The use of phraseological units in speech. Correct use of phraseological units
Terminological apparatus: phraseology, phraseological unit (phraseological unit), phraseological norm, phraseological error.
A special place in the language system is occupied by phraseological units - lexically indivisible, stable in their composition and structure, combinations of words that are integral in meaning, reproduced in the form of a ready-made speech unit (go with the flow, Keep your nose in the wind, circle your finger, take a word, provide support and t.
Such units are studied in the section of linguistics called "Phraseology". Phraseology as an independent linguistic discipline arose relatively recently, and therefore, not all questions related to the features of this language unit have received a complete 32
AND UNIFORM COVERAGE IN SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE.
So, for example, the boundaries of phraseology are still not outlined: some researchers understand it narrowly and attribute to phraseologists only those combinations of words in which each individual word does not realize all their qualities (clarity of meaning is lost, the word is not used in all forms). THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PHRASEOLOGY IS FREQUENTLY TRANSLATED IN ONE WORD. For example, a book with seven seals - "MYSTERY". IN THIS CASE YOU SHOULD NOT ALREADY USE THE WORD BOOK IN THE PLURAL OR, FOR EXAMPLE, REPLACE COMPONENT SEVEN FOR FIVE. SUCH ARE THE FEATURES OF A NEW LINGUISTIC UNITS THAT HAVE OWN CHARACTERISTICS IN COMPARISON WITH THE COMPONENTS INCLUDED IN IT. WITH THIS UNDERSTANDING OF PHRASEOLOGY, ITS MAIN FEATURE BECOMES THE STABILITY OF THE COMPONENT COMPOSITION AND THE IMPOSSIBILITY OF THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PHRASEOLOGY FROM THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ITS COMPONENTS.
WITH A BROAD UNDERSTANDING OF PHRASEOLOGY, IT INCLUDES PROVERBS, SAYINGS, APHORISMS (“Man - it sounds proud!” A. M. GORKY); Prepositional-nominal combinations (in moderation, on the go); TERMINOLOGICAL COMBINATIONS (railway, Ministry of Education, tax inspection); FORMULA SPEECH ETIQUETTE(good morning, be kind). In this case, the criteria of phraseology as a linguistic unit are blurred, since the components of phraseology retain the qualities of the word, and the meaning of phraseology is no different from the meaning, which is transmitted by a free phrase or sentence.
HOWEVER, THE BASIC QUALITY OF PHRASEOLOGY (BOTH IN A NARROW AND IN A BROAD UNDERSTANDING) - the stability of the composition of the components - REMAINS UNCHANGED. EXACTLY THIS CHARACTERISTIC OF PHRASEOLOGY IS ASSOCIATED WITH REPRODUCIBILITY, the essence of which is that the SPEAKER, while formulating HIS THOUGHT, CAN USE THE LANGUAGE UNIT AS A READY CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL. IT SHOULD BE REMEMBERED THAT SEMANTICALLY PHRASEOLOGY IS FREQUENTLY RELATED TO A WORD AND FORMALLY TO A PHRASE. THE LAST CIRCUMSTANCE DETERMINES THE VARIATION OF PHRASEOLOGY.
VARIABILITY IS MEANING such a modification of a phraseological unit, in which the distortion of its meaning, stylistic characteristics and syntactic function is not allowed. FOR EXAMPLE, a copper (broken) penny is not worth it; the heart went to the heels (heart in the heels); Went to the backyard (Went back down).
MOST PHRASEOLOGIES IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE ALLOW A FREE WORD ORDER (to bend your back - to bend your back), HOWEVER, IN SOME CASES THIS LEADS TO THE DESTRUCTION OF PHRASEOLOGISM (WE CAN SAY: goose-footed, BUT IT IS NOT POSSIBLE: the hand-footed goose; MONEY DOES NOT peck chickens).
