Horizon: Zero Dawn guide - fuel cell locations. Horizon Zero Dawn: How to get the best Shield Weaver armor

Greetings, Outcasts. Game world Horizon Zero Dawn can be cruel to the player. This means that you can’t do without good equipment and the best weapons, otherwise the machines can beat you up. And it’s best if it’s not just good armor, but practically the best. And by old tradition video games have been teasing us with it almost from the very beginning.

As I wrote above, almost at the start of Ella’s travels you will come across Forerunner bunker, which is so conveniently located near the lands of the Nora tribe. Behind the door of this bunker you can see some very attractive looking armor. And it’s not just armor, it’s “ Shield Weaver" But you can’t just open the door, you’ll have to find it first five fuel cells. But where to find them? Let's figure it out now.

First element. Location – Mother's Heart. Task - Mother's Womb.

Although this item is very easy to find, there is always a catch. It lies in the fact that you can find it even before going to open world. But if you missed it, then you will be able to return to this location at a late stage of the game, after you complete the task “ Heart of Nora».

If you just started the game, then everything is simple. When you get out of bed and walk through several rooms, one of them will have a sealed door that cannot be opened.

Look around, there will be a ventilation shaft nearby. Yes, you understood everything correctly. We go through the shaft and find ourselves directly behind this door. The element we need will be on the floor, next to the candles.

Second element. Location – Ruins.

I know you’ve already been here as a child, but nevertheless, it’s worth returning here not only for the sake of nostalgic memories. Here you will find the second fuel cell. Because you have already grown up, then the height will not be so great, don’t be afraid, jump into the hole in the ground.

You need to get to the first level of the ruins. Move to the area highlighted in purple on the map. There you will find a door that can be opened with a spear.

As soon as the door is finished, go up the stairs and turn right. In front of you will be stalactites that you couldn’t get through as a child. But since now we are big and strong, we again take the spear and break the barrier. The fuel cell will be lying on the table.

Third element. Location – Master's Reach. Quest – Master's Limit.

Since this is a story quest, there shouldn’t be any problems finding it. To find the item we need, we will have to climb to the top, twelfth level of the ruins. And even a little higher. Look for the remains of the building and climb them until you get to the site.

This is where you will find the fuel cell. Be careful as you go down, don't trip.

The fourth element. Location – Treasure of Death. Task – Treasure of Death.

Like the previous one, you will find this element in the northern part of the map. And this is again a story mission, so you won’t be able to accidentally miss or not notice this location.

On the third level of the location there will be a sealed door, but the problem is, there is no power. Well, it’s okay, we’ll restore it, don’t get used to it.

We go down to the level below and look for the regulator blocks there.

The sequence for the left block is: up, right, left, down.

Sequence for the right block: do not touch the first two regulators, the remaining two are down.

When we are done with these, we go up a level, there we also find a block of regulators, this time the last one. Sequence: up, down, left, right.

If you entered everything correctly, the controls will change color. Now we return to the door, the power has been restored, and the element will be hiding behind it.

The fifth element (all coincidences are random!) Location – GAIA Prime. Task – Fallen Mountain.

Well, the search for elements is coming to an end. The last one is next. And, by the way, this is also a plot task.

When you explore the third level, at some point you will come across an abyss into which you can descend using a rope. Don't be fooled, this is a lure from cunning developers. In fact, you need to turn right and search in the hidden cave. You can get there by carefully going down the edge.

Go through the cave and at the very end you will find the last element.

That's it, you have all the elements. But if for some reason you are having difficulty, then here is a video guide that will help you.

ANCIENT ARSENAL

So, we have all the fuel cells, it’s time to get the treasured equipment.

We insert elements into empty cells, the sequence is not important. As you may have noticed, the regulators lit up. Time to solve another puzzle.

The sequence is: up, right, down, left, up.

But, alas, we will have to solve another problem with the regulators. This time to get armor. We deliver the remaining fuel cells.

Hint: 0 degrees is for some reason at the top, hence the sequence for directing the controls: right, left, up, right, left.

That's all, congratulations, " Shield Weaver"is now yours. This is a very powerful thing that can make you invulnerable. Just remember to keep an eye on the color. White is good. Red - protection has fallen.

Similar to the existence of different types of engines internal combustion, exist various types Fuel Cells – The choice of the appropriate type of fuel cell depends on its application.

Fuel cells divided into high-temperature and low-temperature. Low temperature fuel cells require relatively pure hydrogen as fuel. This often means that fuel processing is required to convert the primary fuel (such as natural gas) into pure hydrogen. This process consumes additional energy and requires special equipment. High Temperature Fuel Cells do not need this additional procedure, since they can carry out “internal transformation” of the fuel at elevated temperatures, which means there is no need to invest money in hydrogen infrastructure.

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)

Molten carbonate electrolyte fuel cells are high temperature fuel cells. The high operating temperature allows the direct use of natural gas without a fuel processor and low calorific value fuel gas from industrial processes and other sources. This process was developed in the mid-1960s. Since then, production technology, performance and reliability have been improved.

The operation of RCFC differs from other fuel cells. These cells use an electrolyte made from a mixture of molten carbonate salts. Currently, two types of mixtures are used: lithium carbonate and potassium carbonate or lithium carbonate and sodium carbonate. To melt carbonate salts and achieve a high degree of ion mobility in the electrolyte, fuel cells with molten carbonate electrolyte operate at high temperatures (650°C). Efficiency varies between 60-80%.

When heated to a temperature of 650°C, the salts become a conductor for carbonate ions (CO 3 2-). These ions pass from the cathode to the anode, where they combine with hydrogen to form water, carbon dioxide and free electrons. These electrons are directed along the external electrical circuit back to the cathode, which generates electric current, and heat as a by-product.

