Russian culture of the xv xvii centuries. Medieval Russian culture (XV-XVII centuries)

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At the end of the 15th-16th centuries, Russian culture sums up the results of the outgoing Middle Ages, traditionally looks back at the past century, forms the basis for such innovations that will transform Russian culture in the 17th century and radically change at the end of the 17th-18th centuries.

The roots of many changes in culture by the 15th-16th centuries should be sought in the resolutions of the Stoglavy Cathedral, convened at the beginning of 1551. The tome of his decisions contains 100 chapters. Hence the name of the cathedral, as well as the book "Stoglav" itself. The cathedral legitimized many innovations that had appeared by that time in medieval traditional Russian culture, and announced a trend towards the unification of culture. The Council discussed issues of monastic land ownership, disorder in worship, violation of the ethics of behavior by clergy and monks in monasteries. The council raised the problem that "divine books are written by scribes from incorrect translations", i.e. imperfections of the handwritten method of reproduction of books, which led to distortions of the canonical text. There was a special chapter in it "On book schools in all cities." By the decision of the council, "Orthodox peasants" were to send "their children to the teaching of literacy and the teaching of book writing," and in the homes of "good priests and clerks" "set up a school." School education had to take on a broader character. In the chapter "On Divine Books," the Stoglavy Council emphasized two issues: the malfunction of existing books and the need to revise their content. He considered the cathedral and issues of icon painting, features of church decoration ("On Icon Painters and Honest Icons"). The resolutions of the council paid much attention to the unification of church rituals, resolutely advocated the eradication of pagan "demonic", "Hellenic" customs: mermaids, caroling, buffoons and the buzz of "goosemen", which in those days accompanied Christian holidays with their music.

The cathedral legitimized all the innovations of artistic culture, and on the other hand, it declared the obligatory adherence of artists, architects to the canons of the previous era: "paint icons for icon painters from ancient translations ... but from your own plan nothing can be done."

On the crest of new requirements for liturgical books, the need to "learn to read and write", there is a need for special printing printing of books.

In the 50s of the 16th century, the first Russian printing house appeared in Moscow, founded in the house of the priest Sylvester, a minister of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin and one of the leaders of the "Chosen Rada" - the council under the then young 20-year-old Ivan IV the Terrible. In 1560 - 1561 the question of organizing a state printing house was raised.

At the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, the literacy of the population of Russia grew intensively. The statistics of counting inscriptions on documents from the beginning of the 16th century determines the number of literate nobles and boyars - more than 65%, townspeople - 25 - 40%. Priests held the primacy, clerks were the most literate. There is an interest in foreign languages. In ancient Russian schools of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries, only primary education was carried out: they taught reading, writing, read the "Psalter" "and other divine books." Great importance was attached to singing, which is mentioned along with reading and writing. Mathematical knowledge deepened. The creation of the first arithmetic and manuals on geometry dates back to the second half of the 16th century.

The literature of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries has a pronounced journalistic character. This is a time of reflection, reflection and debate about the future of the country. Tsar Ivan the Terrible himself manifests himself as a passionate publicist. He discovers different aspects of literary talent - sarcasm in letters to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery and to Vasily Gryazny, who was languishing in captivity, eloquence and intemperance - in letters to Kurbsky, Ostrozhsky.

The narrative of literature, the interest in factography, rhetoric, and etiquette official splendor are growing. In the general artistic process, the centripetal forces of the gradual formation of a single literary space begin to prevail. The state "discipline" and the unification of the "book business" intensify the identification and emergence of the national features of Russian literature.

The growth of national self-consciousness caused an increased interest in the historical past, as well as the desire to understand the history of the Russian state within the framework of world history. Since the end of the 15th century, a number of new chronicles appeared in Moscow, socially Russian in nature, the compilers of which sought to historically prove the succession of the power of the Moscow princes from the princes of Kievan Rus. A new rise in Russian chronicle writing begins in the 30s of the 16th century, when grandiose multi-volume codes are gradually created one after another. The chronicle is becoming more and more a literary work, losing the significance of a historical document. She comprehends the events of Russian and world history, gives instructive patriotic reading, educating citizens in the appropriate spirit.

Class: 10

Presentation for the lesson

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The purpose of the lesson: to reveal the features of the development of Russian culture in the late XV-XVII centuries.

Lesson objectives:

• Educational. As a result of the lesson: students will get acquainted with the achievements of Russian culture of the late XV-XVII centuries; identify and characterize the features of the cultural upsurge of the period under study;
• Educational. Students learn: to improve skills: independent work, selection of material on a given topic; work with documents and the text of the textbook; to formulate one's own point of view; argue and defend their views; improve the skills of systematizing the material covered: drawing up tables, diagrams; develop creative (aesthetic, artistic) abilities.
• Educational. Students: continue to develop their communication skills in the process of collective, group work; develop a sense of respect for the cultural past of their country; convinced of the need to protect cultural monuments.

