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How do the terms national state literary language relate? Literary and national language

Literary norm

Literary language- This is a strictly standardized form of the national popular language. All aspects of the language are subject to processing and normalization in a literary language: writing, vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, word formation. The rules governing the use of words, their formation, combination, grammatical forms, pronunciation, spelling, sentence construction are called literary norms.

The literary norm changes and develops over time, and at different language levels the degree of mobility of the norm is not the same. For example, orthoepic norms (pronunciation and stress) underwent significant changes throughout the 20th century, while grammatical norms (rules for the formation of sentences, phrases and words) were more stable.

Literary norms have very important social significance. Without firmly established language norms, people would have difficulty understanding each other.

Also, the literary norm protects National language from introducing everything random and particular. Literary and linguistic norms are mandatory for the mass press, radio and television, and entertainment enterprises; they are enshrined in reference books, dictionaries and textbooks.

A significant contribution to the development of literary and linguistic norms was made by N.M. Karamzin, M.V. Lomonosov, M. Yu. Lermontov, A.S. Pushkin and other classics of our literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. “Create a language,” according to V.G. Belinsky, is impossible, because it is created by the people; philologists only discover its laws and bring them into a system, and writers only create on it in accordance with these laws” [Belinsky 1988: 244].

Features of the literary language

Literary language has a number of distinctive properties. These include:

1) stability;

2) mandatory for every native speaker;

3) processing;

What is the meaning of language processing can be understood from the words of A.M. Gorky. He noted that “any material - and language especially, requires a careful selection of all the best that is in it - clear, accurate, colorful, sonorous, and - further loving development of this best” [Vvedenskaya 2001:34].

In the article “On How I Learned to Write,” Gorky notes: “It would be appropriate to recall that language is created by the people! The division of a language into literary and folk means only that we have, so to speak, a “raw” language and one processed by masters. The first who perfectly understood this was Pushkin, he was the first to show how the speech material of the people should be used, how it should be processed” [Gorky 1953: 491].

4) Another feature of the literary language is the presence of oral (sounding speech) and written forms of speech (graphically fixed).

Oral speech presupposes the presence of a listener, an interlocutor. Written speech is usually directed towards the absent. The writer can only mentally imagine his reader. At the same time, the reader’s reaction, his emotions, feelings do not affect written speech. Oral speech in most cases is interactive, i.e. depends on the perception of the listener - the reaction can change the nature of speech or stop it altogether.

The speaker creates his speech immediately. The writer can improve and correct the written text.

5) the presence of functional styles;

In accordance with the goals set during communication, a variety of linguistic means and varieties of a single literary language are formed, that is, functional styles. The term functional style emphasizes that, depending on the functions that the language performs in each individual case, varieties of literary language are distinguished:

Scientific style (they write textbooks, reports, scientific works);

Official business (financial reports, orders, instructions);

Journalistic style (articles in newspapers, magazines, speeches on radio and television);

Conversational style (in an informal setting).

6) normativity;

Standards exist for both written and oral speech. For example, oral speech includes accentological norms (stress) and orthoepic norms (pronunciation); Punctuation and spelling norms (spelling) are characteristic of written speech. In all forms of speech, lexical, word-formation, syntactic, and morphological norms must be observed.

All of the listed features constitute a feature of the literary language as highest form national language.

Any developed language, including Russian, performs a variety of functions, is used in a variety of situations, over large territories, and by a variety of people, who are sometimes united by only one thing. general property- they all speak given language, therefore the latter has a complex and branched structure. In this regard, there is a need to introduce a number of concepts (then they will be actively used in other chapters) to reflect the differentiation of the language and give an idea of the features and purpose of each of its varieties.

Russian language has rich history and is constantly evolving. Naturally, it is extremely difficult for a modern person to read, say, “The Tale of Igor’s Host” without translation, so first we need to determine when the language appeared that can serve as a means of communication for us without requiring translation from Russian into Russian, i.e. ., in other words, enter chronological boundaries modern Russian language.

In Russian studies, it is believed that the modern stage of development of the Russian language begins with the era of A. S. Pushkin - approximately from the 1830s. It was then that the literary variety of the language took shape, which still serves as the basis for the development of vocabulary, grammar, a system of functional styles, phonetics, and orthoepy. It is this circumstance that serves as the basis for counting the current stage of development of the Russian language.

A huge role in the creation of the system of modern literary language as a set of means of expression and ideas about the literary norm as the basis of this system was played by A. S. Pushkin, who went down in history not only as the “sun of Russian poetry” (in the words of V. F. Odoevsky), but also how great reformer- creator of the modern Russian literary language.

However, almost 200 years have passed since Pushkin's time, and the language inevitably underwent significant changes, especially in the 20th century. During this period, first the October Revolution, and 70 years later the collapse of the USSR significantly influenced the development of the lexical-phraseological, grammatical (albeit to a lesser extent), and especially the functional-stylistic system of the Russian language. There was also a transformation in the social conditions of its existence. For example, due to the introduction of compulsory school education after the revolution, the circle of native speakers of the literary language expanded. Due to the widespread spread of the media, territorial dialects are dying out and remain only as a fact of the history of the language. Other changes are also taking place.

Although Pushkin’s language remains both generally understandable and exemplary for us, we ourselves, of course, no longer speak, much less write, in Pushkin. This was noted back in the 1930s. Soviet linguist L.V. Shcherba: “It would be funny to think that now it is possible to write in the sense of language quite like Pushkin.” In this regard, it became necessary to allocate a period for modern stage the evolution of language, which would take into account exactly the ongoing metamorphoses.

This is how the idea of the actual modern stage of language development arose, the beginning of which dates back to the turn of the 19th-20th centuries.

Thus, the stage of evolution of the modern Russian language begins with the reform of A.S. Pushkin, and within this period, from the beginning of the last century, the modern language itself, which we use, stands out.

Now let’s answer the question: what language is called the national language? In short, the national language is the language of the Russian nation as a whole, a developed multifunctional and multi-aspect system. As the main means of communication, it serves all spheres of public and personal life of people and is an essential element of national identity and unity. Historically, the Russian national language has been formed into a holistic entity since the 17th century. together with the transformation of the Great Russian people into the Russian nation.

On the one hand, the national language includes elements that are generally understood and generally accepted, used in any situation, and on the other hand, those whose use is limited either by attachment to a certain type of activity, or by territory, or by social reasons.

The structure of the national language can be represented as follows.

The core of the national language is literary Russian

language, i.e. historically established exemplary form of existence of the national language, which has a number of the most important properties, which allow it to fulfill the role of a generally understood, socially sanctioned means of communication and serve all the most important areas of life. These properties are the following:

1. Literary language is a processed language. All its elements (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, stylistics) went through a long historical process of processing and selection in folk art in the works of writers and poets, in the language of other authoritative masters of the word, therefore the resources of the literary language are the most accurate, figurative and expressive and the most adequate reflect the features national mentality, create a Russian linguistic picture of the world, serve as the basis of Russian culture.
2. Literary language is a standardized language, with an established generally accepted system of units at all levels and a unified system of rules for their use. Vocabulary, phraseology, grammatical forms of the literary language, as well as the rules for using these units (from pronunciation and spelling to stylistic features) is described and enshrined in dictionaries, grammars, reference books, educational literature, and geographical, administrative, historical and some other names are enshrined in law.
3. Literary language is both traditional and developing language. Each younger generation inherits the language of the older generation, but at the same time develops those means and tendencies that most fully reflect its sociocultural tasks and conditions of speech communication.
4. Literary language is a holistic, branched stylistic system. In it, along with neutral means applicable in any situation, there are means that are stylistically colored. Stylistic coloring reflects the attachment of linguistic resources to the oral or written form of the language, to various thematic areas, conveys various expressive, emotional and other shades of meaning. IN explanatory dictionaries, for example, this is reflected by the system of stylistic marks with which a word or expression is supplied: book- bookish, decomposition- colloquial, iron.- ironic, poet.- poetic, rude.- rude, mouth- outdated, etc.