Reaction at the anode: CO 3 2- + H 2 => H 2 O + CO 2 + 2e -
Reaction at the cathode: CO 2 + 1/2 O 2 + 2e - => CO 3 2-
General reaction of the element: H 2 (g) + 1/2 O 2 (g) + CO 2 (cathode) => H 2 O (g) + CO 2 (anode)

The high operating temperatures of molten carbonate electrolyte fuel cells have certain advantages. At high temperatures, internal reforming occurs natural gas, eliminating the need for a fuel processor. In addition, advantages include the ability to use standard construction materials such as stainless steel sheets and nickel catalyst on the electrodes. Waste heat can be used to generate steam high pressure for various industrial and commercial purposes.

High reaction temperatures in the electrolyte also have their advantages. The use of high temperatures requires significant time to achieve optimal operating conditions, and the system responds more slowly to changes in energy consumption. These characteristics allow the use of fuel cell installations with molten carbonate electrolyte under constant power conditions. High temperatures prevent damage to the fuel cell by carbon monoxide, "poisoning", etc.

Fuel cells with molten carbonate electrolyte are suitable for use in large stationary installations. Thermal power plants with an electrical output power of 2.8 MW are commercially produced. Installations with output power up to 100 MW are being developed.

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC)

Phosphoric (orthophosphoric) acid fuel cells were the first fuel cells for commercial use. The process was developed in the mid-1960s and has been tested since the 1970s. Since then, stability and performance have been increased and cost has been reduced.

Phosphoric (orthophosphoric) acid fuel cells use an electrolyte based on orthophosphoric acid (H 3 PO 4) with a concentration of up to 100%. The ionic conductivity of orthophosphoric acid is low at low temperatures, for this reason these fuel cells are used at temperatures up to 150–220°C.

Charge carrier in fuel cells of this type is hydrogen (H+, proton). A similar process occurs in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), in which hydrogen supplied to the anode is split into protons and electrons. Protons travel through the electrolyte and combine with oxygen from the air at the cathode to form water. The electrons are sent through an external electrical circuit, thereby generating an electric current. Below are reactions that generate electric current and heat.

Reaction at the anode: 2H 2 => 4H + + 4e -
Reaction at the cathode: O 2 (g) + 4H + + 4e - => 2H 2 O
General reaction of the element: 2H 2 + O 2 => 2H 2 O

The efficiency of fuel cells based on phosphoric (orthophosphoric) acid is more than 40% when generating electrical energy. With combined production of heat and electricity, the overall efficiency is about 85%. In addition, given operating temperatures, waste heat can be used to heat water and generate atmospheric pressure steam.

The high performance of thermal power plants using fuel cells based on phosphoric (orthophosphoric) acid in the combined production of thermal and electrical energy is one of the advantages of this type of fuel cells. The units use carbon monoxide with a concentration of about 1.5%, which significantly expands the choice of fuel. In addition, CO 2 does not affect the electrolyte and the operation of the fuel cell; this type of cell works with reformed natural fuel. Simple design, low degree of electrolyte volatility and increased stability are also advantages of this type of fuel cell.

Thermal power plants with electrical output power of up to 400 kW are commercially produced. The 11 MW installations have passed the appropriate tests. Installations with output power up to 100 MW are being developed.

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)

Fuel cells with a proton exchange membrane are considered the most the best type fuel cells to generate power for vehicles, which can replace gasoline and diesel engines internal combustion. These fuel cells were first used by NASA for the Gemini program. Today, MOPFC installations with power from 1 W to 2 kW are being developed and demonstrated.

These fuel cells use solid as the electrolyte. polymer membrane(thin plastic film). When saturated with water, this polymer allows protons to pass through but does not conduct electrons.

The fuel is hydrogen, and the charge carrier is a hydrogen ion (proton). At the anode, the hydrogen molecule is split into a hydrogen ion (proton) and electrons. Hydrogen ions pass through the electrolyte to the cathode, and electrons move around the outer circle and produce electrical energy. Oxygen, which is taken from the air, is supplied to the cathode and combines with electrons and hydrogen ions to form water. The following reactions occur at the electrodes:

Reaction at the anode: 2H 2 + 4OH - => 4H 2 O + 4e -
Reaction at the cathode: O 2 + 2H 2 O + 4e - => 4OH -
General reaction of the element: 2H 2 + O 2 => 2H 2 O

Compared to other types of fuel cells, proton exchange membrane fuel cells produce more energy for a given fuel cell volume or weight. This feature allows them to be compact and lightweight. In addition, the operating temperature is less than 100°C, which allows you to quickly start operating. These characteristics, as well as the ability to quickly change energy output, are just some of the features that make these fuel cells a prime candidate for use in vehicles.

Another advantage is that the electrolyte is a solid rather than a liquid. It is easier to retain gases at the cathode and anode using a solid electrolyte, and therefore such fuel cells are cheaper to produce. Compared with other electrolytes, when using a solid electrolyte, there are no difficulties such as orientation, less problems due to the occurrence of corrosion, which leads to greater durability of the element and its components.

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)

Solid oxide fuel cells are the highest operating temperature fuel cells. Operating temperature can vary from 600°C to 1000°C, allowing the use of different types of fuel without special pre-treatment. To handle such high temperatures, the electrolyte used is a thin solid metal oxide on a ceramic base, often an alloy of yttrium and zirconium, which is a conductor of oxygen ions (O 2 -). Solid oxide fuel cell technology has been developing since the late 1950s. and has two configurations: flat and tubular.

The solid electrolyte provides a sealed transition of gas from one electrode to another, while liquid electrolytes are located in a porous substrate. The charge carrier in fuel cells of this type is the oxygen ion (O 2 -). At the cathode, oxygen molecules from the air are separated into an oxygen ion and four electrons. Oxygen ions pass through the electrolyte and combine with hydrogen, creating four free electrons. The electrons are sent through an external electrical circuit, generating electric current and waste heat.

