fundamental principle of ancient aesthetics - the principle of harmony. In the 4th - 5th centuries.
ancient traditions were still strong in art. By the 6th c. art was imbued with the ideas of Christianity. The basis of the idea of a work of art was not the ancient principle of harmony and tranquility, tranquility, contemplation, but the principle of the struggle of spirit and body, positive and negative forces.
This principle gave works of art a new sound. The basis of the form often remained old (for example, the basilica in architecture)
The spread and strengthening of the Christian cult contributed to the development of applied arts (weaving, jewelry, carving, mosaic art).
Architecture
Byzantine architecture is seen as a successor to the traditions of the ancient world.
Christianity was a new component in art. By the 6th c. radical changes are planned both in art in general and in architecture. Characteristic is the denial of the 6th century.
ancient heritage in art, and, therefore, the use of ancient elements, traditions and principles was either forgotten or veiled.
One of the few adopted from the Hellenistic and Roman cultures was the design of the basilica. The basilica in Byzantium became not only a religious but also a public building.
Basilicas were distinguished by their purpose: judicial, palace, etc.
The basilica became the predominant, in fact mandatory type of temple.
The basilica is built oriented along the west-east axis. The altar part of the Byzantine basilica, unlike earlier times, faces east. The cultural, religious and political community of the territory is a belief in the borrowing of elements and the mutual influence of styles, the exchange of compositional ideas and decorative forms. At the same time, in every region of the Mediterranean, architecture is based on local traditions.
The formation of local features of architecture is facilitated not only by the influence of neighboring cultures and local traditions, but also by such specific points as, for example, the material available for construction.
The most uniform and homogeneous architectural forms were in Rome at that time. The buildings are characterized by the orientation of the building along the west-eastward axis, elongation along the same axis, the axial movement is formed by the construction and the peculiar dynamics of the movement of the naves towards the altar part of the temple.
the type of three-aisled basilica dominates. the proportions of the naves differ from the earlier ones, Roman ones, by a well-pronounced vertical articulation, covered with marble facing or mosaics. Similar features of public architecture were characteristic of North Africa. A special type of architecture is being formed in Syria: cubic forms were relevant in the composition of the temple, less attention was paid to spatial axial dynamics in the horizontal plane, the number of internal supports is reduced, interior the hall takes on a hall appearance, the space of the temple is grouped around the central nave.
Due to such changes, the Syrian temples made a different impression on the incoming. The person was not in a dynamic, moving space, but in a static, calm hall. The architects achieved the effect of rest.
Palaces as architectural monuments were no less important than basilicas.
Typical architectural monuments of the 4th century:
p.pol. 4th c. - Temples-martyrias (Christmas in Bethlehem and Resurrection in Jerusalem)
ser 4 c. - Temple of the Apostles in Constantinople (in plan - a view of a 4-pointed cross)
Temples at imperial residences
In the 5th c. there is a stabilization and typification of techniques and compositions in architecture in connection with the mass construction of temples. The predominant material was plinth. The construction technique was widely used, in which rows of plinths alternated with rows of mortared stone.
Technique came to Constantinople from Asia Minor. End of 5th c. characterized by the rise of architecture. Constantinople gradually turned into a leading artistic center. In addition to the basilicas, the urban architectural ensemble with triple city walls, the imperial palace, the hippodrome, etc. (Constantine's Palace) became an architectural monument of this time.
Painting
Proximity to ancient artistic traditions;
The use of ancient canons of image, construction and organization of space;
Strong local differences (western and eastern parts of the empire);
Formation of a special symbolism different from the previous one;
Along with the common Christian symbolism, “predictive” (predictive) symbolism is being formed.
The earliest paintings are paintings in the catacombs, they belong to the 2nd - 4th centuries.
The murals appeared in parallel with the dominant pre-Christian art and date back to the pre-Byzantine era. They are called the earliest in terms of subject matter.
Fresco painting (baptistery at the Christian prayer house in Dura Europos on the Euphrates) is the earliest experience of Christian monumental fine art. (The exception is the murals in the catacombs).