Lesson learning a new topic. The form of the lesson is a virtual tour. Accompanied by a multimedia presentation.

I.Organizational moment.(slides 1,2)

II. Preparation for the main stage of mastering the educational material.

Message about the topic and purpose of the lesson.

III. Assimilation of new knowledge.

Teacher: (slide 3) Monuments of history are silent. For centuries they keep their secrets from those who do not know how to listen and peer into the past. But to the inquisitive and thoughtful, they will tell a lot. Today's lesson we will spend in the virtual museum of culture. Welcome to the first room called "Architecture".

Speech by the first group of student guides "Architecture"

Tour guide 1. (slide 4) Architecture in Russia was temple, fortress and civil. History has preserved to this day some of the cult monuments of the late XV-XVII centuries. One of the outstanding monuments fortress architecture (slide 5) This period was the Kremlin, which turned the city into an impregnable fortress. By the 17th century, there were already hundreds of buildings in the Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin was turning into a world famous, unique architectural ensemble, a symbol of the strength and unity of the Russian land. So let's take a look there!

Tour guide 2. The main square of the Kremlin is Cathedral. (slide 6) Its ideological and architectural center was Uspensky the cathedral, built by the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti, “is wonderful in majesty and height, lordship. And ringing. And space,” the chronicler informs us. The cathedral became the center of Russian statehood and church life, Russian tsars and emperors were crowned here, the most important state acts were proclaimed, metropolitans and patriarchs were appointed to the rank.

Blagoveshchensky cathedral first, 3 chapters were crowned, then single-domed chapels were added at the corners of the cathedral. Pointed 9 chapters were richly gilded. Why is the cathedral nicknamed "Golden-Domed". Church provisions, which became the home church of the Metropolitan, and then the Patriarch of All Russia.

Built by Italian Aleviz Fryazin Arkhangelsk Cathedral, which became the family burial place of the family of the Grand Dukes. In the 17th century, the Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles was built.

And between the Assumption and the Archangel Cathedrals, Bon Fryazin created a new bell tower. Clearly visible from all parts of the city and famous for its ringing, the Ivanovskaya bell tower was named Ivan the Great. Architects Petrok Maly Bazhen Ogurtsov added to the bell tower. All three belfries formed an unusually expressive architectural complex and gave Cathedral Square a special solemnity.

Tour guide 3. (slide 7) The French composer Hector Berlioz, who visited Kolomenskoye in the middle of the 19th century, wrote: “I saw a lot, admired a lot, amazed me, but the time, the ancient time in Russia, which left its mark on this village, was for me a miracle of miracles ... I saw some new kind of architecture. I saw the aspiration upward, and for a long time I stood stunned. So he spoke about the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye in honor of the birth of Ivan IV. And the new kind of architecture, which he admires, tent. The multifaceted lancet base of the temple ends with triple pointed kokoshniks. And above them rises a stone tent, crowning the whole building. The edges of the tent are intertwined with narrow stone garlands, similar to strings of precious pearls. And its top is covered with a small neat dome with a gilded cross.

And the oldest of the surviving tent temples of wooden architecture is St. Nicholas Church in the village of Lyavlya Arkhangelskaya areas. The tent style was recognized by Russian architects. The architects achieved an extraordinary diversity, and not a single tent temple repeated the other.

Tour guide 4. (slide 8) Completed with a tent with a small cupola, the central temple of the Intercession Cathedral - the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin on Red Square in memory of the capture of Kazan. Consists of 8 asymmetric different-sized pillar-shaped temples. Each is dedicated to eight days in which the most important events of the campaign against Kazan took place.

In the decoration of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Putinki, four decorative tents were used at once. By the way, this church became the last monument of tent architecture in Moscow. in 1652, Patriarch Nikon "do not build tent churches at all."

Tour guide 1. 17th century brought with him new artistic trends. The architecture became more and more elegant, the churches sometimes resembled fabulous towers. (slide 9) Appeared longline, cubed And many-headed temples. So the decorative, picturesque style came into architecture. The forms of buildings became more complicated, their walls were covered with multi-colored ornaments, white-stone carvings.

Tour guide 2. By the end of the century, the style of Moscow, or Naryshkin, baroque, magnificent and majestic, ceremonial and exceptionally elegant. (slide 10) The most famous building of the late 17th century is the Church of the Intercession of the Virgin in Fili - the estate church of Naryshkin L.K.