Reaction at the anode: 2H 2 + 2O 2 - => 2H 2 O + 4e -
Reaction at the cathode: O 2 + 4e - => 2O 2 -
General reaction of the element: 2H 2 + O 2 => 2H 2 O

The efficiency of the produced electrical energy is the highest of all fuel cells - about 60%. In addition, high operating temperatures allow for the combined production of thermal and electrical energy to generate high-pressure steam. Combining a high-temperature fuel cell with a turbine makes it possible to create a hybrid fuel cell to increase the efficiency of generating electrical energy by up to 70%.

Solid oxide fuel cells operate at very high temperatures (600°C–1000°C), resulting in significant time to reach optimal operating conditions and a slower system response to changes in energy consumption. At such high operating temperatures, no converter is required to recover hydrogen from the fuel, allowing the thermal power plant to operate with relatively impure fuels resulting from gasification of coal or waste gases, etc. The fuel cell is also excellent for high power applications, including industrial and large central power plants. Modules with an electrical output power of 100 kW are commercially produced.

Direct methanol oxidation fuel cells (DOMFC)

The technology of using fuel cells with direct methanol oxidation is undergoing a period of active development. It has successfully proven itself in the field of powering mobile phones, laptops, as well as for creating portable power sources. This is what the future use of these elements is aimed at.

The design of fuel cells with direct oxidation of methanol is similar to fuel cells with a proton exchange membrane (MEPFC), i.e. A polymer is used as an electrolyte, and a hydrogen ion (proton) is used as a charge carrier. However, liquid methanol (CH 3 OH) oxidizes in the presence of water at the anode, releasing CO 2, hydrogen ions and electrons, which are sent through an external electrical circuit, thereby generating an electric current. Hydrogen ions pass through the electrolyte and react with oxygen from the air and electrons from the external circuit to form water at the anode.

Reaction at the anode: CH 3 OH + H 2 O => CO 2 + 6H + + 6e -
Reaction at the cathode: 3 / 2 O 2 + 6H + + 6e - => 3H 2 O
General reaction of the element: CH 3 OH + 3/2 O 2 => CO 2 + 2H 2 O

The development of these fuel cells began in the early 1990s. With the development of improved catalysts and other recent innovations, power density and efficiency have been increased to 40%.

These elements were tested in the temperature range of 50-120°C. Due to low operating temperatures and no need for a converter, direct methanol oxidation fuel cells are the best candidates for both mobile phones and other consumer goods, as well as in car engines. The advantage of this type of fuel cells is their small size, due to the use of liquid fuel, and the absence of the need to use a converter.

Alkaline fuel cells (ALFC)

Alkaline fuel cells (AFC) are one of the most studied technologies, used since the mid-1960s. by NASA in the Apollo and Space Shuttle programs. On board these spacecraft, fuel cells produce electrical energy and drinking water. Alkaline fuel cells are one of the most efficient cells used to generate electricity, with power generation efficiency reaching up to 70%.

Alkaline fuel cells use an electrolyte, an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide, contained in a porous, stabilized matrix. The potassium hydroxide concentration may vary depending on the operating temperature of the fuel cell, which ranges from 65°C to 220°C. The charge carrier in SHTE is the hydroxyl ion (OH -), moving from the cathode to the anode, where it reacts with hydrogen, producing water and electrons. The water produced at the anode moves back to the cathode, again generating hydroxyl ions there. As a result of this series of reactions taking place in the fuel cell, electricity and, as a by-product, heat are produced:

Reaction at the anode: 2H 2 + 4OH - => 4H 2 O + 4e -
Reaction at the cathode: O 2 + 2H 2 O + 4e - => 4OH -
General reaction of the system: 2H 2 + O 2 => 2H 2 O

The advantage of SHTE is that these fuel cells are the cheapest to produce, since the catalyst required on the electrodes can be any of the substances that are cheaper than those used as catalysts for other fuel cells. In addition, SFCs operate at relatively low temperatures and are among the most efficient fuel cells - such characteristics can consequently contribute to faster power generation and high fuel efficiency.

One of characteristic features SHTE – high sensitivity to CO 2, which may be contained in fuel or air. CO 2 reacts with the electrolyte, quickly poisons it, and greatly reduces the efficiency of the fuel cell. Therefore, the use of SHTE is limited to enclosed spaces, such as space and underwater vehicles, they must run on pure hydrogen and oxygen. Moreover, molecules such as CO, H 2 O and CH 4, which are safe for other fuel cells, and for some of them even act as fuel, are harmful to SHFC.

Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells (PEFC)

In the case of polymer electrolyte fuel cells, the polymer membrane consists of polymer fibers with water regions in which conduction water ions H2O+ (proton, red) attaches to a water molecule. Water molecules pose a problem due to slow ion exchange. Therefore, a high concentration of water is required both in the fuel and at the outlet electrodes, which limits the operating temperature to 100°C.

Solid acid fuel cells (SFC)

In solid acid fuel cells, the electrolyte (C s HSO 4) does not contain water. The operating temperature is therefore 100-300°C. The rotation of the oxy anions SO 4 2- allows the protons (red) to move as shown in the figure. Typically, a solid acid fuel cell is a sandwich in which it is very thin layer solid acid compound is placed between two tightly compressed electrodes to ensure good contact. When heated, the organic component evaporates, exiting through the pores in the electrodes, maintaining the ability of multiple contacts between the fuel (or oxygen at the other end of the element), the electrolyte and the electrodes.

Very soon (more precisely, at the beginning of her fascinating adventure), the main character will stumble upon the Forerunner bunker, which is located very close to the lands of the Nora tribe. Inside this ancient bunker, behind a powerful and high-tech door, there will be armor that from a distance looks not only decent, but also very attractive. The armor is called "Shield Weaver" and it is actually the best equipment in the game. Therefore, a lot of questions immediately arise: “How to find and obtain the Shield Weaver armor?”, “Where to find fuel?”, “How to open the bunker doors?” and many other questions related to the same topic. So, in order to open the bunker doors and get the coveted armor, you need to find five fuel cells, which in turn will be scattered throughout the game world. Below I will tell you where and how to find fuel cells to solve puzzles during the search and in the Ancient Arsenal.