Works of art from the 4th c. have a church purpose or are included in the circle of Christian symbols.
Culture of Byzantium Serelina 7 - 12 centuries.
Formation of a stable religious system, on the basis of which a stable structure of society with a despotic form of power was formed, relations within society, science, education and administration, art, etc.
The Christian religion has established and substantiated the differences in the culture of the elite of society and the main part of society. This period in the culture of Byzantium is characterized by the presence of an exclusively Christian worldview.
As a result of the strengthening of the church, the number of clergymen and places of worship (especially monasteries) is increasing. At the same time, the tradition of pluralism in personal religious views is preserved, sects (Monophysites and Monophilites) are preserved.
By the end of the period under review, there is an increase in interest in the culture of Antiquity.
Refinement in progress theological system.
John of Damascus criticizes the enemies of orthodoxy (Nestorians, Manicheans, iconoclasts). He systematizes theology, presenting theology as a special system of ideas about God. I. Damaskin tried to eliminate contradictions from church dogmas.
By the 11th century the first higher theological school was opened under the patriarchy, the main subject of which was theology.
Literature characterized by a wide range of phenomena:
- many borrowings (including from ancient monuments);
- works of folk-language literature are widely distributed (for example, based on a cycle of folk songs);
- how the genre of literature arises and spreads the novel (there were already precedents in the culture of Hellenism);
- satirical works directed against the clergy become popular;
- note the interpenetration of different literary genres (epic, novel, hagiography, etc.);
- in the 9th - 10th century.
hagiography is widely developed (processing and rewriting of already existing lives of saints); within the framework of hagiography, poetry develops (poeticization of monasticism, idealization of the life of monks).
In the historical thought of this period, researchers trace typical medieval features:
○ narrative;
○ absence of a literary hero;
○ formation of the image of an ideal sovereign (the image of Equal-to-the-Apostles Constantine the Great);
○ fixation of events in the almost complete absence of descriptions - the eventfulness of works, the popularity of historical chronicles;
Architecture and fine arts
Ideas about beauty, harmony, works of fine art are formed under the influence of the church.
By this time, a system of Christian symbolism of color was taking shape.
- in the 9th - 11th centuries.
Byzantine culture
there is a restoration of old, destroyed during the period of iconoclasm, monuments;
- restore some monuments of monumental painting (for example, the mosaics of the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople);
- book art develops (11th - 12th centuries - the heyday of book business), the metropolitan school of book business is formed;
— many new temples and monasteries are being built;
Treatises on art criticism appear.
The architecture is dominated by the cross-domed composition of the temple (it appeared as early as the 6th century).
In the 9th - 10th centuries. formed its architectural style: the temple was perceived as an image and model of the world. Architectural buildings are richly decorated. One of the widely used building techniques is the patterned brickwork of the walls. In the architectural composition of the temples of this period, a characteristic feature is a large number vertical lines, (researchers talk about a return to ancient Greek traditions).
In architecture, they talk about the formation of local architectural schools different regions(actually Byzantine, North African, etc.)
Introduction.
Byzantine culture
1. Philosophy and education. 4
2. Architecture and music. 5
3. Literature in Byzantium. 7
4. Fresco painting of Byzantium.. 9
6. Icon painting in Byzantium.. 11
7. Development of artistic culture.. 12
Conclusion. sixteen
List of used literature.. 17
Introduction
Historians associate the birth of Byzantine civilization with the founding of its capital city of Constantinople.
The city of Constantinople was founded by Emperor Constantine in 324. And it was founded on the site of the Roman settlement of Byzantium.
In fact, the history of Byzantium as an independent state begins in 395. It was not until the Renaissance that the name "Byzantine civilization" was coined.
Constantinople, which was the center of the founding of the Byzantine civilization, was well located.
The purpose of this work is to analyze the main directions of the culture of Byzantium.
The information base of the work was textbooks on cultural studies, history, etc.