In addition, the literary language distinguishes several functional styles - varieties of the literary language, each of which serves a specific area of communication. According to the classification of V.V. Vinogradov, these styles include the following: colloquial, scientific, business, journalistic, style fiction. Currently, the nomenclature of styles is being clarified: in particular, many researchers identify the preaching, or religious, style.

5. Literary language functions in two varieties - book and colloquial. In general, any of the styles belongs to one of these forms. Business, scientific, journalistic, religious styles represent book speech, colloquial - accordingly colloquial. Art style with its dominant aesthetic function, it combines both bookish and colloquial characteristics.

However, within the book business and scientific styles, oral genres are distinguished (job interview, conference call, oral reprimand), and accordingly the possibilities for using colloquial speech resources are expanded.

6. Literary Russian language accumulates all the best that is in the national language. This allows it to be a model, serve as a universal means of communication, and perform the functions state language and one of the working languages of international communication.
7. Literary language is a language that exists and functions in two varieties: oral and written (see 1.5). Written recording, along with tradition, allows the literary language to become the basis for the accumulation and inheritance of the knowledge and experience of predecessors, the continuity from the older generation to the younger of the achievements of science, material and spiritual culture and civilization as a whole.

The periphery of the national language consists of vernacular, territorial dialects, social and professional jargons. Unlike the literary one, the non-literary varieties of the national language that will be discussed, of course, can be recorded in writing, but they function orally.

Territorial dialects are variants of the national language characteristic of a particular area. They differ from each other in pronunciation. For example, in northern dialects they pronounce words like beard, consistently distinguishing sounds A and o), and in South Russian ones they Akayut (pronounce barada). Also, the vocabulary is partially different in different dialects (for example, delusional in Pskov dialect it means willow), phraseology, morphological and syntactic forms(for example, K.I. Chukovsky in the book “Alive as Life” gives the dialect form people (What kind of people are you?), whereas in literary language the form is adopted Human). Invaluable observations of dialectal features of word usage are provided by V. I. Dahl’s dictionary.

In general, the topics of speech communication in folk dialects are quite limited, which is reflected in the thematic groups of vocabulary: rural and household, interpersonal relationships, folklore, traditions and rituals.

Currently, due to the widespread spread of electronic media focused on oral literary speech, territorial dialects of the Russian language as integral systems, territorial varieties of the national language are dying out. Among their speakers, only elderly people remain, and younger people often retain only some features of dialect pronunciation.

Remain outside the literary language jargons- group varieties of the national language. According to their functions and who carries them, they distinguish professional And social jargons. The first group is the oral, everyday colloquial equivalents of professional languages: jargon of doctors, lawyers, rock musicians, computer, etc. The second group is the jargon of social groups: school, student, sports fans, social lower classes (drug addicts, criminals), etc. Jargon is characterized by its own vocabulary, relatively quickly changing and highly emotional, generally reduced stylistic coloring, the predominance of certain thematic groups in the vocabulary, its own phraseology, sources of its replenishment and word formation models. Thus, youth and school jargon is characterized by truncation of stems as a way of word formation (person - Human, teacher or Rev.- teacher, nerd, bot(from slang botanist) - diligent student) and replenishment of the lexical composition largely due to Anglicisms and jargons of the social bottom.

In addition to the term “jargon,” the concepts “social dialect” (otherwise “sociolect”), “slang,” “argot,” and “interjargon” are used to denote group varieties of the national language. The latter includes words common to several slangs, and this brings it closer to the rough urban vernacular. Lrgo is a classified, secret group language, such as thieves' argot.

Not included in the literary language and vernacular- the speech of the insufficiently educated part of the urban population, the urban lower classes. There are two types of vernacular: rude (ranging from coarse vocabulary to taboo curses) and illiterate - non-normative (non-normativeness can be observed at the level of pronunciation, vocabulary, morphology, syntax).

Words that go beyond the literary language are not included in general language dictionaries and are recorded only in specialized publications, for example, in jargon dictionaries.

Shcherba L.V. Selected works on the Russian language. M., 1935. P. 135.

Forms of existence of language. Literary language. Stylistic resources of the Russian literary language Functional styles.

Literary language– the highest (model and processed) form of the national language. In terms of its cultural and social status, the literary language is opposed to territorial dialects, vernacular, social and professional jargons, and slang. Literary language is formed in the process of language development, therefore it is a historical category. Literary language is the language of culture; it is formed when high level its development. Literary works are created in a literary language, and cultural people also speak. Borrowed words, jargon, cliches, clericalism, etc. clog the language. Therefore, there is codification (the creation of norms), creating order and preserving the purity of the language, showing a pattern. The norms are enshrined in dictionaries of the modern Russian language and grammar reference books. The modern Russian literary language is at a high stage of its development; as a developed language, it has an extensive system of styles.

The process of formation and development of the national literary language is characterized by a tendency to expand its social base and bring closer the book-written and folk-spoken styles. It is no coincidence that the Russian literary language, in a broad sense, is defined in time from A.S. Pushkin to the present day: it was A.S. Pushkin who brought together the colloquial and literary languages, placing the language of the people as the basis for various styles of literary speech. I. S. Turgenev, in a speech about Pushkin, pointed out that Pushkin “alone had to complete two works, which in other countries were separated by a whole century or more, namely: to establish a language and create literature.” Here it should be noted the enormous influence that outstanding writers in general have on the formation of the national literary language. A significant contribution to the development of the English literary language was made by W. Shakespeare, Ukrainian by T. G. Shevchenko, etc. For the development of the Russian literary language, the work of N. M. Karamzin, about whom A. S. Pushkin spoke in particular, became important. According to him, this glorious Russian historian and writer “turned it (the language) to the living sources of the folk word.” In general, all Russian classic writers (N.V. Gogol, N.A. Nekrasov, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov, etc.) participated to one degree or another in the development of the modern Russian literary language.