Tour guide 3. There is a rise civil architecture. (slide 11) A true masterpiece of Russian architecture - Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin. The architects used a tiered-step alternation of volumes, picturesque asymmetry of outbuildings, pointed roofs. The pomp and elegance of the facades were given by window frames decorated with floral ornaments, as well as relief blades and cornices with tiles.

A unique creation of Russian architecture of the XVII century. was woodenpalace in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow. Seven choirs on two or three floors. They were crowned with roofs of various shapes. The palace had 3,000 windows decorated with various architraves. A protruding carved porch led to each entrance.

Tour guide 4. (slide 12) Palaces, administrative buildings, towers, residential buildings, gostiny yards were erected. The picturesque composition of log cabins with numerous protruding porches and bright tinting made a festive impression.

So, (slide 13) at the end of the 15th-17th centuries, the following directions were developed: temple, fortress, civil. Features of the development of architecture: styles of architecture - tent, baroque.

Teacher: (slide 3) The talents of the Russian people extend not only to wooden or white stone architecture. Painting is no exception. The exposition presents to your attention a collection of paintings of the XV-XVII centuries.

Speech by the second group of student guides

Tour guide 1. (slide 14) The main idea of ​​art was serving the Lord. The leading direction in painting, of course, ecclesiastical. The heyday of icon painting is the 15th century, the peaks of its creation are associated with the names of Andrei Rublev, Dainiil Cherny. Russian painting of the middle of the 15th century ceased to be the specialty of monks alone, and the artist-layman was replacing the artist-monk. The most prominent representative of the Rublevsky trend in the art of the second half of the 15th - early 16th century was Dionysius. A feature of his style is the writing of hagiographic icons, consisting of a centerpiece with a figure and a number of hallmarks, which tells about their life. The icons of Dionysius are bright and spacious, he decorated them with architectural and landscape sketches.

Tour guide 2. (slide 15) The pinnacle of Dionysius' creativity are frescoes in the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Ferapontov Monastery. They have their own originality: he depicted martyrs, angels, Christ, evangelists, “The Last Judgment”. Dionysius creates a painting glorifying the Mother of God. Mary is glorified as the intercessor of the human race. The whole painting permeates the mood of festivity, elegance, bright joy. The works are distinguished by a sophisticated pattern, exquisite and delicate color.

Tour guide 3. (slide 16) In the XVI century. painting began to expand. Artists turn to the plots and images of the Old Testament, to the legendary-historical genre. The government of Ivan the Terrible attached great importance to the exaltation of their political ideas in art. This is evidenced by an icon - a 4-meter painting “Blessed is the army of the heavenly king”, dedicated to the capture of Kazan. It depicts the solemn procession of the victorious Russian army, led by Ivan the Terrible, from the city engulfed in flames.

Tour guide 4. 17th century... Painting loses its integrity. Artists show interest in the real, earthly world. The murals of that time resemble elegant carpets. There are many real characters and everyday details in them. Unlike ancient icons, they do not contain deep thoughts of the artist about good and evil, about the fate of people and the meaning of life.

Two directions have emerged. (slide 17) Godunovskaya school (icon painters worked on orders from Tsar Boris and his relatives. They were opposed to any innovations and imitated the manner of the great Rublev and Dionysius). Second direction - Stroganovskaya school. (by order of merchants Stroganovs, lovers of icon miniatures). Artists diligently decorated icon-painting images with small decorative details, rich ornamentation, and exquisite calligraphy. One of the most famous masters of this school was Procopius Chirin. ("Nikita the Warrior"). "Stroganovites" had no equal in the ability to convey landscape panoramas that had not previously been seen in Russian icon painting (the icon "John the Baptist in the Desert").

Tour guide 1. The painter and graphic artist Simon Ushakov strove for a true reflection of real things, among the works of Ushakov there are icons of a special kind - political paintings - “Planting the tree of the Russian state”: the Moscow Kremlin is depicted, in the center is the Assumption Cathedral. Ivan Kalita is planting a tree near him. Against the background of the foliage of the tree is the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, on the branches are medallions with portraits of Moscow saints and sovereigns. Simon Ushakov is one of the founders of the Russian portrait. In the 17th century they were called parsuns.

Mural painter Gury Nikitin. He painted the walls of the church of Elijah the Prophet in Yaroslavl. In the frescoes, insignificant vital details of the biblical text are emphasized, religious spirituality disappears, giving way to a masterfully written colorful "story". (harvest scene from the Acts of the Prophet Elisha). Thus, since the 17th century, Old Russian icon painting ceased to exist as a dominant artistic system.