THE FEATURE OF PHRASEOLOGISM TO HAVE A STABLE COMPONENT COMPOSITION GENERATES A LARGE NUMBER OF SPEECH ERRORS:
1) ILLEGAL REPLACEMENT OF THE COMPONENT FE (The leadership of the region itself should not sit idly by: not sleeves, but hands);
2) truncating the composition of PU (All this is fraught: it is necessary to add consequences);
3) INCLUDING AN EXTRA COMPONENT INTO THE FE (vote “for” with both of your hands: you must remove it with your own);
4) CHANGE in the form of phraseological units (They were above the heads of everyone who competed in the competition: you need to replace the genitive case with the accusative - to be head and shoulders above everyone else).
5) contamination, which is understood as an association-based erroneous combination of two different phraseological units as part of one (This story has long sunk into mite: CONNECTION OF PHRASEOLOGISMS sink into oblivion and contribute).
THE PHRASEOLOGICAL SYSTEM OF THE LANGUAGE IS REPRESENTED BY DIFFERENT CLASSIFICATIONS. FOR EXAMPLE, FEATURES DIFFERENTIATE IN STYLE. MOST OF THE PHRASEOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE refers to the colloquial style, since by origin it goes back to oral folk speech: the chamber of mind, headlong, in all shoulder blades, the bear stepped on the ear.
IF THE PHRASEOLOGISM INCLUDES ROUGH WORDS, then they refer to colloquial phraseological phrases: to turn the shafts, the lip is not a fool, to fight like a Sidor's goat.
BELONGING TO A STYLE IS DETERMINED TO A LOT BY THE ORIGIN OF PHRASEOLOGISMS. SO, PHRASEOLOGISMS, COMING FROM OTHER LANGUAGES, are, as a rule, related to the book style. This is especially true of the Old Slavonic language: for the coming sleep, the sign of the times, the cornerstone, the Babylonian pandemonium.
SPHERE OF USE OF LITERARY-BOOK PHRASEOLOGISMS - PUBLICISTIC, OFFICIAL-BUSINESS, SCIENTIFIC STYLES.
MANY PHRASEOLOGISMS COME TO THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE FROM PROFESSIONAL SPEECH: confuse - FROM THE SPEECH OF THE RAILWAY workers, a teaspoon per hour - FROM THE SPEECH OF MEDICAL DOCTORS, the game is not worth the candle - FROM THE SPEECH OF FURNIERS, a second wind - FROM THE SPEECH OF athletes, etc. PROFESSIONAL SPEECH GENERATES, AS A RULE, PHRASEOLOGISMS OF TALKING CHARACTER.
Stylistically neutral phraseological phrases include phraseological phrases that perform a nominative function: they name objects, actions and phenomena without evaluating them. For example, keep your word, at least from time to time, year after year.
Phraseological units are classified according to their origin. The MOST part is made up of original Russian phraseological units, the smaller part is borrowed. Borrowed stable turns in the original in the letter are transmitted in Latin, the most famous - in the letters of the Russian alphabet (post factum - "after done" and Latin post factum).
Stable combinations formed by word-for-word translation are called phraseological calques (railroad - French chemin de fer). In some cases, tracing turns include words that are used in Russian as borrowings (adopt a resolution - French prendre une resolution). Otherwise, such units are called semicalcs.
It should be remembered that the expressive possibilities of phraseology are great. The use of phraseological units in speech creates figurativeness, brightness, and, as a rule, indicates a good level of language training of the speaker. However, the problem lies in the fact that not every native speaker is able to use set expressions accurately, so phraseologisms can be used only if they have a clear understanding of their meaning.
Tasks for self-control
5.1. Prepare a message on the topic “V.V. Vinogradov and his classification of phraseological units according to the degree of semantic fusion. Pay special attention to the possibilities of using phraseological units in different communicative situations.
5.2. Correct the mistakes, taking into account the norms of lexical and phraseological compatibility; explain the nature of the errors.