Philosophy and education
Philosophy
The philosophical thought of Byzantium was formed at a time when a religious and philosophical doctrine was created in the Eastern Roman Empire, uniting the teachings of Plato and the concept of the Logos as one of the hypostases of the Trinity and of Christ the God-Man, reconciling the earthly and heavenly. The victory of official Orthodoxy led to the closure of the Alexandrian and Athenian schools by Emperor Justinian I in 1529.
and meant the actual end of secular philosophy. From the end of the 4th century Church literature was firmly established in Byzantium. Based on church canons and Holy Scripture founded Christian doctrine.
The most famous fathers of the Eastern Church are John Chrysostom, Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great, Theodorite of Crete.
This period is characterized by Neoplatonism as the most widespread philosophical doctrine, which combines Stoic, Epicurean, skeptical teachings with an admixture of elements of the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle.
In the V-VI centuries. in Neoplatonism, two branches appear: pre-Christian and later, in which Neoplatonism is the basis of the ideological Christian doctrine. An outstanding representative of this school was Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite. His teaching was improved by Maximus the Confessor and firmly entered the spiritual life of Byzantine society.
The second period of Byzantine philosophy is iconoclasm, whose ideologists were the iconodules John of Damascus and Theodore the Studite.
In the third period, rationalistic philosophical concepts develop, philosophy is declared a science that must investigate the nature of things, bring this knowledge into a system (XI century).
The last period of Byzantine philosophy is characterized by the development of a religious-mystical direction as a reaction to rationalism.
The most famous hesychasm (Gregory Palamas). It is similar to Yoga: cleansing the heart with tears, psychophysical control to achieve unity with God, self-focusing of consciousness.
Education
In the IV-VI centuries. old scientific centers were preserved (Athens, Alexandria, Beirut, Gaza) and new ones arose (Constantinople).
In 1045, the University of Constantinople was founded with two faculties - law and philosophy. Books were copied mainly on parchment and were very expensive. Monasteries and private libraries were repositories of books.
From the end of the 7th century by the ninth century Higher education practically disappeared and was revived only at the end of the century.
2.
architecture and music
Architecture
In the art of Byzantium, refined decorativeness, the desire for magnificent spectacle, conventionality are inextricably linked. artistic language, sharply distinguishing it from antiquity, and deep religiosity.
The Byzantines created an artistic system in which strict norms and canons dominate, and the beauty of the material world is regarded only as a reflection of unearthly, divine beauty. These features were clearly manifested both in architecture and in the visual arts.
The type of the ancient temple was rethought in accordance with the new religious requirements.
Now it served not as a place for storing a statue of a deity, as it was in ancient times, but as a meeting place for believers to participate in the sacrament of communion with a deity and listen to the "word of God." Therefore, the main attention was paid to the organization of the internal space.
The origin of the Byzantine church building should be sought in antiquity: Roman basilicas that served in ancient rome court and commercial buildings, began to be used as churches, and then Christian basilica churches began to be built.
Byzantine basilicas are notable for their simplicity of plan: a semicircular altar apse, covered with a semi-dome (conch), preceded by a transverse nave transept, adjoins the main rectangular volume on the eastern side. Often, a rectangular courtyard adjoins the western side of the basilica, surrounded by a gallery with arcades and having a fountain for ablution in the center.
Arched ceilings are not based on the entablature, as in antiquity, but on pulvan pillows lying on the capitals and evenly distributing the load of the arches on the capitals of the columns.
Inside, in addition to the main, higher nave, there are side naves (there may be three or five of them). Later, the type of cross-domed church was most widely used: a square building in the plan, in the central part of which there were four pillars supporting the dome.
Four vaulted sleeves diverged from the center, forming an equal-ended, so-called Greek cross. Sometimes the basilica was connected with the cross-domed church.
The main temple of the entire Byzantine Empire was the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.
It was built in 632-537. architects Anthimius of Tral and Isidore of Miletus during the time of Emperor Justinian. The giant dome of the temple has a diameter of 30 m. Due to the peculiarities of the construction of the building and the windows cut at the base of the dome, it seems to float in the air. The dome rests on 40 radial arches.