: The presented guide not only has a detailed text walkthrough, but also screenshots are attached to each fuel cell, and there is a video at the end. All this was created in order to facilitate your search, so if some point in the text passage is not clear, then I recommend watching the screenshots and video.

. First fuel - "Mother's Heart"

Where and how to find the first fuel cell - fuel location.

So, Aloy will be able to find the very first fuel cell (or, more simply put, fuel) long before entering the open world on the assignment “The Womb of the Mother.” The point is that after the “Initiation” task (which, by the way, also relates to the storyline), the main character will find herself in a place called “Mother’s Heart,” which is a sacred place for the Nora tribe and the abode of the Matriarchs.

As soon as the girl gets out of bed, sequentially go through several rooms (rooms), where in one of them you will come across a sealed door, which you simply cannot open. At this moment, I strongly recommend that you look around, because next to the heroine (or near the doors - whichever is more convenient) there is a ventilation shaft, decorated with burning candles (in general, this is where you need to go).

After you pass a certain part of the way along the ventilation shaft, the heroine will find herself behind a locked door. Look at the floor next to the wall block and candles of mysterious purpose - the first fuel cell lies in this place.

: Be sure to remember that if you do not pick up the first fuel cell before entering the open world, then after that you will only be able to get to this location in the later stages of the passage. But to be more precise, after completing the mission “Heart of Nora,” so I recommend picking up the fuel now.

. Second fuel - "Ruins"

Where and how to find the second fuel cell - fuel location.

The first thing you need to know when searching for the second fuel: the main character was already in this location when she fell into ruins a long time ago as a child (at the very beginning of the game). So after completing the “Initiation” task, you will have to remember your deep childhood and go down to this place one more time to get the second fuel cell.

Below are several pictures (screenshots). The first picture shows the entrance to the ruins (in red). Inside the ruins you will need to get to the first level - this is the lower right area that will be highlighted purple on the map. In addition, there will also be a door that the girl can open with her spear.

As soon as Aloy passes through the doors, go up the stairs and turn to the right at the first opportunity: in her deep youth, Aloy could not crawl through the stalactites, but now she has useful “toys” that can cope with any task. So, take out your spear and use it to break the stalactites. Soon the path will be clear, so all that remains is to take the fuel cell that lies on the table and go for the next one. If any moment of the passage is not clear, then screenshots are attached below in order.

. Third fuel - "Master's Limit"

Where and how to find the third fuel cell - fuel location.

It's time to head north. During the quest “Master's Limit,” Aloy will have to carefully explore and study the giant ruins of the Forerunners. So in these ruins on the twelfth level the next, third fuel cell will be hidden.

Therefore, you will have to climb not only to the upper level of these ruins, but also climb a little higher there. Don't waste precious time and climb higher along the surviving part of the building. Climb up until you find yourself on a small platform open to all winds. Then everything is simple, because at the top there will be a third element of fuel: no puzzles, no riddles or secrets. So take the fuel, go down and move on.

. Fourth fuel - “Treasure of Death”

Where and how to find the fourth fuel cell - fuel location.

The good news is that this fuel cell is also located in the northern part of the Horizon: Zero Dawn map, but it is a little closer to the lands of the Nora tribe. The main character will again find herself in this part of the map during the next story mission. But before getting to the penultimate fuel cell, Aloy will need to restore the power supply to the sealed door, which is located on the third level of the location. Moreover, to do this you will need to solve a small and not too complex puzzle. The puzzle involves blocks and regulators (there are two blocks of four regulators on the level below the doors). So, to begin with, I recommend dealing with the left block of regulators: the first regulator should be raised (look) up, the second - to the right, the third - to left side, fourth - down.

After that, go to the block on the right side. Do not touch the first two regulators, but the third and fourth regulators will need to be turned down. Therefore, go up one level - here is the last block of regulators. Correct order will look like as follows: 1 - up, 2 - down, 3 - left, 4 - right.

Once you do everything correctly, the controls will change color from white to turquoise. Thus, power supply will be restored. Therefore, go back to the doors and open it. Outside the doors, the heroine will be “greeted” by the penultimate fuel cell, so she can go for the next, last fuel.

. Fifth fuel - "GAIA Prime"

Where and how to find the fifth fuel cell - fuel location.

Finally the last fuel cell. And again, it can only be obtained during the passage of the storyline. This time the main character will have to go to the ruins called “GAIA Prime”. At this point it is necessary to pay attention special attention, when you find yourself near the third level. The point is that in certain moment in front of the girl there will be an attractive abyss into which she can descend using a rope, although she should not go there.

Before the abyss, you should turn to the left and first explore a cave hidden from view: you can get into it if you carefully go down the mountainside. Go inside and then move forward until the very end. In the last room in the room on the right side there will be a shelf on which the last fuel cell finally lies. Together with him, you can now safely return back to the bunker and open all the locks to get luxurious equipment.

. How to get into the Ancient Arsenal?

Well, now all that remains is to return to the Ancient Arsenal to receive the long-awaited reward. If you don’t remember the corridors of the arsenal, then look at the screenshots below, which will help you remember the whole path.

When you get to the right place and go down, insert the fuel cells into the empty cells. This will cause the regulators to light up, so there is a new puzzle to solve to open the doors. So, the first regulator should be directed up, the second - to the right, the third - down, the fourth - to the left, the fifth - up. Once you do everything right, doors will open, but it's far from over.

Next you have to unlock the lock (or fastenings) of the armor - this is another simple puzzle related to the regulators, in which you have to use the remaining fuel cells. The first knob should be turned to the right, the second to the left, the third to up, the fourth to the right, the fifth to the left again.

Finally, after all this long torment, it will be possible to take the armor. "Shield Weaver" is a very good equipment that makes main character practically invulnerable. The most important thing is to constantly monitor the color of the armor: if the armor flickers white, then everything is in order. If it's red, the shield is gone.