Tour guide 2. Features of realism are also noticeable in the portrait genre. If the parsunas (portraits) of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky are made in the usual manner, then the images of the middle and second half of the 17th century. they talk about the desire for portrait resemblance, realistic writing. Such are the portraits of Tsars Alexei Mikhailovich (S. Loputsky), Fyodor Alekseevich (I. Bogdanov), Patriarch Nikon (I. Deterson and D. Vouters). Realistic landscapes appear on the icons.

Tour guide 3. (slide 18) The art of decorating the book played no less a role and was no less original than the iconography. The main elements of book decoration are miniatures, headpieces and initials. Painters mainly created miniatures related to spiritual, religious themes. Screensaver: in the XV-XVI centuries. splash screens get distributed - book ornament. These are the Balkan and Neo-Byzantine styles, then the early printed ones. Initials often turned into complex drawings depicting outlandish animals, birds, monsters, fighting warriors, buffoons.

Tour guide 4. (slide 19) Thus, at the end of the 15th to the 17th century, the main trends in painting were the church and decoration of the book. As well as features of painting. ( slide)

Teacher: (slide 3) The 16th century is the era of the formation of a new state, reforms of local and central government. They demanded more and more literate people. Welcome to the next room.

Tour guide 1. (slide 20) In 1563, Tsar Ivan IV ordered "arrange a house from your royal treasury, where the printing business is being built", to "henceforth the holy books were laid down righteous". This house, later called the Printing House, was founded near the Nikolsky Monastery. Found on the land of Moscow their own "some cunning masters of printing"- Ivana Fedorov and Pyotr Timofeev Mstislavets. FROM "Acts and Epistles of the Apostles," published on March 1, 1564, the book publishing activity of the Russian state began. The second book of the Printing House was watchmaker(1565): This is both a prayer book and a literacy book. The format of the publication is in the eighth part of the sheet. Pages are decorated with elegant headpieces. IN 1568. The Printing Yard released Psalter. It was prepared by Nikifor Tarasiev and Nevezha Timofeev.

Tour guide 2. In 1649, the first book appeared in Moscow with illustrations made using the intaglio engraving method. It was "Teaching and cunning of the military structure of infantry people." It contained 35 engraved tables.

Tour guide 3. The first library appeared in 1679, called Typographical, in which books and manuscripts were handed over. The standard editions with corrections and notes of references for future editions were also stored there. Gradually, the library grew so much that in 1670 a special position of bookkeeper was introduced.

(slide 24) So, the genres of secular literature: stories, legends, journalism, travel notes, "Chronograph". Features: satirical stories and legends, new genres are born - a secular story-drama, poems with their everyday, satirical, love motives

Tour guide 1. . (slide 25) The origins of the theater go to folk art, and above all to rituals. The rituals were a kind of performance game. This game element was picked up and developed by the first professional artists in Russia - buffoons . Civil authorities (especially church authorities) fought buffoons. By decree of 1648, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich banned the performances of buffoons.

The special form of theater was on thenative drama ( dramas "Tsar Maximilian", "Boat". "Comedy about the master"). Another form - church theatre, performances which took place on church holidays. (Christmas dramatization "Stove action").

Tour guide 2. . Interest in theatrical art arose from Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.

There is reason to believe that the final decision of Alexei Mikhailovich to create a theater arose on May 30, 1672, during a feast in honor of the birth of his son Peter. The decree to "make a comedy" is dated June 4 of the same year. A person capable of writing a play and staging a play in Moscow was found in the German Sloboda, where foreigners who worked in Russia lived - Johann Gottfried Gregory, pastor of the local Lutheran church, and a corpse of 60 foreigners. The matter was taken seriously: at the same time a play was being written and a theater building was being built.

Tour guide 3. . The first play of the Russian theater It was called "Artaxerxes Action", after the name of the king, about whom the biblical legend tells. The premiere was played on October 17, 1672 in the "comedy mansion" in the village of Preobrazhensky in one of the summer royal palaces. The king was very pleased with the "fun" and generously rewarded its author. Theatrical performances became regular at the court. A stage was also built in the Kremlin and, in addition to the “Action of Artaxerxes”, the plays “Judith”, “Temir-Aksakovo Action”, “Little Cool (entertainment) comedy about Joseph”, “The lamentable comedy about Adam and Eve”. Soon, Russian people were sent to study with Gregory.

After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, performances in the royal chambers ceased, because the new tsar, Fedor Alekseevich, did not like such spectacles. But the idea of ​​theater did not die. A long process of development of the Russian scene began.