The literary language is usually the national language. It is based on some pre-existing form of language, usually a dialect. The formation of a literary language during the formation of a nation usually occurs on the basis of one of the dialects - the dialect of the main political, economic, cultural, administrative, and religious center of the country. This dialect is a synthesis of various dialects (Urban Koine). For example, the Russian literary language was formed on the basis of the Moscow dialect. Sometimes the basis of the literary language becomes a supra-dialectal formation, for example, the language of the royal court, as in France. The Russian literary language had several sources, among them we note Church Slavonic language, Moscow official language (the business state language of Moscow Rus'), dialects (especially the Moscow dialect), languages of great Russian writers. The significance of the Church Slavonic language in the formation of the Russian literary language was noted by many historians and linguists, in particular L. V. Shcherba in the article “Modern Russian Literary Language” said: “If the Russian literary language had not grown up in the atmosphere of Church Slavonic, then that wonderful poem would have been unthinkable Pushkin’s “The Prophet,” which we still admire to this day.” Speaking about the sources of the modern Russian literary language, it is important to talk about the activities of the first Slavic teachers Cyril and Methodius, their creation of Slavic writing, and the translation of liturgical books on which many generations of Russian people were brought up. Initially, our Russian written culture was Christian; the first books in Slavic languages were translations of the Gospel, Psalter, Acts of the Apostles, Apocrypha, etc. The Russian literary tradition is based on Orthodox culture, which undoubtedly affected not only works of fiction, but also the literary language.

“The foundations for the normalization of the Russian literary language were laid by the great Russian scientist and poet M. V. Lomonosov. Lomonosov combines in the concept of “Russian language” all varieties of Russian speech - command language, living oral speech with its regional variations, styles of folk poetry - and recognizes the forms of the Russian language as the constructive basis of the literary language, at least two (out of three) of its main styles." (Vinogradov V.V. “The main stages of the history of the Russian language”).

The literary language in any state is distributed through schools, where children are taught in accordance with literary norms. For many centuries, the Church also played a major role here.

The concepts of literary language and the language of fiction are not identical, since literary language covers not only the language of fiction, but also other implementations of language: journalism, science, public administration, oratory, and some forms of colloquial speech. The language of fiction in linguistics is considered as a broader concept for the reason that works of fiction can include both literary linguistic forms and elements of territorial and social dialects, jargon, argot, and vernacular.

Main features of a literary language:

The presence of certain norms (rules) of word usage, stress, pronunciation, etc. (moreover, the norms are stricter than in dialects), compliance with these norms is generally binding, regardless of the social, professional and territorial affiliation of the speakers of a given language;

The desire for sustainability, for the preservation of general cultural heritage and literary and book traditions;

The adaptability of literary language to denote the entire amount of knowledge accumulated by humanity and to the implementation of abstract, logical thinking;

Stylistic richness, which consists in an abundance of synonymous means that allow one to achieve the most effective expression of thought in various speech situations.

The means of literary language appeared as a result of a long and skillful selection of the most accurate and significant words and phrases, the most appropriate grammatical forms and constructions.

The main difference between the literary language and other varieties of the national language is its strict normativity.

Let's turn to such varieties of the national language as dialect, vernacular, jargon, argot and slang, and try to identify their features.

Dialect(from the Greek dialektos - conversation, dialect, adverb) - a variety of a certain language used as communication by persons connected by a close territorial, social or professional community. There are territorial and social dialects.

Territorial dialect- part of a single language, a really existing variety of it; contrasted with other dialects. The territorial dialect has differences in sound structure, grammar, word formation, and vocabulary. These differences can be small (as in Slavic languages), then people speaking different dialects understand each other. The dialects of languages such as German, Chinese, and Ukrainian are very different from each other, so communication between people speaking such dialects is difficult or impossible. Examples: pan (Eastern Ukraine) - patennya (Western Ukraine); names of stork in different parts of Ukraine: blacktail , leleka ,bociun , Botsian and etc.

Territorial dialect is defined as a means of communication between the population of a historically established region with specific ethnographic characteristics.

Modern dialects are the result of centuries of development. Throughout history, due to changes in territorial associations, fragmentation, unification, and regrouping of dialects occur. The most active formation of dialects occurred during the era of feudalism. With the overcoming of territorial fragmentation, old territorial boundaries within the state are being broken, and dialects are becoming closer together.

Changes in different eras relationships between dialects and literary language. Monuments of feudal times, written on the basis of the vernacular, reflect local dialect features.

Social dialects– languages of certain social groups. For example, the professional languages of hunters, fishermen, potters, merchants, group jargons or slangs of pupils, students, athletes, soldiers, etc., mainly youth groups, secret languages, argot of declassed elements, differing from the national language only in vocabulary.

Social dialects also include variants of the language of certain economic, caste, religious, etc. that differ from the national language. population groups.

Professionalisms- words and phrases characteristic of people of one profession and which, unlike terms, are semi-official names of concepts of a given profession. Professionalisms are distinguished by great differentiation in the designation of special concepts, objects, actions related to a given profession, type of activity. These, for example, are the names used by hunters for some of the properties of dogs: appetizing, polite, upper instinct, viscosity, deep crawling, smoky, unhearing, tearing, perek, walking, urge, toughness etc.

Vernacular– a colloquial language, one of the forms of the national language, which represents the oral non-codified (non-normative) sphere of national speech communication. Vernacular speech has a supra-dialectal character. Unlike dialects and jargons, speech that is generally understandable for speakers of the national language exists in every language and is communicatively significant for all speakers of the national language.

Vernacular is contrasted with literary language. Units of all language levels are represented in common parlance.

The contrast between literary language and vernacular can be traced in the area of stress:

percent(spacious) – percent(lit.),

agreement(spacious) – CONTRACTS(lit.),

deepen(spacious) – deepen(lit.),

Ringing(spacious) – It's calling(lit.),

bookend(spacious) – Endpaper(lit.) etc.

In the area of pronunciation:

[right now] (spacious) – [ Now] (lit.),

[pshol] (spacious) – [ pashol] (lit.)

In the field of morphology:

want(spacious) – want(lit.),

choice(spacious) – elections(lit.),

ride(space.) – drive(lit.),

theirs(spacious) – their(lit.),

here(spacious) – Here(lit.)

Common speech is characterized by expressively “lowered” evaluative words with a range of shades from familiarity to rudeness, for which there are neutral synonyms in the literary language:

« shy away» – « hit»

« blurt out» – « say»

« sleep» – « sleep»

« drag» – « run away»

Vernacular is a historically developed speech system. In the Russian language, the vernacular arose on the basis of the Moscow colloquial Koine. The formation and development of vernacular speech is associated with the formation of the Russian national language. The word itself was formed from what was used in the 16th-17th centuries. phrases " simple speech"(speech of a commoner).

Colloquial vocabulary, from one point of view, is an area of illiterate speech that is entirely outside the boundaries of the literary language and does not represent a unified system. Examples: mother, nurse, clothes, cologne, business(with a negative value), slimy, ailing, spin around, be angry, from afar, the other day.

From another point of view, colloquial vocabulary is words that have a bright, reduced stylistic coloring. These words make up two groups: 1) everyday vernacular, words that are part of the literary language and have a reduced (compared to colloquial words) expressive and stylistic coloring. Examples: dunce, carrion, slap, tattered, potbellied, sleep, yell, foolishly; 2) rude, vulgar vocabulary (vulgarisms), located outside the boundaries of the literary language: bastard, bitch, rude, mug, vile, slam and etc.