Interior decoration The cathedral was damaged during the Crusades and the invasion of the Turks.
After the defeat of Constantinople, it became the Hagia Sophia mosque. Instead of a cross, it now has a crescent, a sign of the pagan goddesses Hecate and Diana.
Music
Only church music has come down to us. Secular music has survived only in the form of "recitation" of the palace ceremonial and a few melodies. They sang "a cappella" (without accompaniment). Three methods of vocals: solemn reading of gospel texts with singing, singing of psalms and hymns, hallelujah singing.
The oldest document of liturgical singing dates back to the 4th century. Byzantine singing reaches its peak in the Early Middle Ages. With the increase in the splendor of church services in the XIII-XIV centuries. music art flourishes.
At this time, "simple" and "rich" singing are distinguished, in which one syllable was stretched out by a whole musical group or phrase. Byzantine services, liturgical melodies and hymns had a great influence on both Catholic and Russian church services, and formed the basis of Russian church music.
The oldest Russian church singing was of Byzantine origin. Along with the adoption of Christianity in Russia, Byzantine church service performers (Bulgarians and Greeks) appeared.
3. Literature in Byzantium
The influence of Byzantine literature on European literature is very great, its influence on Slavic literature is undeniable. Until the 13th century in Byzantine libraries one could find not only Greek manuscripts, but also their Slavonic translations.
Some works have survived only in Slavic translation, the originals have been lost. Actually Byzantine literature appears in the VI-VII centuries, when the Greek language becomes dominant. monuments folk art have hardly survived to our time. According to Western European scholars, Byzantine literature was considered the "archive of Hellenism", its free character was underestimated, meanwhile Byzantine literature is original, and one can speak of Hellenism as a literary influence on a par with the influence of Arabic, Syriac, Persian, Coptic literature, although Hellenism manifested itself more clearly .
The poetry of hymns is best known to us: Roman the Melodist (6th century), Emperor Justinian, Patriarch Sergius of Constantinople, Patriarch Sofroniy of Jerusalem. The hymns of Roman the Melodist are characterized by their closeness to the psalms in musical and semantic terms (the themes of the Old Testament, the depth and asceticism of music).
Of the thousand hymns he wrote, about 80 have survived. In form, this is a narrative with elements of dialogue, in style - a combination of learning and edification with poetry.
In Byzantine literature, historical narrative in the style of Herodotus is popular.
In the VI century. these are Procopius, Peter Patricius, Agathia, Menander, Protector, and others. The best writers brought up in ancient schools on pagan traditions are Athanasius of Alexandria, Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom.
The influence of the East is observed in the patericons of the 5th-6th centuries. (stories about hermit ascetics). During the period of iconoclasm, the lives of the saints and their twelve-month collections "Cheti-Minei" appear.
Starting from the 9th century, after the iconoclasm, historical chronicles with a church orientation appear. Of particular interest is the chronicle of George Amartol (end of the 9th century) from Adam to 842.
(monastic chronicle with intolerance to iconoclasm and addiction to theology).
Among the literary figures, Patriarch Photius and Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus should be noted. Photius was a highly educated man, and his house was a learned salon. His students were engaged in compiling a dictionary-lexicon. The most outstanding work of Photius is his "Library" or "Multibook" (880 chapters). They contain information about Greek grammarians, orators, philosophers, natural scientists and doctors, about novels, hagiographic works (apocrypha, legends, etc.).
Already by the 6th century, two main types of images of St. George were formed. The first type: a martyr, as a rule, with a cross in his hand, in a chiton, over which a cloak. The second type of image is a warrior in armor, with a weapon: a shield, a sword, a spear in his hands, on foot or on horseback. The Great Martyr George is depicted as a beardless young man, with thick, curly hair reaching to his ears (hair curls are often in the form of circles located one above the other in rows), sometimes with a crown on his head.
The oldest known images of the Great Martyr George date back to the 6th century, and both iconographic types are represented in them.