Fuel cell is an electrochemical device similar to a galvanic cell, but differs from it in that the substances for the electrochemical reaction are supplied to it from the outside - in contrast to the limited amount of energy stored in a galvanic cell or battery.

Rice. 1. Some fuel cells

Fuel cells convert the chemical energy of fuel into electricity, bypassing the ineffective combustion processes that occur with big losses. They convert hydrogen and oxygen into electricity through a chemical reaction. As a result of this process, water is formed and a large amount of heat is released. A fuel cell is much like a battery that can be charged and then use the stored electrical energy. The inventor of the fuel cell is considered to be William R. Grove, who invented it back in 1839. This fuel cell used a sulfuric acid solution as an electrolyte and hydrogen as a fuel, which was combined with oxygen in an oxidizing agent. Until recently, fuel cells were used only in laboratories and on spacecraft.

Rice. 2.

Unlike other power generators, such as internal combustion engines or turbines powered by gas, coal, fuel oil, etc., fuel cells do not burn fuel. This means no noisy high-pressure rotors, no loud exhaust noise, no vibrations. Fuel cells produce electricity through a silent electrochemical reaction. Another feature of fuel cells is that they convert the chemical energy of the fuel directly into electricity, heat and water.

Fuel cells are highly efficient and do not produce large quantity greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. The only emission products during fuel cell operation are water in the form of steam and small quantity carbon dioxide, which is not released at all if pure hydrogen is used as fuel. Fuel cells are assembled into assemblies and then into individual functional modules.

Fuel cells have no moving parts (at least not within the cell itself) and therefore do not obey Carnot's law. That is, they will have greater than 50% efficiency and are especially effective at low loads. Thus, fuel cell cars can become (and have already proven to be) more fuel efficient than conventional cars in real-world driving conditions.

The fuel cell provides the generation of direct voltage electric current, which can be used to drive an electric motor, lighting system devices, and other electrical systems in the car.

There are several types of fuel cells, differing in the ones used chemical processes. Fuel cells are usually classified by the type of electrolyte they use.

Some types of fuel cells are promising for power plant propulsion, while others are promising for portable devices or to drive cars.

1. Alkaline fuel cells (ALFC)

Alkaline fuel cell- This is one of the very first elements developed. Alkaline fuel cells (AFC) are one of the most studied technologies, used since the mid-60s of the twentieth century by NASA in the Apollo and Space Shuttle programs. On board these spacecraft, fuel cells produce electrical energy and potable water.

Rice. 3.

Alkaline fuel cells are one of the most efficient cells used to generate electricity, with power generation efficiency reaching up to 70%.

Alkaline fuel cells use an electrolyte, an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide, contained in a porous, stabilized matrix. The potassium hydroxide concentration may vary depending on the operating temperature of the fuel cell, which ranges from 65°C to 220°C. The charge carrier in SHTE is the hydroxyl ion (OH-), moving from the cathode to the anode, where it reacts with hydrogen, producing water and electrons. The water produced at the anode moves back to the cathode, again generating hydroxyl ions there. As a result of this series of reactions taking place in the fuel cell, electricity and, as a by-product, heat are produced:

Reaction at the anode: 2H2 + 4OH- => 4H2O + 4e

Reaction at the cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- => 4OH

General reaction of the system: 2H2 + O2 => 2H2O

The advantage of SHTE is that these fuel cells are the cheapest to produce, since the catalyst needed on the electrodes can be any of the substances that are cheaper than those used as catalysts for other fuel cells. In addition, SHTEs operate at relatively low temperatures and are among the most efficient.

One of the characteristic features of SHTE is its high sensitivity to CO2, which may be contained in fuel or air. CO2 reacts with the electrolyte, quickly poisons it, and greatly reduces the efficiency of the fuel cell. Therefore, the use of SHTE is limited to enclosed spaces, such as space and underwater vehicles; they operate on pure hydrogen and oxygen.

2. Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)

Fuel cells with molten carbonate electrolyte are high temperature fuel cells. The high operating temperature allows the direct use of natural gas without a fuel processor and low calorific value fuel gas from industrial processes and other sources. This process was developed in the mid-60s of the twentieth century. Since then, production technology, performance and reliability have been improved.

Rice. 4.

The operation of RCFC differs from other fuel cells. These cells use an electrolyte made from a mixture of molten carbonate salts. Currently, two types of mixtures are used: lithium carbonate and potassium carbonate or lithium carbonate and sodium carbonate. To melt carbonate salts and achieve a high degree of ion mobility in the electrolyte, fuel cells with molten carbonate electrolyte operate at high temperatures (650°C). Efficiency varies between 60-80%.

When heated to a temperature of 650°C, the salts become a conductor for carbonate ions (CO32-). These ions pass from the cathode to the anode, where they combine with hydrogen to form water, carbon dioxide and free electrons. These electrons are sent through an external electrical circuit back to the cathode, generating electric current and heat as a by-product.

Reaction at the anode: CO32- + H2 => H2O + CO2 + 2e

Reaction at the cathode: CO2 + 1/2O2 + 2e- => CO32-

General reaction of the element: H2(g) + 1/2O2(g) + CO2(cathode) => H2O(g) + CO2(anode)

The high operating temperatures of molten carbonate electrolyte fuel cells have certain advantages. The advantage is the ability to use standard materials (sheet stainless steel and nickel catalyst on the electrodes). The waste heat can be used to produce high pressure steam. High reaction temperatures in the electrolyte also have their advantages. The use of high temperatures requires a long time to achieve optimal operating conditions, and the system responds more slowly to changes in energy consumption. These characteristics allow the use of fuel cell installations with molten carbonate electrolyte under constant power conditions. High temperatures prevent damage to the fuel cell by carbon monoxide, “poisoning,” etc.

Fuel cells with molten carbonate electrolyte are suitable for use in large stationary installations. Thermal power plants with an electrical output power of 2.8 MW are commercially produced. Installations with output power up to 100 MW are being developed.

3. Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC)

Fuel cells based on phosphoric (orthophosphoric) acid became the first fuel cells for commercial use. This process was developed in the mid-60s of the twentieth century, tests have been carried out since the 70s of the twentieth century. The result was increased stability and performance and reduced cost.

Rice. 5.

Phosphoric (orthophosphoric) acid fuel cells use an electrolyte based on orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4) at concentrations up to 100%. The ionic conductivity of phosphoric acid is low at low temperatures, so these fuel cells are used at temperatures up to 150-220 °C.

The charge carrier in fuel cells of this type is hydrogen (H+, proton). A similar process occurs in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), in which hydrogen supplied to the anode is split into protons and electrons. Protons travel through the electrolyte and combine with oxygen from the air at the cathode to form water. The electrons are sent through an external electrical circuit, thereby generating an electric current. Below are reactions that generate electric current and heat.

Reaction at the anode: 2H2 => 4H+ + 4e

Reaction at the cathode: O2(g) + 4H+ + 4e- => 2H2O

General reaction of the element: 2H2 + O2 => 2H2O

The efficiency of fuel cells based on phosphoric (orthophosphoric) acid is more than 40% when generating electrical energy. With combined production of heat and electricity, the overall efficiency is about 85%. In addition, given operating temperatures, waste heat can be used to heat water and generate atmospheric pressure steam.

The high performance of thermal power plants using fuel cells based on phosphoric (orthophosphoric) acid in the combined production of thermal and electrical energy is one of the advantages of this type of fuel cells. The units use carbon monoxide with a concentration of about 1.5%, which significantly expands the choice of fuel. Simple design, low degree of electrolyte volatility and increased stability are also advantages of such fuel cells.

Thermal power plants with electrical output power of up to 400 kW are commercially produced. Installations with a capacity of 11 MW have passed appropriate tests. Installations with output power up to 100 MW are being developed.

4. Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC)

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells are considered the best type of fuel cells for generating power for vehicles, which can replace gasoline and diesel internal combustion engines. These fuel cells were first used by NASA for the Gemini program. Installations based on MOPFC with power from 1 W to 2 kW have been developed and demonstrated.

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The electrolyte in these fuel cells is a solid polymer membrane (a thin film of plastic). When saturated with water, this polymer allows protons to pass through but does not conduct electrons.

The fuel is hydrogen, and the charge carrier is a hydrogen ion (proton). At the anode, the hydrogen molecule is split into a hydrogen ion (proton) and electrons. Hydrogen ions pass through the electrolyte to the cathode, and electrons move around the outer circle and produce electrical energy. Oxygen, which is taken from the air, is supplied to the cathode and combines with electrons and hydrogen ions to form water. The following reactions occur at the electrodes: Reaction at the anode: 2H2 + 4OH- => 4H2O + 4eReaction at the cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- => 4OH Overall cell reaction: 2H2 + O2 => 2H2O Compared to other types of fuel cells, fuel cells with a proton exchange membrane produce more energy for a given volume or weight of the fuel cell. This feature allows them to be compact and lightweight. In addition, the operating temperature is less than 100°C, which allows you to quickly start operation. These characteristics, as well as the ability to quickly change energy output, are just a few that make these fuel cells a prime candidate for use in vehicles.

Another advantage is that the electrolyte is a solid and not liquid substance. It is easier to retain gases at the cathode and anode using a solid electrolyte, so such fuel cells are cheaper to produce. With a solid electrolyte, there are no orientation issues and fewer corrosion problems, increasing the longevity of the cell and its components.

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5. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)

Solid oxide fuel cells are the highest operating temperature fuel cells. The operating temperature can vary from 600°C to 1000°C, allowing the use of different types of fuel without special pre-treatment. To handle such high temperatures, the electrolyte used is a thin solid metal oxide on a ceramic base, often an alloy of yttrium and zirconium, which is a conductor of oxygen ions (O2-). The technology of using solid oxide fuel cells has been developing since the late 50s of the twentieth century and has two configurations: planar and tubular.

The solid electrolyte provides a sealed transition of gas from one electrode to another, while liquid electrolytes are located in a porous substrate. The charge carrier in fuel cells of this type is the oxygen ion (O2-). At the cathode, oxygen molecules from the air are separated into an oxygen ion and four electrons. Oxygen ions pass through the electrolyte and combine with hydrogen, creating four free electrons. The electrons are sent through an external electrical circuit, generating electric current and waste heat.

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Reaction at the anode: 2H2 + 2O2- => 2H2O + 4e

Reaction at the cathode: O2 + 4e- => 2O2-

General reaction of the element: 2H2 + O2 => 2H2O

The efficiency of electrical energy production is the highest of all fuel cells - about 60%. In addition, high operating temperatures allow for the combined production of thermal and electrical energy to generate high-pressure steam. Combining a high-temperature fuel cell with a turbine makes it possible to create a hybrid fuel cell to increase the efficiency of generating electrical energy by up to 70%.

Solid oxide fuel cells operate at very high temperatures (600°C-1000°C), resulting in significant time required to reach optimal operating conditions and a slower system response to changes in energy consumption. At such high operating temperatures, no converter is required to recover hydrogen from the fuel, allowing the thermal power plant to operate with relatively impure fuels resulting from gasification of coal or waste gases, etc. The fuel cell is also excellent for high power applications, including industrial and large central power plants. Modules with an electrical output power of 100 kW are commercially produced.

6. Direct methanol oxidation fuel cells (DOMFC)

Direct methanol oxidation fuel cells They are successfully used in the field of powering mobile phones, laptops, as well as to create portable power sources, which is what the future use of such elements is aimed at.

The design of fuel cells with direct oxidation of methanol is similar to the design of fuel cells with a proton exchange membrane (MEPFC), i.e. A polymer is used as an electrolyte, and a hydrogen ion (proton) is used as a charge carrier. But liquid methanol (CH3OH) oxidizes in the presence of water at the anode, releasing CO2, hydrogen ions and electrons, which are sent through an external electrical circuit, thereby generating an electric current. Hydrogen ions pass through the electrolyte and react with oxygen from the air and electrons from the external circuit to form water at the anode.