There is also literary vernacular, which serves as the border between the literary language and the colloquial language - a special stylistic layer of words, phraseological units, forms, figures of speech, endowed with a bright expressive coloring of “lowness”. The norm of their use is that they are allowed into the literary language with limited stylistic tasks: as a means of socio-verbal characterization of characters, for a “reduced” expressive characterization of persons, objects, events. Literary vernacular includes only those speech elements that have become entrenched in the literary language as a result of their long-term use in literary texts, after a long selection, semantic and stylistic processing. The composition of literary vernacular is fluid and constantly updated; many words and expressions have acquired the status of “colloquial” and even “bookish,” for example: “ everything will work out», « whiner», « nerd».

Conversational vocabulary– words that have a slightly reduced (compared to neutral vocabulary) stylistic coloring and are characteristic of spoken language, i.e. the oral form of a literary language, speaking in conditions of relaxed, unprepared communication. Colloquial vocabulary includes some nouns with suffixes - ah, – tai, – Ulya), – un, – w(a)), – ysh, – yag(a), – yak and etc. ( bearded man, lazy man, dirty guy, loudmouth, conductor, baby, poor fellow, fat man); some adjectives with suffixes – ast–, – at–,

–ovat – ( toothy, hairy, reddish); a series of verbs in - nothing(to be sarcastic, to be fashionable); some verbs with prefixes behind –, on– and postfix – Xia(to chat, to look into, to pounce on, to visit); nouns and verbs formed from phrases: free rider< without a ticket, record book < record book, bulletin < be on the ballot, as well as many others. In dictionaries these words are marked “colloquial”. All of them are uncommon in official business and scientific styles.

Jargon- a type of speech used in communication (usually oral) by a separate relatively stable social group, uniting people based on profession (jargon of drivers, programmers), position in society (jargon of the Russian nobility in the 19th century), interests (jargon of philatelists) or age (youth jargon). Jargon differs from the common language by its specific vocabulary and phraseology and the special use of word-formation devices. Part of the slang vocabulary belongs not to one, but to many (including disappeared) social groups. Moving from one jargon to another, the words "common fund" can change form and meaning. Examples: " darken"in argo - " hide the loot", later - " be cunning"(during interrogation), in modern youth slang - " speak unclearly But", " prevaricate».

The vocabulary of jargon is replenished in different ways:

due to borrowings from other languages:

dude- guy (gym)

head- bash in Tatar word head

shoes– shoes from shoes (English)

ban(computer jargon) - a software ban on the use of a certain Internet resource, imposed by the administrator from English. to ban: expel, exile

hustle – play computer games from English. game

pin - play computer games from him. spiel

by abbreviations:

basketball– basketball

liters– literature

PE- physical training

zaruba- foreign literature

diser– dissertation

by rethinking common words:

« jerk" - go

« unfasten» – give part of the money

« wheelbarrow» – car

Jargon can be open or closed. According to O. Jespersen, in open groups(youth) jargon is a group game. In closed groups, jargon is also a signal that distinguishes friend and foe, and sometimes a means of conspiracy (secret language).

Jargon expressions are quickly replaced by new ones:

50-60s of the twentieth century: money - tugriks

70s of the twentieth century money - coins, money(s)

80s of the twentieth century and at the present moment - money, green, cabbage and etc.

The vocabulary of jargon penetrates into the literary language through vernacular and the language of fiction, where it is used as a means speech characteristics.

Jargon is a means of contrasting oneself with the rest of society.

Argo- a special language of a limited social or professional group, consisting of arbitrarily selected modified elements of one or more natural language. Argo is used more often as a means of hiding objects of communication, as well as as a means of isolating a group from the rest of society. Argo is considered a means of communication among declassed elements, widespread among the underworld (thieves' argot, etc.).

The basis of argot is a specific vocabulary that widely includes foreign language elements (in Russian - Gypsy, German, English). Examples:

Fenya- language

feather - knife

tail - surveillance

stand on guard, stand on the lookout - stand guard during the commission of a crime, warning of approaching danger

bucks– dollars, foreign currency

actually- Right

settling tank– the place where pre-sale preparation of a stolen car is carried out

move with your girl- steal a car

box- garage

registration– illegal connection to the car’s security system

great grandfather - Land Cruiser Prada

work as a horse - transport the loot from the owner's apartment.

Slang– 1) the same as jargon, slang is more often used in relation to the jargon of English-speaking countries; 2) a set of jargon that makes up a layer of colloquial speech, reflecting a familiar, sometimes humorous attitude towards the subject of speech. Used in casual communication: mura, dregs, blat, buzz.

Elements of slang quickly disappear, being replaced by others, sometimes passing into the literary language, leading to the emergence of semantic and stylistic differences.

The main problems of the modern Russian language in the communicative sphere: obscene vocabulary (foul language), unjustified borrowings, jargon, argotisms, vulgarisms.

Literary language has a number of features that fundamentally distinguish it from other forms of language existence: refinement, normalization, breadth of social functioning, universal binding for all members of the team, development of the functional-stylistic system.

There is a difference between a literary language and a popular (national) language. A common language appears in the form of a literary language, but not every literary language immediately becomes a common language.

You can talk about the Russian literary language already with early XVII century, while it became a national language in the first half of the 19th century, in the era of A.S. Pushkin. [After Peter the Great began to introduce the achievements of Western culture into Russia, a linguistic element was added to the stratification between the nobility and the rest of the people. The nobility spoke French. Thus, the Russian language became the language of the lower strata, and therefore there was an opinion that it did not have the merits of European languages.]

The national language tends to operate with non-literary layers of vocabulary: dialectisms, jargon, argot, vernacular.

Dialectisms and their stylistic function.

Dialectism- a word or figure of speech used by people of a particular area. Dialectisms are part of the national language and are opposed to literary language. In literary language they can be used by the author to give the speech of a certain character a certain degree of expressiveness and color.

Dialectisms stand out in the flow of literary speech as deviations from the norm. Vary dialectisms phonetic: for example, clicking, i.e. the pronunciation of “dotska”, “not”; yakan: “pyatuh”, “ryaka”, “syastra”; “x” instead of “g” at the end of the word: “snekh”, “drukh”, “vrah”; grammatical ending “t” in 3rd person verbs: “go”, “sit”, “take”; ending “e” in genitive case forms such as: “to my wife”, “from my sister”; special use of prepositions: “came from Moscow”, “left to get bread”, “go to the hut”; word-formative: for example, “sboch” - “sideways”, “blueberry” - “blueberry”, “especially” - “especially”. Lexicaldialectisms can be of several types: words that name objects, phenomena that are characteristic of everyday life, the economy of a given area and have no parallels in the literary language: “poneva” is a type of skirt, “tuyos” is a vessel made of birch bark; synonymous words corresponding to literary ones: “kochet” - “rooster”, “hefty” - “very”; words that have a meaning other than in the literary language: “thin” - “bad”, “weather” - “bad weather”. Dialectisms are used in the language of fiction as a means of stylization, speech characteristics of characters, and creation of local color. Dialectisms can also be found in the speech of persons who have not fully mastered the norms of the literary language.

Professional vocabulary. Her stylistic role.

Professional vocabulary includes words and expressions used in various fields of human activity, which, however, have not become commonly used. Professionalisms serve to designate various production processes, production tools, raw materials, resulting products, etc. Unlike terms that are official scientific names of special concepts, professionalisms are perceived as “semi-official” words that do not have a strictly scientific character. As part of professional vocabulary, groups of words can be distinguished, different in their sphere of use and directly dependent on a particular type of activity.