Option 1. 1. High bow to you! 2. She fulfilled all our requests and comments. 3. All set goals have been achieved. 4. The appearance of Nikolai Baskov puts a certain trail on this problem. 5. I will vote “for” with all my two hands. 6. I asked you in black and white. 7. Dmitriev left, Ruslan picked up the palm. 8. They were above the heads of everyone who competed in the competition. 9. The leadership of the region itself should not sit idly by. 10. The speaker is indignant about the sale of the monastery: "In fact, it's too late to wave." 11. Reading science fiction novels instilled in young men a love of travel, dreams of conquering space. 12. Special assistance and personal participation in the conduct of the Spartakiad was provided by the head of the Depot and the chairman of the trade union committee. 13. How many years In the afternoon with a lantern, the country is looking for a national idea, but it turns out to be on the surface. 14. I hear what is being said. 15. How to stop these Sisyphean torments?16. Now, on the last kilometers, she needs to clench her teeth into a fist and run.
Option 2. 1. My mouth even drooped in surprise. 2. There is an improvement in the patient's condition, he stretches his legs on his own. 3. Our troops made a crushing blow, the enemy was defeated. 4. Well, who else has hosted us? (we are talking about participation in the Olympiad). 5. The first lump of pancake. 6. Azazello in the novel is Woland's first hand. 7. A good leader should show an example to his subordinates in everything. 8. Their strong friendship was noticed by many. 9. Yesterday I was sad.10. Police fired batons, tear gas grenades, and firearms at the youth. 11. I did not consider it possible to fulfill this order. 12. This story has long sunk into mite. 13. Crime has fallen to critical limits. 14. He wedged himself into his confidence. 15. He wanted to express resentment, but his tongue was dumbfounded.
5.3. Divide the examples into two groups: 1) with a violation of the form of the phraseological unit component, 2) with an illegal replacement of the phraseological unit component.
Money - the cat cried; the lion's share of the profit; play a role in the development of the enterprise; play the main violin in a criminal case; succeed in major competitions; waste the nerves of your relatives; cheese-boron was brewed; praise to smithereens; take the cow by the horns; bring to the clean side; don't look a gift horse in the ear; everything is back to normal; beat with bucks; all cats are black at night; roosters are counted in autumn; as if he had taken cold water into his mouth; stunned me like snow in the head; did not want to hit the face in the dirt; ask slanderous questions; turned up at hand.
NORMATIVE ASPECT OF SPEECH CULTURE
The concept of the language norm
The language norm (literary norm) is the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. the rules for pronunciation, word usage, the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other language tools accepted in social and linguistic practice. This is a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).
The norm is obligatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. There are orthoepic, spelling, lexical, word-formation, morphological, syntactic, punctuation norms.
Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect regular processes and phenomena occurring in the language and are supported by speech practice. The main sources of the language norm include the works of classical writers and contemporary writers, language of mass media, common modern usage, …
data from live and questionnaire surveys, scientific research by linguists.
Norms help the literary language to maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional slang, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function.
The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Language means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be ridiculous in another (official business communication). The norm does not divide the means of language into good and bad, but points to their communicative expediency.
Language norms are a historical phenomenon. The change in literary norms is due to the constant development of the language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago may become a deviation from it today. For example, in the 1930s and 1940s, the words graduate student and student were used to express the same concept: "A student doing a thesis." Word graduate student was a colloquial version of the word student. In the literary norm of the 50-60s. there was a distinction in the use of these words: the former colloquial graduate student now denotes a student, a student in the period of defending a thesis, receiving a diploma. Word student they began to name mainly the winners of competitions, prize-winners of reviews, competitions awarded with a diploma (for example, diploma winner of the All-Union Piano Competition, diploma winner of the International Vocal Competition).
The competition between the old, original norm (A) and the new one (B) takes place in four stages.