Reaction at the anode: CH3OH + H2O => CO2 + 6H+ + 6eReaction at the cathode: 3/2O2 + 6H+ + 6e- => 3H2O General reaction of the element: CH3OH + 3/2O2 => CO2 + 2H2O The development of such fuel cells has been carried out since the beginning of the 90s s of the twentieth century and their specific power and efficiency were increased to 40%.

These elements were tested in the temperature range of 50-120°C. Because of their low operating temperatures and the absence of the need for a converter, such fuel cells are a prime candidate for use in mobile phones and other consumer products, as well as in car engines. Their advantage is also their small size.

7. Polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFC)

In the case of polymer electrolyte fuel cells, the polymer membrane consists of polymer fibers with water regions in which conduction water ions H2O+ (proton, red) attaches to a water molecule. Water molecules pose a problem due to slow ion exchange. Therefore, a high concentration of water is required both in the fuel and at the outlet electrodes, which limits the operating temperature to 100°C.

8. Solid acid fuel cells (SFC)

In solid acid fuel cells, the electrolyte (CsHSO4) does not contain water. The operating temperature is therefore 100-300°C. The rotation of the SO42 oxyanions allows the protons (red) to move as shown in the figure. Typically, a solid acid fuel cell is a sandwich in which a very thin layer of solid acid compound is sandwiched between two electrodes that are tightly pressed together to ensure good contact. When heated, the organic component evaporates, exiting through the pores in the electrodes, maintaining the ability of multiple contacts between the fuel (or oxygen at the other end of the element), the electrolyte and the electrodes.

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9. Comparison of the most important characteristics of fuel cells

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10. Use of fuel cells in cars

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Rice. 12.

You won't surprise anyone anymore solar panels, nor wind turbines, which generate electricity in all regions of the world. But the output from these devices is not constant and it is necessary to install backup sources power supply, or connect to the network to receive electricity during the period when renewable energy facilities do not generate electricity. However, there are plants developed in the 19th century that use “alternative” fuels to generate electricity, i.e. do not burn gas or petroleum products. Such installations are fuel cells.

HISTORY OF CREATION

Fuel cells (FC) or fuel cells were discovered back in 1838-1839 by William Grove (Grove, Grove), when he was studying the electrolysis of water.

Help: Electrolysis of water is the process of decomposition of water under the influence of electric current into hydrogen and oxygen molecules

Having disconnected the battery from the electrolytic cell, he was surprised to find that the electrodes began to absorb the released gas and generate current. The discovery of the process of electrochemical “cold” combustion of hydrogen was a significant event in the energy industry. He later created the Grove battery. This device had a platinum electrode immersed in nitric acid and a zinc electrode in zinc sulfate. It generated a current of 12 amperes and a voltage of 8 volts. Grow himself called this design "wet battery". He then created a battery using two platinum electrodes. One end of each electrode was in sulfuric acid, and the other ends were sealed in containers with hydrogen and oxygen. There was a stable current between the electrodes, and the amount of water inside the containers increased. Grow was able to decompose and improve the water in this device.

"Battery Grow"

(source: Royal Society of the National Museum of Natural History)

The term “fuel cell” (English “Fuel Cell”) appeared only in 1889 by L. Mond and
C. Langer, who tried to create a device for generating electricity from air and coal gas.

HOW DOES THIS WORK?

A fuel cell is a relatively simple device.. It has two electrodes: anode (negative electrode) and cathode (positive electrode). A chemical reaction occurs at the electrodes. To speed it up, the surface of the electrodes is coated with a catalyst. FCs are equipped with one more element - membrane. The conversion of the chemical energy of the fuel directly into electricity occurs thanks to the work of the membrane. It separates the two chambers of the element into which fuel and oxidizer are supplied. The membrane allows only protons, which are produced as a result of fuel splitting, to pass from one chamber to another at an electrode coated with a catalyst (electrons then travel through an external circuit). In the second chamber, protons combine with electrons (and oxygen atoms) to form water.

Working principle of a hydrogen fuel cell

At the chemical level, the process of converting fuel energy into electrical energy is similar to the conventional combustion process (oxidation).

At normal combustion oxidation of organic fuel occurs in oxygen, and the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into thermal energy. Let's see what happens during the oxidation of hydrogen with oxygen in an electrolyte environment and in the presence of electrodes.

By supplying hydrogen to an electrode located in an alkaline environment, a chemical reaction occurs:

2H 2 + 4OH - → 4H 2 O + 4e -

As you can see, we get electrons that, passing through the external circuit, arrive at the opposite electrode, to which oxygen flows and where the reaction takes place:

4e- + O 2 + 2H 2 O → 4OH -

It can be seen that the resulting reaction 2H 2 + O 2 → H 2 O is the same as during normal combustion, but The fuel cell produces electric current and some heat.

TYPES OF FUEL CELLS

It is customary to classify fuel cells according to the type of electrolyte used for the reaction:

Note that fuel cells can also use coal, carbon monoxide, alcohols, hydrazine, and other organic substances as fuel, and air, hydrogen peroxide, chlorine, bromine, nitric acid, etc. as oxidizing agents.

FUEL CELL EFFICIENCY

A feature of fuel cells is no strict limitation on efficiency, like heat engines.

Help: EfficiencyCarnot cycle is the highest possible efficiency among all heat engines with the same minimum and maximum temperatures.

Therefore, the efficiency of fuel cells in theory can be higher than 100%. Many smiled and thought, “The perpetual motion machine has been invented.” No, here we should go back to the school chemistry course. The fuel cell is based on the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy. This is where miracles happen. Certain chemical reactions as they occur can absorb heat from the environment.