The inclusion of professionalisms in the text is often undesirable. Thus, in a newspaper article the use of highly specialized professionalism cannot be justified due to the fact that the wide media audience simply cannot be familiar with such words. Should not be used in book styles professional vocabulary because of its colloquial-colloquial coloring.

Slang vocabulary. Her style characteristics.

Slang vocabulary(from the French jargon - adverb) is a socially limited group of words located outside the literary language, belonging to some jargon. Jargon- this is a set of features of colloquial speech of people united by common interests, occupations, social status, etc. Jargon can arise in any group.

Causes slang words are different. Most often, jargon arises as a result of the desire for speech expression specific to a given group, to express a special (ironic, dismissive, contemptuous) attitude towards life. This is a kind of collective language game that ends when a person leaves the given group. In other cases, jargon is a means of linguistic isolation and linguistic conspiracy. This type of jargon is called argot.

Slang vocabulary is expressive, exclusively oral, and often uses abbreviations and modified literary words.

Colloquial vocabulary.

Colloquial vocabulary- words with a stylistically reduced, rude and even vulgar connotation, which are beyond the bounds of literary speech. They are not typical for book speech, but are widely known in various social groups of society and act as a socio-cultural characteristic of speakers who usually have not fully mastered the literary language

Often vernaculars are used in certain types of verbal communication: in familiar or humorous speech, in verbal skirmishes, etc. Actually colloquial they call non-literary vocabulary used in oral everyday speech, but not rude, without special expression (in plenty, inside, theirs, for nothing, hardly, get tired, resist, hard worker, brainy). Rough vernacular the vocabulary has a reduced, coarse expressive coloring (big, riffraff, mug, idiot, pot-bellied, bast shoe, muzzle, bastard, okolet, bitch, rude, slam). There are words with special colloquial meanings (usually metaphorical): dash ("write"), whistle ("steal"), weave ("talk nonsense"), vinaigrette ("mash"), hat ("blunder"), and cuts ("speaks smartly").

Among vernacular languages there are commonly used words that differ only in their phonetics and accentology (instrument at ment instead of tool, p O portfolio instead of briefcase, with at serious instead of serious, etc.)

Notes in dictionaries that indicate the stylistic decline of words or their meanings and give them a negative assessment are numerous, for example: simple. - “colloquial”, disapproving - “disapproving”, fam. - “familiar”, despises. - “contemptuous”, vulg. - “vulgar”, abusive - “abusive”. P.l. most often contains expressive-evaluative coloring.

Reasons for using vernaculars in different types speeches are different: expressive motives, including shocking (colloquial speech), characterological motives (artistic speech), the author's direct attitude to the depicted, pragmatic motives (journalistic speech). In scientific and official business speech P. l. is perceived as a foreign style element.

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National and literary language

Place stress in the following words. Make up phrases with them. Vision (ability to see) - apparition (ghost).

Vision (ability to see) - Seeing perspective.

Vision (ghost) - vision girl

Place emphasis in the following words: alphabet, agreement, supper, catalogue, quarter, more beautiful, cooking, Ukrainian, August, pamper.

alphabet, agreement, supper, catalogue, quarter, more beautiful, cooking, Ukrainian, August, pamper

Correct errors in the use of phraseological units.

The music had a strong impact on everyone.

The music made a strong impression on everyone.

Science is extremely important.

The boy loved to let mist into his eyes when talking about his successes.

The boy loved to show off, talking about his successes.

Determine the gender of these nouns and abbreviations and motivate your answer. Coffee, Hindi, attache, Capri, Mississippi, carcass, kangaroo, Moscow Art Theater, Youth Theater, ATS.

Coffee is masculine, the word is an exception

Hindi is masculine, exceptions to the rules

Attache is a masculine indeclinable noun denoting men.

Capri is masculine, since the island is masculine

Mississippi is feminine because the river is feminine

Tush is masculine, as it is the second declension.

Kangaroo is masculine, indeclinable nouns of foreign language origin, denoting animals and birds, usually refer to the masculine gender

The Moscow Art Theater is masculine, since the main word is theater, it is masculine.

Youth Theater is masculine, since the main word is theater, it is masculine.

ATS is feminine, since the main word station is feminine.

Compose sentences so that, depending on the context, the following words have different lexical meanings. Example: catch fire. An argument broke out between them. Lights came on in the windows of neighboring dachas.

Speak, view, go around.

Ivan Sergeevich made a report at the meeting.

The building was built with a projection forward onto the street.

The chairman, having looked through the papers, made several questions to the bailiff and the secretary.

The doctors overlooked the moment on which everything depended.

The big old shepherd dog calmly walked around the horse three times.

Having walked around all the paths, examining every bush and flower, we went out again into the alley.

Determine how these paronyms differ from each other. Make up a phrase with each word. To weaken - to weaken, neighbor - neighbor, swamp - swamp, diploma student - diploma student.

The patient is exhausted, exhausted from a sleepless night,

Neighboring village, Neighbor's daughter

Wading bird, Wetland.

Competition diploma winner, future graduate student

Correct the sentences.

The speech of Shukshin's heroes differs from the heroes of other works.

The speech of Shukshin's heroes is very different from the speech of heroes of other works.

Compare the data from the latest analysis with the previous one.

Compare the results of the latest analysis with the previous ones.

Form the nominative plural form from these nouns. Please indicate possible options.

Address, accountant, century, year, diesel, director, jumper, contract, engineer, driver.

Address - addresses

Accountant - accountants

Century - centuries

Year - years, years

Diesel - diesels

Director - directors

Jumper - jumpers

Contract - contracts

Engineer - engineers

Chauffeur - chauffeur

Put the nouns in the genitive plural.

Ampere, orange, barge, boot, Georgian, sock.

Ampere - ampere

Orange - oranges

Barge - barge

Boot - boot

Georgians - Georgians

Sock - socks

Explain the meaning of the Aesopian phraseological unit.

Aesopian language is speech, a manner of presentation, expression based on allegory, hints and other similar techniques that deliberately disguise the thought, idea of the author. Aesopian language is an allegorical language, full of omissions, hints, and allegories. The expression comes from the name of the legendary Greek fabulist Aesop. Aesop was a slave; since it was dangerous for him to talk freely about many things, he turned to an allegorical, fable form.

Decline the numeral 547 by case

I.p. five hundred forty seven

R.p. five hundred forty seven

D.p. five hundred forty seven

V.p. five hundred forty seven

etc. five hundred forty seven

P.p. Five hundred forty seven

Determine the lexical meaning of words

Mentality

Legitimate

Identical

Mentality is a worldview, a worldview determined by national customs, way of life, thinking, and morality.

Legitimate - legally legal, in accordance with the law in force in a given state. Legitimate actions, an act of expression of will. Legitimacy is the property of what is legitimate.

Identical - Identical, completely identical

Insert the missing letters P...rollon, pr...zent, int...l...ect, producer...er, b...bachelor, literate student.

Foam rubber, present, intelligence, producer, bachelor, literate, student.

What is the difference between a national and a literary language? (theoretical question).

National language is the form of existence of a language in the era of the existence of a nation, a complex systemic unity that includes a literary language, dialects, jargons, vernacular and argot.