The first stage is dominated by single form A, her option B is outside the literary language and is considered incorrect. At the second stage, option B already penetrates the literary language, is considered acceptable (mark additional) and, depending on the degree of its distribution, qualifies as colloquial (mark colloquial) in relation to norm A or equal to it (litter AND). At the third stage, the older norm A loses its dominant role, finally gives way to the younger norm B and passes into the category of obsolete norms. At the fourth stage, B becomes the only norm of the literary language.
The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: live, colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargons; other languages.
The change of norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants that really exist in the language at a certain stage of its development, are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in the dictionaries of the modern literary language.
The indicators of various normative dictionaries give grounds to speak of three degrees of normativity:
norm 1 degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;
the norm of the 2nd degree is neutral, it allows equivalent options;
the norm of the 3rd degree is more mobile, allows the use of colloquial, as well as obsolete forms.
The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, the change in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the improvement of relationships between people, the functioning of literature and art lead to a constant renewal of the literary language and its norms.
According to scientists, the process of changing language norms has become especially active in recent decades.
Lexical norms
Lexical norms , i.e., the rules for the use of words in speech require special attention. The word should be used in the meaning (literal or figurative) that it has and which is recorded in the dictionaries of the Russian language. Violation of lexical norms leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement.
For the correct use of words in speech, it is not enough to know their exact meaning, it is also necessary to take into account the features of lexical compatibility, that is, their ability to connect with each other. So, "similar" adjectives long, lengthy, lengthy, lengthy, lengthy combined with nouns in different ways: long period long period(but not long, long, long period) long way, long way; long-term fees, long-term credit. Often words with the same value may have different lexical combinability (true friend- original document).
Combining words into phrases can run into various kinds of restrictions. Firstly, words may not be combined due to their semantic incompatibility. Can't say purple orange, leaned back, the water is burning. Secondly, the combination of words into a phrase can be excluded due to their grammatical nature. (my- swim close- cheerful). Thirdly, the combination of words may be hindered by their lexical features. Yes, it is customary to say cause grief, trouble, but you can't say bring joy, pleasure.
Violation of lexical compatibility can be dictated by the conscious desire of the speaker (writer) to surprise listeners (readers) with an unusual combination of words, which often leads to a comic effect.
Violation of lexical norms may be due to the fact that speakers mix words that are similar in sound but different in meaning.
To clarify the lexical norms of the modern literary language, it is recommended to use explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, special reference literature.
The main types of lexical errors are presented in the table
| ERROR TYPE | EXAMPLES | |
| 1. | The use of a word in an unusual sense | We were shocked by the wonderful performance of the actors. The thought develops on the continuation of the entire text. |
| 2. | Non-distinguishing of paronyms | My attitude to this problem has not changed. Effective measures have been taken. |
| 3. | Indistinguishing synonyms | In the final sentence, the author uses gradation |
| 4. | Inappropriate use of words and phraseological units of a different stylistic coloring | The author, addressing this problem, is trying to send people into a slightly different rut. Astafiev now and then resorts to the use of metaphors and personifications. |
| 5. | Unjustified use of colloquial words | Such people always manage to fool others. |
| 6. | Violation of lexical compatibility | The author enhances the impression. The author uses artistic features. |
| 7. | The use of unnecessary words, incl. pleonasm | The author conveyed the beauty of the landscape to us with the help of artistic techniques. A very handsome young man... |
Correct use of phraseological units
Particular attention should be paid to the use of phraseological units in speech, that is, linguistic units that are complex in composition and have a stable character. (puzzle, exaggerate, the cat cried, upside down).
Phraseological units are characterized by the constancy of the composition, which implies the prevention of replacement of any. elements. Phraseology cannot be replaced the cat cried the expression "the cat cried" spread your mind- "scatter with the mind" or "scatter the head."
Most phraseological units do not allow the inclusion of new components. So, it is impossible to distribute phraseological units lower your head, lower your eyes: lower your head low, lower your sad gaze even lower.
Phraseological units are inherent in the stability of the grammatical structure, they usually do not change the form of the components. Can't say beat the bucket, grind the lyas, replacing forms plural baklush, lyas singular forms.