So, in Bawit (Egypt) on the pillar of the North Church (VI century), St. George is depicted frontally, full-length, in military attire, with a spear in his right hand raised and a sword in a scabbard at his belt; on the northern wall of the Chapel of the XVIII (VI century) there was a chest image of St. George in a medallion - in a cloak, without weapons.
On the encaustic icon of the 6th century from the monastery of the Great Martyr Catherine on Sinai "The Mother of God on the throne with the archangels and the upcoming Theodore and George" both holy warriors are depicted as martyrs - with four terminal crosses in their right hands, dressed in long chlamys and cloaks decorated with large ornaments with tavlions with fibula on the right shoulder.
The same type of depiction of a martyr is presented on a fresco in the monastery of St. Apollonius of Thebaid in Bauite (VI-VII centuries).
In contrast to works of painting, where the image of the Great Martyr George early acquired stable recognizable features, in small plastic art, as early as the 10th century, the images of St. George are very diverse and are recognized by the inscription of the name of this saint (or by the accompanying inscription).
So, on the bronze engraved detail of the belt, St. George is depicted in a short chiton and a magnificent, large-folded cloak in the orant type.
The military successes of the emperors, whose heavenly patron was St. George, made him the most revered saint in the Byzantine Empire already in the 5th - early 6th centuries.
The iconographic type of George the Warrior (height, with a spear in his right hand, leaning on a shield with his left), possibly goes back to the image of a standing emperor, as on Byzantine coins and Molivdovuls, Molivdovul is a lead seal that fastens letters..
Early examples include a molivdovul depicting (on horseback) St. George slaying a serpent.
On molivdovuls of the 10th-12th centuries, St. George is more often represented as a warrior, frontally, bust or full-length, less often as a martyr. Molivdovuls with the image of St. George are accompanied not only by a dedicatory inscription on the back, but also by a prayer appeal both to the Great Martyr George, and to Christ or to the Mother of God.
On the Molivdobules of the Paleologian period, St. George was often depicted full-length, paired with other holy warriors.
Images of St. George firmly established themselves on the coins of the Komnenos, starting from Emperor Alexei I.
The great martyr was usually presented frontally, full-length, along with the emperor, on the sides of the cross, a half-figure of a saint with the corresponding attributes could be minted: a shield, a sword or a spear. The image of George the warrior is also known on the coins of the Palaiologos.
The wide distribution of the image of George the Warrior in Byzantine art in the 11th-12th centuries is evidenced by a number of surviving monuments: a steatite icon of the 11th century, an enamel image on the cover of the binding with the image of the Archangel Michael, a mosaic in the cathedral in Cefalu, Sicily, 1148, a slate icon "Saints George and Demetrius" and many others.
Since the 6th century, St. George has often been depicted together with other martyr soldiers - Theodore the Tyro, Theodore Stratilates, Demetrius of Thessalonica.
Since the 10th century, images of St. George have been known among other holy warriors, for example, “Deesis with holy warriors”. Since the 12th century, icons depicting St. warriors were widespread.
The most stable is the paired image of the Great Martyr George with the Great Martyr Demetrius of Thessalonica. The unification of these saints could also be influenced by the similarity of their appearances: both are young, beardless, with short hair reaching to the ears.
They are depicted both as martyrs and as warriors, on foot or on horseback.
A rare iconographic rendition - George the warrior sitting on a throne - arose no later than the end of the 12th century. The saint is presented frontally, sitting on a throne (throne) and holding a sword in front of him: with his right hand he takes out the sword, with his left he holds the scabbard.
A peculiar literary description of this iconography belongs to the Byzantine poet Manuel Phil (circa 1275 - about 1345), who refers to "the great George the warrior, sitting in front of the city and half drawing his sword from its sheath": "Having stopped the battle in which you expelled the enemy of the soul, again you are in meditation on vacation.
In the monumental painting, St. George could be depicted on the faces of the domed pillars, on the girth arches, in the lower register of the naos, closer to the eastern part of the temple, and also in the narthex.