Teacher: Our Nizhny Novgorod region is rich in cultural monuments of this period. We invite you to the hall "Culture of the Nizhny Novgorod region of the 15th-17th centuries." Appendix 2 , Presentation 2 .

IV. Summing up the lesson.

V. Information about homework.

Composition-essay "Russian culture of the late XV-XVII centuries."

Russian culture of the 16th century mainly developed on the basis of domestic traditions of the previous period. Russian medieval culture had a number of features of its formation; it was not only a regional version of European culture. The roots of the specifics of Russian culture of the XVI century. in that it was based on Orthodoxy.

Russian literature of the 16th century. Literature has been developed mainly within the traditional Russian genres.

chronicle genre

In the first half of the XVI century. Several well-known chronicles were created that told about Russian history from ancient times. In particular, the Nikon and Resurrection chronicles, the Book of Powers, the Facial Code.

Publicism

16th century - the time of the birth of Russian journalism. It is believed that in the works of Fyodor Karpov, Ivan Peresvetov, the first, albeit timid, signs of rationalism are already visible, but already freed from the strict canons of the religious worldview. Among the publicists of the 16th century are also Maxim the Greek, Yermolai Eraz-ma, Prince Andrei Kurbsky.

He is considered one of the most distinctive, undeniably gifted writers of his era. In his letters to Andrei Kurbsky, Ivan the Terrible proved the need for Russia to have a despotic monarchy - such an order when all state subjects, without exception, are in fact servants of the sovereign. Kurbsky, on the other hand, defended the idea of ​​centralizing the state in the spirit of the decisions of the Chosen Rada and believed that the tsar must reckon with the rights of his subjects. In the middle of the XVI century. under the leadership of Metropolitan Macarius, a collection of books of different genres was created, which were intended for reading (not worship) in the appointed months and days of veneration of the saints. At the same time, with the participation of Sylvester, typography was created.

In the XVI century. book printing began in the Russian lands. The first Russian book, The Apostle, was published in 1517 in Prague by Francis Skorina. In Russia, the beginning of book printing dates back to the middle of the 16th century. In 1564, clerk Ivan Fedorov, together with Peter Mstislavets, published the first printed book. In 1574 Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian primer in Lvov. At the same time, until the XVIII century. handwritten books dominated in Russia.

Architecture

In the architecture of the XVI century. national motives became very noticeable. This was due to the spread in the 16th century of the tent style, which came to stone construction from wooden architecture. The most famous works of architecture of that time were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532), as well as St. Basil's Cathedral, built on Red Square in Moscow by Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan (1561).

In the XVI century. military fortifications are being intensively erected. The walls of Kitay-Gorod were added to the Moscow Kremlin. Kremlins are being built in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna and other cities. The author of the powerful Kremlin in Smolensk was the outstanding architect Fyodor Kon. He was also the architect of the stone fortifications of the White City in Moscow (along the current Boulevard Ring). To protect the southern borders from the Crimean raids in the middle of the XVI century. built the Zasechnaya line, which passed through Tula and Ryazan. In the 17th century in Russian culture, not only religious, but also secular elements (secularization of culture) are widely used. The church, which saw Western influence in this process, actively resisted it with the support of the tsarist government, but new ideas and customs penetrated the established life of Muscovite Russia. The country needed knowledgeable, educated people who were able to engage in diplomacy, understand the innovations of military affairs, technology, and manufactory production. The reunification of Ukraine with Russia contributed to the expansion of political and cultural ties with the countries of Western Europe.

In the second half of the XVII century. several public schools were established. Thanks to the invention of the printing press, it became possible to publish in mass circulation uniform manuals for teaching literacy and arithmetic, among which was the first "Grammar" by Melety Smotrytsky.

In 1687, the first higher educational institution was founded in Moscow -

Russian explorers made a great contribution to the development of geographical knowledge, for example, Semyon Dezhnev, who went to the strait between Asia and North America, or Erofey Khabarov, who compiled a map of the Amur lands. The central place in the historical literature was occupied by historical novels that had a journalistic character, such as "The Time of the Deacon Ivan Timofeev", "The Tale of Avraamy Palitsyn", "Another Tale". The genre of a satirical story, memoirs (“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”) and love lyrics (books by Simeon of Polotsk) appear.

In 1672, a court theater was created in Moscow, in which German actors played. The “secularization” of art manifested itself with particular force in Russian painting. The greatest artist of the 17th century was Simon Ushakov. In his icon “The Savior Not Made by Hands”, new realistic features of painting are already noticeable: three-dimensionality in the depiction of the face, elements of direct perspective. Portrait painting is spreading - "parsuns", which depicted real characters, albeit in a technique similar to icon painting.