Most phraseological units have a strictly fixed word order. For example, you cannot swap words in expressions neither light nor dawn; everything flows, everything changes, although at first glance the value would remain unchanged.
The main condition for the correctness of speech is the use of phraseological units in accordance with their exact value. Distortion of the meaning of stable combinations is unacceptable: Today we escort to the last journey their older comrades...
Phraseologisms, as a rule, are used in a figurative sense, however, in some cases, the content of speech suggests their incorrect (literal) interpretation, for example: This year Aeroflot succeeded keep the flow of passengers high level ; Aviators on their wings always on time come to the rescue (walk on wings?).
Speakers and authors who are inattentive to their speech most often distort the composition of phraseological units. At the same time, extra words are mistakenly inserted into stable combinations, for example: The writer goes to one keep up with your time; chief The highlight of the evening's program was the magician's performance. Mixing (contamination) of phraseological units is unacceptable, for example: Gathered here narrow circle of limited people (narrow circle, limited circle of people); His caught on parole (caught on the word, honestly).
The reduction of phraseological units cannot be justified, however, sometimes they are given inaccurately, omitting one or another word. For example, they say: this is an aggravating circumstance(instead of aggravating guilt circumstance). Erroneously truncated phraseological units lose their meaning, their use in speech can lead to the absurdity of the statement: The success of this student wishes the best(instead of leave wish for the best); Coach Williamson made a good face (omitted: bad game).
Often there is a distortion of the lexical composition of phraseological units: Without philosophizing for a long time (instead of slyly). False associations sometimes give rise to funny and ridiculous errors: Let's see which one of them hides an ax in his bosom(holds a stone in his bosom); The farther into the forest the more chips fly; This business not worth a penny.
A change in the composition of a phraseological unit can be caused by updating grammatical forms, for example: Children killed the worms and have fun(you can not use the plural instead of the singular in phraseology freeze the worm); her head whitened with gray hair (instead of gray hairs); He was not from the timid ten(timid ten).
As part of phraseological units, distortion of prepositions should not be allowed: He never thought that these words would come true in his destiny with full measure (instead of fully). Available incorrect choice case forms and prepositions in phraseological units: reluctantly, those holding power, a tablecloth for him on the road, his head is spinning. To avoid such mistakes, you should refer to phraseological dictionaries
Lexical norms regulate the rules for the use of words, i.e. the accuracy of the choice of the word in accordance with the meaning of the statement and the appropriateness of its use in the social meaning and generally accepted combinations. When determining lexical norms, one should take into account changes in the vocabulary of the language: the polysemy of a word, the phenomena of synonymy, antonymy, stylistic consideration of vocabulary, the concept of active and passive vocabulary, the social sphere of vocabulary use, the need for a justified choice of a word in a specific speech situation, and many others.
Changes in the vocabulary of the Russian language occur in parallel with changes in the life of society, to denote new phenomena in social life either a new word can be created with the help of word-building means existing in the language, or a foreign word can be borrowed, or a complex, compound name can be formed, or, finally, a word that already exists in the language is adapted, which in this case modifies its meaning in a certain way (and often with stylistic coloring).
ambiguity the presence of a word with several (two or more) meanings is called. The consequences of a careless attitude to polysemantic words are the ambiguity and ambiguity of the expression, as well as the unlawful, excessive expansion of the meanings of known words.
Homonymy should be distinguished from ambiguity. Homonyms- these are words that coincide in sound, the same in form, but the meanings of which are in no way connected with each other, i.e. do not contain any common elements of meaning. Allocate lexical homonyms(words that match in all grammatical forms), homophones(words that are spelled differently but pronounced the same, e.g.: meadow - bow), homoforms(words that sound the same in some grammatical form, for example: clear glass – roof glass) and homographs(words that have the same form but different sound, For example: lock – lock). Reduces the accuracy of speech ignorance of existence in the language paronyms- words that are close, similar in sound and spelling, but different in meaning (for example: excavator – escalator).