In the XIV century, the veneration of the holy warriors as a reaction to the hostilities of the Ottoman Turks, who had moved to Europe by that time, increased.
So, in the liturgical texts of the XIV century in the rank of proskomedia (according to the charter of Philotheus Kokkin, 1344-1347), after the prophets and apostles in the list of martyrs, the holy warriors Demetrius, George and Theodore Tiron are the first to be remembered. A significant place is given to the military theme in the monumental painting of churches, especially in the Balkans.
The images of holy warriors are included in the most important compositions of iconography, for example in the Deesis. They are coming to Christ after the Mother of God.
Byzantine culture (page 1 of 3)
Christ and the Mother of God are in royal attire, the upcoming soldiers are in the clothes of nobles.
Images of George the Warrior are included in the portraits of ktitors, where he acts as the patron of earthly rulers.
The iconography of the Great Martyr George on horseback is based on the Late Antique and Byzantine traditions of depicting the triumph of the emperor. There are several options: George the warrior on horseback (without a snake); George the snake fighter "Miracle of the great martyr George about the snake"; George with a lad rescued from captivity "The Miracle of the Great Martyr George with a lad."
In Byzantine art, the image of George the snake fighter is rare.
A number of images of George the warrior on a horse (without a serpent) are also known: with a spear raised up in his right hand and with a shield over his left shoulder, in a cloak fluttering behind his back. Nicephorus Gregory in his Roman History (1204-1359) mentions the image of the great martyr on horseback, which was on the wall of the imperial palace in front of the chapel of the Victorious Mother of God (Nicopeia) in Constantinople.
Pseudo-Kodin in the treatise “On Court Ranks” (not earlier than the middle of the 14th century) indicates that on the feast of the Nativity of Christ, among other military banners, two banners were brought into the emperor’s chamber - with the image of George the horseman and George the serpent fighter.
The story “The Miracle of the Serpent” gained particular fame and independence. It was most widely used in the art of those areas whose culture was closer to folk traditions, especially in Asia Minor, Southern Italy and Ancient Russia.
The composition "Double Miracle" united the two most famous posthumous miracles of the Great Martyr George - "The Miracle of the Serpent" and "The Miracle of the Servant".
St. George is depicted on a horse (jumping, as a rule, from left to right), striking a snake, and behind the saint, on the croup of his horse, is a small figure of a seated youth with a jug in his hand. The text about the miraculous salvation from the captivity of the Paphlagonian youth, already known in the edition of Simeon Metaphrastus (X century), probably arose later than the “Miracle of the Serpent”.
In the visual arts, the combined composition is first found on a Greek icon of 1327 from the church in Alexandroupolis, in monumental painting - on a fresco of the 15th century in the Church of the Great Martyr George in Kremikovtsi in Bulgaria.
The hagiographic cycles of the great martyr George in antiquity and degree of popularity are ahead of the cycles of other warrior-martyrs.
Within the hagiographic cycle of the Great Martyr George, one can single out the themes of torment and miracles, separately during his lifetime and posthumous. Depending on the edition of the text of the life of the saint, there are variants in illustrating the life cycle: the cycle can begin with the plot of the distribution of property to the poor and end with the position of St. George in the coffin.
In monumental painting, the earliest hagiographic cycle is partially preserved in the painting of the St. George's northern chapel of St.
Picturesque scenes from the life could be placed on the facades of temples.
In the XIV century, the life cycle of the great martyr George adorned a number of Serbian churches: the church of St. George of the Dzhurdzhevi Stupovi monastery near Novi Pazar (1282-1283) - above the entrance to the naos there is a grandiose image of St. George on horseback, and on the vaults of the narthex - four scenes from the hagiographic cycle .
One of the most extensive cycles in monumental paintings (20 scenes) is located in the Church of the Great Martyr George in Staro Nagorichino (1317-1318). It is represented by an integral composition, not divided into registers, and occupies the northern and southern walls of the naos. In the Church of Christ Pantocrator of the Dečani Monastery (until 1350), where the cycles of the lives of the saints have a special place, along with St. Nicholas and St. John the Baptist, the Great Martyrs George and Demetrius are glorified as heavenly patrons of the military campaigns of King Dushan.