The concept of a national language is not generally accepted: for example, S.B. Bernstein denied any linguistic content behind this concept, understanding it as a purely ideological construct. On the contrary, V.V. Vinogradov defended the linguistic reality of the national language as a hierarchical integrity, within which a regrouping of linguistic phenomena occurs - in particular, pushing dialects further and further to the periphery.

Only in the era of the existence of developed national languages, especially in a socialist society, does the literary language, as the highest standardized type of the national language, gradually replace dialects and interdialects and become, both in oral and written communication, the exponent of a genuine national norm.

The formation of a national language proceeds in the direction of establishing and strengthening the language norm, acquiring a priority position in relation to regional dialects by the literary language (due to its positions in governing, educational and cultural institutions, starting from a certain period) in relation to regional dialects, as well as, in a number of cases, cases, in the struggle to oust the dominant foreign language in culture and politics (Latin, Church Slavonic, languages of metropolitan countries in former colonies). The spoken form of the national language, which is based on one or more dialects, according to some experts, is already formed under the influence of the literary language.

National language, the language of a nation, formed on the basis of the language of a nationality in the process of development of a nationality into a nation. The intensity of this process depends on the pace and special conditions of the development of a nationality into a nation. different nations. National language is a system of several forms of language existence: literary language (oral and written forms), colloquial varieties of language and dialects. In the process of forming a national language, the relationship between the literary language and dialects changes significantly. The national literary language is a developing form that occupies a leading position, gradually displacing dialects that dominated in the early stages of language development, especially in the sphere of oral communication. At the same time, the formation of new dialect features stops, and under the influence of the literary language the most dramatic dialect differences are leveled out. At the same time, the scope of use of the literary language is expanding, and its functions are becoming more complex. This is due to the complication and development of the national culture of the people, as well as the fact that the literary form of the national language, developing on popular basis, displaces written languages alien to the people (for example, Latin in Western Europe, Church Slavonic in Russia). The national literary language also penetrates into the sphere of oral communication, where dialect previously dominated. The most important feature national literary language is its normalized nature. Due to the need to satisfy the increasingly complex and diverse needs of society caused by the development of fiction, journalism, science and technology, as well as different forms oral speech, the syntactic system and vocabulary of the national literary language are intensively developed and enriched. In the era of bourgeois society, the national literary language primarily serves the dominant stratum of society (i.e., its educated part). The rural population, as a rule, continues to use dialects, and in cities the urban Koine competes with the standard language. In the context of the development of socialist nations, a single normalized national literary language becomes, in connection with democratization and widespread education, the property of every member of the nation.

Literary language, a processed form of the national language, which has more or less written norms; the language of all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form. The concept of “processed form” is historically variable (in different eras and among different peoples). In the era of feudalism, a number of peoples of the world used a foreign language as a written literary language: among the Iranian and Turkic peoples - classical Arabic; among the Japanese and Koreans - classical Chinese; among the Germanic and West Slavic peoples - Latin; in the Baltics and the Czech Republic - German; from 14-15 centuries for some states and from the 16th-17th centuries. for others, the vernacular language displaces a foreign language from many functional spheres of communication.

Literary language is always the result of collective creative activity. The idea of “fixedness” of norms. It has a certain relativity (for all the importance and stability of the norm, it is mobile in time). It is impossible to imagine a developed and rich culture of a people without a developed and rich literary language. This is the great social significance of the problem itself. There is no consensus among linguists about the complex and multifaceted concept of literary language. Some researchers prefer to talk not about literary language as a whole, but about its varieties: either written literary language, or colloquial literary language, or the language of fiction, and so on. It cannot be identified with the language of fiction. These are different, although correlative concepts. Literary language is the property of everyone who masters its norms. It functions in both written and spoken forms. The language of fiction (the language of writers), although usually guided by the same norms, contains much that is individual and not generally accepted. In different historical eras and among different peoples, the degree of similarity between the literary language and the language of fiction turned out to be unequal. There is a difference between the literary and the national language. The national language appears in the form of a literary language, but not every literary language immediately becomes a national language. National languages, as a rule, are formed in the era of capitalism. We can talk about the Russian literary language from the beginning of the 17th century, while it became the national language in the 1st half of the 19th century, in the era of A.S. Pushkin. Monuments of the French literary language have been known since the 11th century, but only in the 17th and 18th centuries was the process of gradual formation of the French national language observed. In Italy, the literary language declared itself already in the works of Dante, but only in the 2nd half of the 19th century, during the era of the national unification of Italy, did the formation of its national language take place. A particular problem is the relationship and interaction of the literary language and dialects. The more stable the historical foundations of dialects, the more difficult it is for a literary language to linguistically unite all members of a given nation. Dialects still successfully compete with the literary language in many countries of the world, for example in Italy and Indonesia.

The concept of a literary language usually interacts with the concept of linguistic styles existing within the boundaries of each literary language. A linguistic style is a type of literary language that has developed historically and is characterized by a certain set of features, some of which may be repeated in other styles, but a certain combination of them and their unique function distinguishes one style from another. Leninskaya national policy The Communist Party and the Soviet state ensured the flourishing of the literary language of the peoples inhabiting the USSR. Previously unwritten languages received writing. A theory of literary language is being successfully developed, which is based on the experience of the development of languages of different peoples of the world.

Now let's move on to the question of what determines the comparative merits of individual literary languages. It does not require proof that it is determined, first of all, by the wealth of available means of expression, both for general and specific concepts. It is not so obvious that it is also determined by the richness of synonymy in general. However, it is not difficult to notice that synonymous series usually form a system of shades of the same concept, which under certain conditions may not be indifferent. Take, for example, the cycle of the word famous (as applied to a person), with which famous, outstanding, wonderful and large compete. All these words mean, of course, the same thing, but each approaches the same concept from a slightly different point of view: a great scientist is, as it were, an objective characteristic; an outstanding scientist emphasizes, perhaps, the same thing, but in a somewhat more comparative aspect; a remarkable scientist speaks of the special interest he excites; a famous scientist notes its popularity; the famous scientist does the same thing, but is different from the famous scientist superlative quality.

In a similar way, one could make out a series: some of the readers, some readers, some readers and many other synonymous series.

The importance of synonyms for denoting new concepts is not so obvious; however, it is clear that the word dancer is a synonym for the word dancer, dancer, differentiated from his fellows. Synonyms, therefore, are to some extent an arsenal of ready-made designations for newly emerging concepts, differentiated from old ones.

The technical role of synonyms is even less obvious. Meanwhile, only it gives freedom of maneuver in the literary language. Indeed: in the original draft of my report I wrote: “Two people, one way or another socially connected with each other, who, as we say, understand each other perfectly.” It turned out to be an awkward repetition of a similar expression, but the synonym with each other instead of with each other immediately saved the situation.

Finally, and this is perhaps the most important thing, although the least obvious, the dignity of a literary language is determined by the degree of complexity of the system of its means of expression in the sense as I outlined above, i.e. a wealth of ready-made possibilities to express a variety of shades.