Synonymy is the opposite of polysemy and homonymy. With synonymy different shape expresses the same (or similar) content. Synonyms- these are words that sound differently, but are the same or very close in meaning. They are conceptual(close, not exactly identical in meaning) and stylistic(identical in meaning, but having a different stylistic coloring). The presence of synonyms ensures the expressiveness of speech and at the same time obliges all speakers and writers to be attentive to the choice of a word from a number of close, similar ones.
Antonyms are words from opposite meaning. They have long been used as a technique for creating contrasting patterns, for a sharp contrast between signs and phenomena.
A number of words are provided in explanatory dictionaries with the marks “high”, “bookish”, on the one hand, and “colloquial”, “colloquial” - on the other. These marks indicate the stylistic stratification of vocabulary. The main part of the vocabulary fund is the so-called “ neutral” vocabulary, against the background of which the expressive possibilities of stylistically colored words appear, the use of which in speech requires a developed linguistic instinct and aesthetic taste.
Vocabulary can be viewed in terms of active and passive vocabulary. Passive vocabulary includes obsolete words: archaisms(obsolete synonyms for modern words) and historicisms(obsolete words denoting former concepts that do not exist now), as well as new words (neologisms). Separate obsolete words “return” to the active fund of the dictionary, sometimes acquiring new meanings, for example: thought, governor, banker, goalkeeper.
From the point of view of the social sphere of use, all the words of the Russian language can be divided into the vocabulary of an unlimited sphere of use and the vocabulary of a limited sphere of use, which include professionalism(words and expressions used in oral speech by people of the same profession), dialectisms(elements of territorial dialects used by native speakers of the literary language), terms(exact designations of certain concepts of any special field of science, technology, art), jargon(elements of various social dialects in literary speech). Words of limited use may eventually enter the lexical composition of the literary language. At the same time, regional words lose their dialect coloring (for example: outskirts, plow, stubble), and the terms are determinologized (for example: public reaction, Wednesday, atmosphere).
The clarity and intelligibility of speech depends on the correct use of borrowed (foreign language) words in it. Errors in their use are associated primarily with ignorance of the exact meaning of the word, which often leads to pleonasm(speech redundancy), for example: first debut, memorable souvenirs. Pleonasm is a type tautology- the use of adjacent single-root words in speech.
Phraseological norms- these are the rules for the use of phraseological units, non-free combinations of words that are not produced in speech, but are reproduced in it. Phraseologisms are distinguished by a stable ratio of semantic content, lexical composition and grammatical structure, therefore any changes in the composition and structure of these expressions lead to speech errors.
Questions:
2. Describe the vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of the scope of its use.
3. What is the richness of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language?
4. Give a description of lexical speech errors associated with a violation of the requirement for a justified choice of a word in a certain speech situation.
5. What are the features phraseological norms? Describe the main types of phraseological speech errors.
Tasks:
Exercise 1. Determine the meaning of the following words. Make up some sentences with them.
Appeal, concentrate, apogee, arrangement, acoustics, subscription, run, balance, vernissage, stained glass, gravity, size, gamma, hypothesis, vacuum, lawn, roasting, gourmet, degradation, decade, range, detector, dessert, jumble, ordinary, ideogram, illusion, instinct, intonation, cavalcade, cinematography, creed, lobbies, conflict, lexicon, leitmotif, mannequin, memoirs, matrix, meridian, meager, ignorant, outskirts, ornament, pleiad, claim, prosody, fiction, aesthetics, title.
Task 2. Write out single-valued words first, then polysemantic ones. Motivate your answer.
B. Admiral, diver, year, rook, university, run, Tuesday, trainee, lampshade.
V. Fugitive, harp, biologist, dawn, thing, hero, go, soil, fire, house.
Task 3. Determine which of the underlined words are used in a figurative sense.