Often the scene of the martyrdom of St. George (torment on the wheel or beheading) was included in the composition of minologies of Minologies - in this context, images of saints in calendar order.
In the post-Byzantine period, a new image appeared in the iconography of St. George, called Kefalophoros, a saint with a truncated head in his hand.
Traditional depiction: half-length or full-length figure of George the Warrior in a three-quarter turn, in prayer to the Savior (a half-figure in the celestial segment in the upper right corner), in his left hand the Great Martyr George holds a truncated head, in his right - in prayer; in the left hand of the Savior is a scroll with the inscription: “I see you, martyr, and I give you a crown”, with his right hand He places a crown on the head of the saint; next to the Great Martyr George (under the left hand) is a scroll with the inscription: “Do you see what the lawless (people) have done, O Word?
You see the head cut off for Your sake." According to researchers, this iconographic type, known from the icons of the 15th-17th centuries, arose in the 11th-12th centuries.
1) The first period (4th century - the end of the 7th century) - the struggle between Christian and ancient cultures, the formation of Christian theology.
2) The second period (the end of the 7th century - the middle of the 9th century) was a period of cultural decline associated with economic decline and iconoclasm.
3) The third period - (mid. IX-X centuries), a period of cultural upsurge in Constantinople and the provinces.
Byzantine culture.
4) The fourth period (XI century - XII century ..) is the period of the highest flowering of culture, due to urbanization.
5) Fifth period (end of the XII-XIII centuries) - a period of cultural decline, Latin giving, looting in 1204
crusaders.
6) The sixth period (XIV - early XV century) - a new upsurge, the birth of humanism in the conditions of the struggle against reaction: this is limited humanism, not freedom of thought, but the struggle for ancient education.
Christian ideology played a special role in the history of Byzantium.
The aesthetic sphere was actively included in it.
From the point of view of the formation and development of Byzantium, the history of Byzantium is also considered:
First period(approximately from the 4th to the 8th centuries) includes historical facts that prepare and characterize Byzantivism.
First of all, this is an ethnographic revolution. Moreover, if the west of the Roman Empire was completely absorbed by German immigration, then the east managed to adapt to the new ethnic situation. The fight against the Goths and Huns turned out to be not so big losses. Justinian and Heraclius - kings of the 6th and 7th centuries. - were able to organize relations with the Slavs, which gave the empire a certain advantage.
Slavic tribes were located in the western and eastern provinces on free lands, with a guarantee of non-interference in the internal affairs of the community. In fact, these tribes acted as protection.
Second period(VIII-IX centuries) is characterized by a struggle of ideas, expressed in iconoclasm. This movement divided the empire into two camps, in the organization of which the antagonism of nationalities also played an important role.
In 842 representatives of the icon veneration camp won. This marked the victory of the Hellenic and Slavic elements over the eastern, Asian ones.
Third period(end of IX-XI centuries) is characterized by the spread of Byzantivism to South-Eastern Europe.
Largely thanks to Cyril and Methodius, the Slavic peoples entered the environment of the cultural countries of Europe.
The fourth period(late XI - early XIII century) - the struggle of the West with the East, Crusades. The goal of the crusading movements is gradually changing - instead of gaining the Holy Land and weakening the power of Muslims, the leaders come to the idea of conquering Constantinople. Thus, the main goal of the policy of the reigning persons was to ensure a state of balance between elements hostile to the empire.
Therefore, alliances of Christians against Muslims were concluded, then vice versa. In particular, the crusaders were struck by the fact that the Polovtsian and Pecheneg hordes were in the service of the empire. In 1204, the crusaders captured Constantinople and divided the empire among themselves.
Fifth period(XIII - mid-XV century) - Empire of Nicaea (during this period, the main point was the defense of Orthodoxy against Catholic predominance and the fall of the empire from the Turkish conquerors).