Help: Endothermic reactions - chemical reactions accompanied by heat absorption. For endothermic reactions, changes in enthalpy and internal energy have positive values ​​(Δ H >0, Δ U >0), thus the reaction products contain more energy than the starting components.

An example of such a reaction is the oxidation of hydrogen, which is used in most fuel cells. Therefore, theoretically, the efficiency can be more than 100%. But today, fuel cells heat up during operation and cannot absorb heat from the environment.

Help: This limitation is imposed by the second law of thermodynamics. The process of heat transfer from a “cold” body to a “hot” one is not possible.

Plus, there are losses associated with nonequilibrium processes. Such as: ohmic losses due to the specific conductivity of the electrolyte and electrodes, activation and concentration polarization, diffusion losses. As a result, part of the energy generated in fuel cells is converted into heat. Therefore, fuel cells are not perpetual motion machines and their efficiency is less than 100%. But their efficiency is greater than that of other machines. Today Fuel cell efficiency reaches 80%.

Reference: In the forties, the English engineer T. Bacon designed and built a battery of fuel cells total capacity 6 kW and 80% efficiency, running on pure hydrogen and oxygen, but the power-to-weight ratio of the battery turned out to be too small - such cells were unsuitable for practical application and too expensive (source: http://www.powerinfo.ru/).

FUEL CELL PROBLEMS

Almost all fuel cells use hydrogen as fuel, so the logical question arises: “Where can I get it?”

It seems that a fuel cell was discovered as a result of electrolysis, so it is possible to use the hydrogen released as a result of electrolysis. But let's look at this process in more detail.

According to Faraday's law: the amount of a substance that is oxidized at the anode or reduced at the cathode is proportional to the amount of electricity passing through the electrolyte. This means that to get more hydrogen, you need to spend more electricity. Existing methods of water electrolysis operate with an efficiency of less than one. Then we use the resulting hydrogen in fuel cells, where the efficiency is also less than unity. Therefore, we will spend more energy than we can produce.

Of course, you can use hydrogen produced from natural gas. This method of producing hydrogen remains the cheapest and most popular. Currently, about 50% of the hydrogen produced worldwide comes from natural gas. But there is a problem with storing and transporting hydrogen. Hydrogen has a low density ( one liter of hydrogen weighs 0.0846 g), so to transport it over long distances it must be compressed. And these are additional energy and monetary costs. Also, don’t forget about safety.

However, there is also a solution here - liquid hydrocarbon fuel can be used as a source of hydrogen. For example, ethyl or methyl alcohol. True, this requires a special additional device - a fuel converter, when high temperature(for methanol this will be somewhere around 240°C) converting alcohols into a mixture of gaseous H 2 and CO 2. But in this case it is already more difficult to think about portability - such devices are good to use as stationary or car generators, but for compact mobile equipment you need something less bulky.

Catalyst

To enhance the reaction in the fuel cell, the anode surface is usually treated with a catalyst. Until recently, platinum was used as a catalyst. Therefore, the cost of the fuel cell was high. Secondly, platinum is a relatively rare metal. According to experts, when industrial production fuel cells, proven reserves of platinum will run out in 15-20 years. But scientists around the world are trying to replace platinum with other materials. By the way, some of them achieved good results. So Chinese scientists replaced platinum with calcium oxide (source: www.cheburek.net).

USING FUEL CELLS

The first fuel cell in automotive technology was tested in 1959. The Alice-Chambers tractor used 1008 batteries to operate. The fuel was a mixture of gases, mainly propane and oxygen.

Source: http://www.planetseed.com/

Since the mid-60s, at the height of the “space race,” the creators became interested in fuel cells spacecraft. The work of thousands of scientists and engineers allowed us to reach a new level, and in 1965. fuel cells have been tested in the USA at spaceship Gemini 5, and later on the Apollo spacecraft for flights to the Moon and the Shuttle program. In the USSR, fuel cells were developed at NPO Kvant, also for use in space (source: http://www.powerinfo.ru/).

Since the end product of hydrogen combustion in a fuel cell is water, they are considered the cleanest in terms of their impact on environment. Therefore, fuel cells began to gain popularity against the backdrop of general interest in the environment.

Already, car manufacturers such as Honda, Ford, Nissan and Mercedes-Benz have created cars powered by hydrogen fuel cells.

Mercedes-Benz - Ener-G-Force powered by hydrogen

When using hydrogen cars, the problem with hydrogen storage is solved. The construction of hydrogen gas stations will make it possible to refuel anywhere. Moreover, refueling a car with hydrogen is faster than charging an electric car at a gas station. But when implementing such projects, we encountered a problem similar to that of electric vehicles. People are ready to switch to a hydrogen car if there is infrastructure for them. And the construction of gas stations will begin if there are a sufficient number of consumers. Therefore, we again came to the dilemma of the egg and the chicken.

Fuel cells are widely used in mobile phones and laptops. The time has already passed when the phone was charged once a week. Now the phone is charged almost every day, and the laptop works for 3-4 hours without a network. Therefore, mobile technology manufacturers decided to synthesize a fuel cell with phones and laptops for charging and operation. For example, the Toshiba company in 2003. demonstrated a finished prototype of a methanol fuel cell. It produces a power of about 100 mW. One refill of 2 cubes of concentrated (99.5%) methanol is enough for 20 hours of operation of the MP3 player. Again, the same Toshiba demonstrated a battery for powering laptops measuring 275x75x40mm, allowing the computer to operate for 5 hours on a single charge.

But some manufacturers have gone further. The PowerTrekk company has released a charger of the same name. PowerTrekk - the first charger water device in the world. It is very easy to use. The PowerTrekk requires the addition of water to provide instant electricity via the USB cord. This fuel cell contains silicon powder and sodium silicide (NaSi) when mixed with water, the combination generates hydrogen. Hydrogen is mixed with air in the fuel cell itself, and it converts hydrogen into electricity through its membrane-proton exchange, without fans or pumps. You can buy such a portable charger for 149 € (