1. So burning with self-will, grumbled youth daring. (A. Pushkin.). 2. I want to breathe near warm body of art.(M. Svetlov). 3. Furious the wind pushed traveler in the back. (M. Matusovsky). 4. The book is spiritual testament one generation to another. (A. Herzen) 5. Had favorite words and their grandfather let them out in an hour. (N. Nekrasov).
Task 4. Eliminate errors associated with the use of words without regard to their semantics.
1. One act of Chatsky led me into confusion. 2. Now many writers are closely involved in politics. 3. The students listened intently to the artist's performance. 4. But before using the material and lightly vibrating it, I want to state my thoughts about Bazarov. 5. The idea of this work is to call on the Russian princes to incarnate into a single principality and stand up for the defense of the Russian land. 6. All this draws the idea of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". 7. Sketches also help the reader understand the text better. This is a wayward explanation. 8. Students themselves can put questions to the speaker. 9. "Garnet Bracelet" - one of the most confirming works of Kuprin.
Task 5. Indicate the errors associated with the violation of the lexical compatibility of words.
1. The students listened twice to the conversation about the work of I. Bunin. 2. The story "Duel" by Kuprin was prepared by a whole galaxy of stories dedicated to the life of the army. 3. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" will be understood by every person who truly loves his homeland. 4. A peculiar cult of Pushkin came from Bunin's mother. 5. Many were unable to solve problems and ended up on the edge of poverty. 6. In the image of Igor, selfless courage and military fervor are distinguished. 7. Tell me what time it is. 8. Each student expressed his credo.
Task 6. Determine the meaning of the following words of paronyms. Explain what causes errors in their use.
Subscriber - subscription, dress - put on, diplomat - student, romantic - romantic, reason - justification, weighty - weighty, careful - thrifty, addressee - addresser, courtier - feigned, serf - serf owner, statute - status.
Task 7. Distribute the synonyms into groups: 1) semantic, 2) stylistic.
Calm, calm, calm, calm; applaud, applaud, clap; take out, take out; pale, dim, faded, dull; duty, obligation; love, falling in love, passion, passion; break, respite, change, smoke break; poet, poet, piit, bard, singer; gray, smoky, ashen, mouse.
Task 8. Determine which words given in brackets can be combined with members of the same synonymic series. Specify what other words they can be combined with.
A. Silent, silent, mute (recognition, forest, grief, man); big, large, healthy (child, grain, oak, city, sum, wrestler); overseas, overseas, foreign (product, language, events); refined, refined (manner, food).
B. Personal, individual, personal (transport, car, freedom, right); incredible, unimaginable, inconceivable, unbelievable (laziness, noise, tension, container); lively, lively, lively (street, conversation, trade, game); unpleasant, annoying, offensive (error, omission, oversight, slip, incident).
Task 9. Read the following examples from the works of M.Yu. Lermontov. Write down their antonyms. Determine what part of speech they belong to stylistic function perform in a literary text. Are there contextual antonyms among the given examples??
1. But for a long time this heart withered, and peace be upon him! - in a single moment it stopped loving and hating: not everyone is destined for such happiness! 2. No! persecution has never been able to cool love; She is her own good and evil! 3. Look where the abusive smoke is redder, where the dust is thicker and the cry of death is stronger, where the dead and the living are covered with blood ... 4. Dark bushes hang to the right, touching their hats ... to the left - the abyss; along the edges a row of red stones, here and there always ready to collapse . 5. And you will not wash away the righteous blood with your black blood of a poet.
Task 10. Highlight archaic words. Explain how they differ from historicisms. Determine the role played by obsolete words in speech.
1. Caftan, falconer, altyn, velmi.
2. Charm, magical, kissing, fiery.
3. March, erect, speak, inspire.
4. Battle, oprichnina, squad, division.
5. Gymnasium student, serf, knight, maiden.
6. Bailiff, bursa, bulldozer, especially (especially).
Task 11. Analyze the highlighted words and indicate to which lexical group in terms of the scope of its use they belong: 1) the word of the national language; 2) dialectism; 3) jargon; 4) professionalism.