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The process of formation of Byzantine culture lasted several centuries, starting from the late ancient era until the 9th-10th centuries. Byzantine art, like the culture of other countries of medieval states, was a complex, but still a single system of cultural values. The changes taking place in one of the spheres of culture immediately affected the other, although general phenomena, the struggle of the old with the new, the emergence of new trends proceeded differently in different branches of culture.
Education
Since the Eastern Roman Empire in the IV-V centuries. was not subjected to barbarian invasions, its old centers of ancient science survived - Athens, Alexandria, Beirut,
Strip; new ones were created. In Byzantium at the beginning of the Middle Ages there were more educated people than in Western Europe. Reading, writing, counting were taught in city schools, the poems of Homer, the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles were studied, although the children of the rich studied in such schools. A commission set up in Constantinople, which included the best experts in Greek and Latin, searched for rare books that were copied for the imperial library. Byzantium became the state in which the first higher school in Europe was opened. It began to function in the 9th century. in Constantinople. A higher medical school was also established here. Even then, medical care for the population of the city was thought out. Each doctor in the capital was assigned a certain area of the city in which he treated the sick.
scientific knowledge
Byzantine geographers achieved success: they skillfully drew maps of the country and the seas, plans for city blocks and buildings, which was still unattainable for the West. At the beginning of this stage, scientific creativity did not stop in Byzantium. In the IV century. prominent mathematicians, researchers in the field of astronomy and astrology, as well as optics worked here. Significant advances were made in medicine. Doctor Oribasium(326-403) compiled a medical encyclopedia that included 70 books. It contained extensive extracts from the works of ancient physicians, as well as the author's own conclusions and generalizations.
After the establishment of Christianity as the state religion, the best representatives of science began to be persecuted. Hypatia perished, Oribasius managed to escape with difficulty. Scientific centers were destroyed: in 489, at the insistence of the bishops, the school in Ephesus was closed, in 529 - the school in Athens - one of the largest centers of Greek education. At the end of the IV century. fanatical monks destroyed a significant part of the Alexandrian library. At the same time, church theological schools, and higher ones, were created to spread Christianity.
With the approval of the positions of the church, science becomes theological, which is especially evident in the field of natural sciences. In the middle of the VI century. monk Kosma Indikoplov wrote "Christian Topography" in which he recognized the Ptolemaic system as incorrect and contrary to the Bible. According to Cosmas, the shape of the Earth is a flat quadrilateral, surrounded by the ocean and covered with a vault of heaven, where paradise is located. This work was distributed not only in Byzantium, but also in the West, as well as in Ancient Russia.
In the VI-VII centuries. Byzantium was dominated by alchemy, busy searching for the "divine elixir", with the help of which any metals can be turned into gold, heal various diseases, restore youth. At the same time, a chemical craft was developed - the manufacture of paints for painting and dyeing fabrics, ceramic products, mosaics and enamels, which were widely used in Byzantine fine arts and the manufacture of fabrics.
Most of the medical writings of this period attempted to combine medicine with theology. Only a few physicians continued to defend the achievements of ancient science and generalized their own practice. Among them Alexander Trallsky, studied pathology and therapy of internal diseases. His works were subsequently translated into Latin, Syriac, Arabic and Hebrew. Pavel Eginsky- the compiler of a large encyclopedia, which later enjoyed authority among the Arabs, primarily in surgery and obstetrics.
Despite the lack of sources, it is known that already at the end of the 7th century. Byzantines invented "greek fire"- an incendiary mixture of gunpowder, resin and saltpeter, which had the ability to burn on water. This helped the Byzantines to defeat their enemies in naval battles. "Greek fire" was widely used during the siege of fortresses in the 7th-15th centuries. Byzantine scholar Lev Mathematician improved the light telegraph. Doctor Nikita compiled a collection on surgery (IX century). There were a number of works of a historical nature, in which the social struggle of this period is reflected from the positions of the ruling class.
In the ninth century in Constantinople, the highest secular school, closed in the 7th century, was restored.