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In the XIV-XV centuries, a centralized state with its capital in Moscow was formed in the north-east of Russia. If in the West at this time society is freed from the influence of the church, then in Moscow, on the contrary, this influence is increasing, having a great impact on the life of the state and the daily life of people. Religious asceticism in the name of Christ and society has become a social ideal. Saint Sergius of Radonezh and Prince Dmitry Donskoy became the spiritual symbols of Moscow. Therefore, the medieval culture of Russia is of a religious nature.

Since 1547, from the wedding of Ivan IV to the kingdom, Russia began to be called Russia. In 1480, Moscow's dependence on the Golden Horde was eliminated. But the influence of the culture of the eastern type on the Russian lands has not weakened. Ivan IV did not accept the European type of secular state. His ideal is an unlimited monarchy, where power is sanctioned by the church. The oprichnina served this purpose. It was the most culturally and psychologically unique event in the history of Muscovite Russia. Oprichnina is a political system unique in world practice, atypical for Russia. The new power was based on the right of strength, and not on blood, moral or spiritual superiority.

A great event in the culture of the 16th century was the emergence of Russian book printing. Its beginning is considered to be 1564, when the first dated book "Apostle" was published. It was published by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. Over the entire century, 20 books were printed, so the handwritten book will still occupy a leading place in a hundred years.

There was a process of accumulation of theoretical and practical knowledge. Fortifications, temples, churches were built, for which strict mathematical calculations were required. The first manuals on mathematics and geometry were written. Technique developed. The Russians were the first to invent rigs for drilling wells in the extraction of salt. Outstanding hydraulic structures were created in the Solovetsky Monastery. A canal system connected dozens of lakes. Mills, hammers were driven by water, a stone dam with numerous bridges connected the islands.

Icon-painting receives special development. Its heyday falls on the XIV-XV centuries, it begins in Novgorod. Theophanes the Greek, invited from Byzantium, worked here. He painted the Church of the Savior on Ilyin. The Greek is a brilliant colorist, fluent in the technique of writing and the skill of tonal painting. His images were distinguished by special expressiveness, dynamics, sincerity, impulse. Together with Andrei Rublev, he painted the iconostasis of the Cathedral of the Annunciation in Moscow. The highest rise of Russian icon art is associated with the work of the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev. He worked at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. The famous "Trinity", which has become one of the pinnacles of world art, embodied the main features and principles of Rublev's painting style. The art of medieval Russia was religious in nature, like all culture.

The history of medieval Russian culture ended in the 17th century. Elements of the culture of the new time were born. It was characterized by the process of formation of secular culture. In literature, this manifested itself in the formation of a democratic, secular trend; in architecture - in the convergence of the appearance of religious and civil buildings; in science - in the growth of interest in the generalization of practical experience; in painting - in the destruction of iconographic canons and the emergence of realistic tendencies. The complication of urban life, the growth of the state apparatus, the development of international relations made new demands on education. The literacy rate in the 17th century increased significantly and in various strata was: among landowners - 65%, merchants - 96%, peasants - 15%. In the middle of the 17th century, state and private schools were created, where they studied foreign languages ​​and other subjects. In 1687, the first higher educational institution in Russia, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, was opened in Moscow to train the higher clergy and civil service officials. It was led by the Greek brothers Likhud, who graduated from the University of Padua in Italy. Representatives of various classes and nationalities studied here. Handwritten textbooks, self-instruction books appeared, books on mathematics were printed.

In the practice of the 17th century, knowledge in the field of mechanics was widely used (in construction, at the first manufactories). Significant changes have taken place in medicine. Folk healing continues to develop, the foundations of state medicine are being laid. The first pharmacies and hospitals were opened. There have also been changes in the humanities. The stratum of consumers and authors of historical writings has grown. In the 17th century, the old forms of historical writings (chronicles, chronographs) gradually lose their significance and disappear. New types of writings appear, in which more developed psychological characteristics of the rulers of Russia are given, broader pictures of the historical past are created. This is the "Synopsis" of I. Gizel - the first textbook of Russian history.

4. Age of Enlightenment in Russia. The meaning and essence of the reforms of Peter I in the field of culture.

The 18th century opens a new stage in the development of Russian culture. This period is characterized by the formation of national schools in art (painting, music, architecture), which indicates the active formation of national culture. A distinctive feature of the new culture was secularism, especially in the artistic sphere, and openness to contacts with other peoples. In the 18th century, the ideological and artistic life of society became more complicated, the government for the first time pursued a targeted policy in the field of education and enlightenment. The city becomes the center of a new culture, where such socio-cultural institutions as schools, museums, theaters, and libraries arise.