The question is, does our Russian literary language satisfy all these requirements? The objective answer, it seems to me, is given by our truly great literature: since it was possible to create such literature, it means that our language is at the height of the tasks facing it. And I see objective confirmation that our literature is truly great in the fact that it is not only national literature, but that it is also international. Despite the difficulties of the language, it is translated and read by the whole world; Moreover, it had one or another undoubted influence on the course of world literature, and this is not stated by our, Russian scientists, who can be suspected of bias, but this is stated by foreign scientists, of whom, of course, not all of them, rather, and often not without grounds, one can suspect a reverse bias.

Turning to the consideration of the issue in the linguistic aspect, it is necessary to state, first of all, the historically established property of the Russian language - not to shun any foreign borrowings, if only they benefit the cause.

The Russian literary language began by acquiring itself through the medium of the medieval international language of Eastern Europe- Eastern Latin, if I may say so, - a language unfortunately called Church Slavonic, a whole arsenal of abstract concepts received from the Greeks. Grace, thank, blessing, passion, distraction, influx, creation and many other similar words - all this is the Greek heritage in a Slavic shell. Poetics, rhetoric, library - all these later words had their Greek predecessors in the form of piitiki, rhetoric, vivliophics, etc.

But the point is not only in this Greek heritage, but in this “Eastern Latin” itself, in this Church Slavonic language. Being, in contrast to real Latin, in general understandable to every Russian person, the so-called Church Slavonic language enriched Russian not only with the baggage of abstract concepts and words, but also with endless doublets, which immediately created in the Russian language a complex system of synonymous means of expression: he is the head of the whole matter and he is the head of this matter; as a result of the coup, the townspeople became citizens; the difference in years forced them to live separately; to give birth to children - to give birth to lofty thoughts, etc.

If the Russian literary language had not grown up in the atmosphere of Church Slavonic, then Pushkin’s wonderful poem “The Prophet,” which we still admire, would have been unthinkable. In order to make my thought more specific, I will give the text of this poem, noting all its stylistic “Church Slavonicisms”, which are perceived by everyone and therefore create a clear stylistic perspective in the language; the note will indicate historical Church Slavonicisms, more precisely, everything that has entered our literary language not from everyday life, everyday language, but from an old book, but stylistically it is not perceived as something special, although it retains a certain unique flavor, which makes it possible to more subtly stylize our speech. Elements common to literary and everyday speech remained unmarked, especially since they represent the overwhelming majority.

We are tormented by spiritual thirst In the dark desert I dragged myself, And the six-winged seraph At the crossroads appeared to me With fingers as light as a dream, He touched my eyes; The prophetic eyes opened, Like those of a frightened eagle. He touched my ears, And they were filled with noise and ringing: And I heard the trembling of the sky, And the flight of angels from above, And the underwater passage of the sea, And the vegetation of the valley below. And he came to my lips, and tore out my sinful tongue, both idle and wicked, and the wise serpent’s sting was placed in my frozen mouth by his bloody right hand. And he cut my chest with a sword, and took out my trembling heart, and pushed a coal, blazing with fire, into the open chest. Like a corpse, I lay in the desert, And God’s voice cried out to me: “Arise, prophet, and see, and heed, Be fulfilled by my will, And, going around the seas and lands, Burn the hearts of people with the Verb!”

Literary language is the common written language of a particular people, and sometimes several peoples - the language of official business documents, school teaching, written and everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form, often written, but sometimes verbally. That is why there are differences between written-book and oral-spoken forms of literary language, the emergence, correlation and interaction of which are subject to certain historical patterns. It is difficult to point out another linguistic phenomenon that would be understood as differently as literary language. Some are convinced that the literary language is the same national language, only “polished” by masters of the language, i.e. writers, word artists; Proponents of this view, first of all, have in mind the literary language of modern times and, moreover, among peoples with a rich literary literature.

Others believe that literary language is a written language, a bookish language, opposed to living speech, spoken language. The basis of this understanding is literary languages with ancient writing (compare the recent term “newly written languages”). Still others believe that a literary language is a language that is generally significant for a given people, in contrast to dialect and jargon, which do not have signs of such universal significance. Supporters of this view sometimes argue that a literary language can exist in the preliterate period as the language of folk verbal and poetic creativity or customary law.

The presence of different understandings of the phenomenon denoted by the term “literary language” indicates an insufficient disclosure by science of the specifics of this phenomenon, its place in the general system of language, its function, and its social role. Meanwhile, despite all the differences in the understanding of this phenomenon, the literary language is a linguistic reality that is not subject to any doubt.

Literary language is a means of developing social life, material and spiritual progress of a given people, an instrument of social struggle, as well as a means of educating the masses and introducing them to the achievements of national culture, science and technology. Literary language is always the result of collective creative activity. Numerous studies by Soviet scientists are devoted to general theoretical and specific historical issues of the formation of different national literary languages: the specific functions of the language of the nation in comparison with the language of the people, the exact content of the very concept of “national language” in its correlation with such categories as “literary language”, “literary norm", "national norm", "territorial dialect", "cultural dialect", "interdialect", colloquial and literary form of the national language.

To determine differences in the patterns of formation and development of national literary languages, languages with different types of traditions, at different stages of development, and formed in different historical conditions were used. Very little material has been extracted from the history of Slavic literary languages. Meanwhile, it turned out that the literary language occupies a different place in its system in different periods of the development of a people’s language. IN early periods formations of bourgeois nations, limited social groups speak the literary language, while the bulk of the rural and urban population uses dialect, semi-dialect and urban vernacular; Thus, the national language, if considered the core of the literary language, would belong to only part of the nation. Only in the era of the existence of developed national languages, especially in a socialist society, does the literary language, as the highest standardized type of the national language, gradually replace dialects and interdialects and become, both in oral and written communication, the exponent of a genuine national norm. The main feature of the development of a national language, in contrast to the language of a nationality, is the presence of a single standardized literary language, common to the entire nation and covering all spheres of communication, developed on a national basis; therefore, the study of the process of strengthening and development of the national literary norm becomes one of the main tasks of the history of the national literary language.

The medieval literary language and the new literary language associated with the formation of the nation differ in their relation to popular speech, in their range of action and, therefore, in the degree of social significance, as well as in the consistency and cohesion of their normative system and in the nature of its stylistic variation.

A special and unique place among the problems and tasks of studying the development of national literary languages is occupied by the question of the presence or absence of local (regional) literary languages (for example, in the history of Germany or Italy).

East Slavic modern national literary languages, just like West Slavic ones (in principle), do not know this phenomenon. Bulgarian, Macedonian and Slovenian languages also do not use their own literary-regional varieties. But the Serbo-Croatian language shares its functions with the regional Chakavian and Kajkavian literary languages. The specificity of this phenomenon lies in the fact that “regional” literary languages function only in the sphere of fiction and then mainly in poetry. Many poets are “bilingual”, they write in the general literary language - Shtokavian, and in one of the “regional” ones - Kajkavian or Chakavian (M. Krlezha, T. Uevich, M. Franicevic, V. Nazor, etc.).

A typical tendency for a national literary language and its development is to function in various spheres of national cultural and state life - both in oral and written communication - as one and only. This tendency makes itself felt with no less force and severity in the formation and functioning of the languages of socialist nations, where the processes of linguistic development proceed very rapidly. Usually, the gap between the written-book and folk-spoken varieties of the literary language acts as an obstacle to the development of a unified national culture on the path of progress of the people as a whole (comparison of the current situation in countries Arab East, Latin America). However, in some countries, the formation and development of a national literary language has not yet freed the people from its two variants (for example, in Norway, Albania, Armenia), although here too the tendency towards the unity of national literary languages is increasing.