The beginning of the 18th century was marked by the reforms of Peter I, which were designed to bridge the gap in the level of development of Russia and Europe. The reforms affected almost all spheres of society. Their content was the decisive shift from the Middle Ages to the modern times and the Europeanization of all areas of life:

1. There was a breakdown of the old state institutions, replacing them with new ones, a modern administrative and bureaucratic apparatus was taking shape: Peter created collegiums, prototypes of modern ministries, instead of the Boyar Duma, he created the highest advisory body under the sovereign - the Senate, which includes 9 people. When appointing to the Senate, only business qualities were taken into account. A new class of society is also emerging, which determined the cultural image of Russia for 200 years: the nobility received privileges for public service and duties to the Fatherland - activities for the good of the Motherland in the military, diplomatic or bureaucratic spheres.

2. An important place in the transformations of Peter I was occupied by church reform, as a result of which the previously relatively independent church was under the rule of the state. By the end of the 17th century, the church gained material wealth and even power (it owned huge lands with assigned peasants), but ceased to be the bearer of Orthodox principles in the state: rudeness, money-grubbing, ignorance reigned among the priests; monasteries lost their educational value. In addition, the church was against changes in the camp. Therefore, Peter I carried out secularization (reducing the power of the church over society). The church gradually submits to the state, and the clergy turns into an estate with state duties and tasks. So, during sermons, priests had to defend the reforms being carried out by the government, help in the search for unreliable persons, violate the secrecy of confession (under pain of the death penalty!), If the believer was plotting treason, an attempt on the king, etc. The abolition of the patriarchal government of the church and the creation of the Holy Synod (a body consisting of the most respected and eminent representatives of the clergy) finally approved the subordinate position of the church in Russia. The synod reported directly to the sovereign, who concentrated both secular and spiritual power in his hands.

3. Replacing folk rituals and traditions with secular ones, including in the field of fashion, forms of communication, and household rules. These changes affected, first of all, the upper stratum of society. So, after several centuries of seclusion, Russian women became hostesses of balls and evenings, got acquainted with European art, put on foreign dresses.

4. The most significant were the reforms in the field of education. A system of secular schools is being created. Pushkar, navigation and medical schools were founded in Moscow. A naval and engineering academy and a school of translators were established in St. Petersburg. In addition to the state, vocational school, private, general education schools are emerging, and the practice of teaching young people abroad is spreading. The disadvantage of the emerging education system was that the peasants were not accepted into these schools. Teaching was equated with service, students received fodder money (stipend). The more a young man advanced in training, the more he received. There was a death penalty for running away from school. The Petrovsky school was created as a professional, technical school, which set as its goal the training of personnel in those areas that the state needed at this stage. Peter himself knew 14 professions: scorer (artilleryman), carpenter, sailor, blacksmith, dentist, etc. By the end of Peter's reign, almost every major city had two schools: the spiritual (for the children of the clergy) and the secular (for clerks and soldiers). In noble families, home schooling predominates. Education in Russia acquires a class character, higher education is gradually becoming the privilege of the nobility.

5. A consequence of the development of education is a growing interest in scientific knowledge, especially technical knowledge. The penetration of Western educational, rationalistic concepts into Russia created the ground for the development of a qualitatively new natural science. Science is gradually becoming part of secular culture. There are a number of inventions and technical innovations. So, the mechanic and inventor A.N. Nartov creates a number of devices and machines, including the world's first screw-cutting lathe. V.P. Tatishchev makes improvements in mining, Ya.V. Bruce is in the military. The natural result of the development of science and technology is the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, which meant the formation of science as a social institution, the creation of a basis for theoretical, fundamental science in Russia.

6. Reform of the army and navy. The introduction of recruitment kits, which assumed service in the army for 25 years, had a hard impact on the life of the peasants, but made it possible to create an experienced, combat-ready army in which a simple soldier could become an officer and continue his career. During the 25 years of Peter's reign, 48 battleships and 800 galleys were built, which made Russia a maritime power.

7. The results of the reforms of Peter I were contradictory and ambiguous. As a result of all the transformations in the political system of the Russian state, the formation of an absolute monarchy was completed: centralized power was strengthened, a regular army was created, the church was included in the state apparatus, and a bureaucracy was created. The absolutist state needed a secular culture. The periodical press was a powerful means of educating the people. The first printed newspaper in Russia was Vedomosti, published in 1703. The growth of printing contributed to the development of the book trade. In 1714, the first library was opened, which became the basis of the library of the Academy of Sciences. It was available for free visiting. In 1719, the first Russian museum, the Kunstkamera, was opened. The logical result of reforms in the field of education and science was the opening in St. Petersburg in 1725 of the Academy of Sciences. Instead of the old chronology - "from the Creation of the world" - from January 1, 1700, the chronology "from the Nativity of Christ" was introduced. There was a custom to celebrate the New Year: arrange fireworks, decorate Christmas trees. Assemblies (balls, receptions) became a new form of communication.

8. An important feature of the culture of the new time was its openness, the ability to make contacts with the cultures of other peoples, which was the result of a policy aimed at undermining national and confessional isolation. Ties with Western countries are expanding. Contacts with Europe contributed to the penetration of humanistic and rationalist teachings into Russia. The ideology of absolutism began to be reinforced by the ideas of rationalism, the European Enlightenment. The New Age is characterized by such processes as the acceleration of the pace of development, the complication of social development as a whole. The process of differentiation begins, the emergence of new branches of culture: science, theater, portraiture, poetry, journalism. A distinctive feature of this period is the emergence of authorship, although in large part the culture still continued to remain anonymous.

9. The most decisive turn towards the Europeanization of Russian culture occurred during the reign of Catherine II. Her reign marked the beginning of an era of enlightened absolutism that lasted until 1815. The era was characterized by an attempt to carry out liberal reforms while maintaining unlimited autocracy. The ideology of "enlightened absolutism" was formed as a system of socio-political views based on faith in the "wise man on the throne", who rules the country according to reasonable, fair laws and strives for the good of his subjects. Catherine decided to pay special attention to the education of "new people", morally perfect, who would raise their children in the same spirit, which would lead to changes in society. It was assumed that the new man would be brought up in an exclusively Western spirit. Much attention was paid to humanitarian education. Orphanages appeared in Moscow, St. Petersburg, closed institutes, cadet corps. Main public schools are being opened in 25 provincial towns. For a long time, in all schools and gymnasiums, the book “On the Positions of a Man and a Citizen”, published by order of Catherine II, was used as a textbook, which was a code of moral and social rules of human behavior.

Particularly striking evidence of the turn in the value system of the 18th century is the architecture of St. Petersburg and portraiture. In their works, the masters sought to convey a commitment to the orderly, admiration for the power of the mind. Architects reflect this in the appearance of the city, artists - in the image of a person. The new capital was founded in May 1703. In the field of urban planning, there was a transition from the medieval radial-ring construction scheme (as in Moscow) to a regular layout, which was characterized by geometric correctness and symmetry in the building of streets. Foreign architects were invited to successfully solve problems in the field of urban planning. By the beginning of the 19th century, the city acquired a "strict, slender appearance." This is a great merit of foreign architects - J.-B. Leblon, D. Trezzini, D. Quarenghi and representatives of the Russian architectural school V. Bazhenov, I. Starov, M. Kazakov, V. Rastrelli.

In the 18th century, the prerequisites for the formation of the Russian national language were created, there is a convergence of the literary language with the spoken language, the process of formation of new dialects stops. The Russian national colloquial language is being formed. The Moscow dialect serves as an example. In the 90s, N. Karamzin carried out a reform of the literary language. This made it possible to attract a wide range of people to reading. In the middle of the 18th century, classicism became the dominant trend in the entire artistic culture. The first national tragedies and comedies appear (A. Sumarokov, D. Fonvizin). The most striking poetic works were created by G. Derzhavin. At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries, a new direction in literature is being formed - sentimentalism associated with the work of N. Karamzin and A. Radishchev. Cultural ties with other countries are expanding. A more mobile lifestyle, the popularity of travel led to the development of such literary genres as the genre of writing, travel notes, memoirs, diary entries.

The social and scientific thought of the country became more active. In the 60-70s. In the 18th century, satirical journalism became widespread. On the pages of the magazines, works were printed, "to correct the morals of employees", i.e. aimed at educating worthy members of society. In the same period of time, natural science is rapidly developing in Russia, academic expeditions are being conducted led by prominent scientists. The materials on zoology, botany, ethnography, and archeology collected during these expeditions contributed to the scientific understanding of the nature and culture of our country. Published in 1745 "Atlas of the Russian Empire”was of global importance: by the middle of the 18th century, only France had such an atlas. By the end of the century, geographical knowledge was spreading.

The serf theater was a peculiar phenomenon of the cultural life of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Some of the fortress theaters (for example, Count N.P. Sheremetyev in Ostankino, Prince N.B. Yusupov in Arkhangelsk, Count Kamensky in Orel) were widely known among amateur theatergoers. Many talented actors and musicians performed on their stage, P.I. was famous for her performance in the theater. Kovaleva-Zhemchugova, the famous actor Shchepkin was a serf for many years.