A common feature of the development of national languages is the penetration of literary norms into all spheres and forms of communication and speech practice. The national literary language, increasingly displacing dialects and assimilating them, is gradually acquiring national significance and distribution.

Literary language has special properties:

The presence of certain norms (rules) of word usage, stress, pronunciation, the observance of which is of a general educational nature and does not depend on the social, professional and territorial affiliation of the speakers of a given language;

Possession of a rich lexical fund;

The desire for sustainability, for the preservation of the general cultural heritage and literary and book traditions;

Adaptability not only to designate the entire amount of knowledge accumulated by humanity, but to carry out abstract, logical thinking;

Stylistic wealth, consisting of an abundance of functionally justified variant and synonymous means, which allows you to achieve the most effective expression of thought in various speech situations.

Focus and the best organization into a unified system of linguistic elements of all levels of language: vocabulary, phraseological units, sounds, grammatical forms and constructions of a national nature; all these linguistic elements over the course of many decades, through the efforts of many generations of writers, publicists, and scientists, were selected from the national language;

Availability of written and oral forms.

Of course, these properties of the literary language did not appear immediately, but as a result of a long and skillful selection, carried out by wordsmiths, of the most accurate and significant words and phrases, the most convenient and appropriate grammatical forms and constructions. The nature of literary languages is based on certain provisions:

The evolution of folk languages is a natural-historical process, while the evolution of literary languages is a cultural-historical process. The folk language has a tendency towards dialectal fragmentation, while the literary language, on the contrary, has a tendency towards leveling, towards the establishment of uniformity. But dialect speech as unwritten speech is gradually losing its differences, since, along with the development of literacy and literary education, the population moves to the general use of the literary language. This is the process of integration in language. In literary language, on the contrary, differentiation increases: special languages are identified (for example, terminology, the language of fiction, argot). Thus, in its peripheral areas, the Russian language breaks up into separate spheres of communication associated with the division in the areas of everyday life and occupation of Russian speakers. However, there is a constant exchange between the core of the literary language and its peripheral areas. In addition, there is an expansion of the spheres of communication located around the core (for example, the language of mass media, computer science).

The purpose of a literary language is completely different from the purpose of a popular dialect. Literary language is an instrument of spiritual culture and is intended for the development, development and deepening of not only fine literature, but scientific, philosophical, religious and political thought. For these purposes, he has to have a completely different vocabulary and a different syntax than those with which popular dialects are content.

Even if a literary language arose on the basis of a particular dialect, then, due to its tasks, it is disadvantageous for it to be closely related to this dialect, since the association of a literary language with a dialect interferes with the correct perception of words that entered the literary language from the dialect, but acquired new ones in it meanings.

Folk dialects, phonetically, lexically, and even grammatically, develop much faster than the literary language, the development of which is retarded by the school and the authority of the classics. Therefore, there come moments when the literary language and folk dialects represent such different stages of development that both of them are incompatible in the same folk-linguistic creation: here there will be either a victory of the folk dialect, on the basis of which in this case a new literary language is created, or, Finally, a compromise.

If the folk language is divided into dialects on a geographical basis, then in the literary language the principle of specialization and functional differentiation prevails: educated people coming from different areas do not speak and write in exactly the same way, and by the language of a writer’s works one can often easily determine where he comes from. But differences in types appear much more strongly in the literary language. special application: in almost all modern literary languages, official business, scientific, journalistic and colloquial styles are distinguished.

If vernacular languages can influence each other only when they are in contact in space and time, then a literary language can be strongly influenced by another language, even if this latter belongs to a much older era and has never geographically come into contact with the territory of a given living literary language. language. Thus, the vocabulary of modern literary languages is largely formed from words borrowed from old cultural languages - ancient Greek, Latin, Church Slavonic, Sanskrit, Arabic. Territorial differentiation of language The division of the national language into many local varieties is obvious. It consists of dialects, adverbs, dialects. Govor is the smallest local variety of the national language; it is realized in the speech of one or several nearby settlements. Dialects, like literary languages, have their own laws. Thus, residents of one village near Moscow say: In our strength there is adin gopas ("talk"), but in Afsshtkavi it is different, and Afsyapikavi is spoken incorrectly. A set of dialects that share basic linguistic features is called a group of dialects. Treating dialects as “uncultured” speech is unfair. All dialects are equivalent from a linguistic point of view and are an integral part of Russian culture. It is dialects that underlie any literary language. If Moscow had not become the capital of Russia, the Russian literary language would have been different. The Russian literary language is based on central Central Russian dialects, i.e. Moscow dialect and the dialect of the villages surrounding Moscow. IN Lately a new classification of Russian dialects has been developed. Using a computer, it was possible to take into account about 4 thousand linguistic features from 4 thousand dialects. A territorial dialect is a territorial variety of language, characterized by the unity of its phonetic, grammatical and lexical system and used as a means of communication in a certain territory. To define a dialect, concepts such as dialect difference and isogloss are used. A distinction is a linguistic feature that contrasts one dialect with another; for example, Okanye contrasts northern Russian dialects with central and southern Russian ones, which are characterized by Akanye. An isogloss is a line on a linguistic map showing the boundaries of the distribution of a particular dialect difference; Each dialect is characterized by a set of isoglosses that record its unique linguistic features and show the boundaries of its distribution. An adverb is the largest unit of territorial division of a language, uniting several dialects. The boundaries between adverbs, dialects and patois are usually blurred and fluid; isoglosses drawn on the map show that according to one phenomenon the border passes in one place, and according to another - in another; transitional dialects are distinguished - dialects that simultaneously contain the features of two bordering dialects. The norms of a dialect or dialect are valid only for residents of a certain region or region; they are learned orally, since dialects do not have a written record. An important difference between the entire set of dialects and the literary language is that in dialects there is a wide variety of names for the same concepts, with the same stylistically neutral characteristics (for example, a rooster in southern Russian dialects is called kochet, and in northern Russian dialects - peun). Similar differences are observed in phonetics, spelling, grammar, and word formation of dialects. It follows from this that dialects cannot serve as a common language for all speakers of the national language. But dialects influence the literary language.

List of used literature

literary language patois dialect

1. Gorbachevich K.S. Norms of modern Russian literary language. - 3rd ed., rev. - M.: Education, 1989.

2. orthographic dictionary Russian language. - M., 1999.

3. Russian language and speech culture: Tutorial/ Ed. prof. O.Ya. Goykhman. - M.: INFRA-M, 2008.

4. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / Ed. prof. IN AND. Maksimova. - M.: Gardariki, 2008. - 413 p. (Recommended by the Ministry of Education Russian Federation as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions).

5. . Rosenthal D.E. Practical stylistics of the Russian language. M.: LLC Publishing House AST-LTD, 1998.

6. Gorbachevich K.S. Norms of modern Russian literary language. - 3rd ed., rev. - M.: Education, 1989.

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How do the terms national state literary language relate? Literary and national language

Literary norm

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