1. How much in his youth he was disliked, unfinished (A. Surkov). 2. The regiment went variable gait, and the horses were noticeably sweaty (M. Sholokhov). 3. Treasures music inexhaustible (D. Shostakovich) 4. A cap of blond curls swayed on his big head (M. Gorky). 5. Panting, Andrey pulls the reins, introduces on the bases a horse staggering from fatigue (M. Sholokhov). 6. Falcon peregrine falcon a flying flock of ducks beats from above (N. Przhevalsky). 7. The steamer departed to land on landing stage(K. Fedin). 8. The swan answers the prince: "The light about the squirrel is true beats"(A. Pushkin) 9. Fight - fight is not a toy; even though the face burns with fire, even though the German is red yushka decorated like an egg (A. Tvardovsky).
Task 12. Find out for what purpose professional terminological vocabulary is used in the given examples: 1) to describe technical processes; 2) as a means of figurative characteristics.
1. Pokrovsky plant sends us plowshares tractor plows, harrow teeth(P. Proskurin). 2. His face is ugly, but very inviting. The nostrils are fleshy, mobile, and the eyes – like two traffic light(G. Nikolaeva). 3. crop rotations approved, sitting on the nose (G. Nikolaev). 4. The wind started in the pine forest. Clearly transit the wind that came here from another continent (I. Petrov). 5. Inner cavity valve isolated from the external environment bellows device. 6. Fast acting integral regulator power has a strong stabilizing effect on the power distribution control system. 7. Martins, bloomings, caissons– behold the tribe of thy idols. You lived physically sleeplessly, but morally cowardly asleep (E. Yevtushenko). 8. I am a troubadour turbogenerators(A. Voznesensky). ten. Hydraulic turbines they are built only stationary and used at hydroelectric power plants to drive hydrogenerators.
Task 13. Make up sentences with the following foreign-language words. Specify for each of them the source language, using the information from the Dictionary of Foreign Words.
Compasses, fantasy, despot, vacancy, assault, pate, patriot, barbecue, prestige, tunnel, officer, conservative, trend, guard, talent, cosmopolitan, bazaar, piano, screen, aroma.
Task 14. Find clericalisms, edit sentences.
1. Due to the lack of discipline, the class did not go to the theater. 2. All students should be aware of the changes in the class schedule. 3. The above students did not come to school. 4. It is necessary to bring to the attention of all students about the conduct general meeting. 5. The question of discipline was acute at the meeting.
Task 15. Correct errors related to verbosity, determine their type.
1. I already talked about my autobiography in the introductory article. 2. The Institute has developed new methods and developments on this issue. 3. The patient was immediately admitted to the hospital. 4. The firm announced a vacancy for the position of chief accountant. 5. It is still unknown who is the creator of this unique creation. 6. Already at the beginning of his career as a writer, strengths and weaknesses were identified. 7. There is no longer a significant difference between nature and man. 8. Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin" is one of the most complex Pushkin's works. 9. She had very huge eyes. 10. The president of the firm called on everyone to work together. 11. It is necessary to realistically and without illusions weigh our economic chances. 12. The princes did not want to understand that the unification of their troops into a single army was necessary.
Task 16. Explain the meaning of borrowed words. Assess the appropriateness of their use.
1. My friend recently bought a bike. 2. For an artist, bucks and bucks were not the main thing in life. 3. The foreigner paid fifteen clean American greens for the painting. 4. One of the features of a non-market economy is the shortage of goods and services. 5. The task of the government is to curb inflation. 6. The hero of the day was presented with a fashionable case. 7. After much debate, the meeting reached a consensus. 8. It is necessary to give the protest a legitimate form. 9. When buying an imported thing, be sure to study the label (label). 10. The organizers of theatrical performances, all kinds of shows strive to get not only profit, but also publicity.
Task 17. Give a stylistic characterization of the given phraseological expressions.
Achilles heel, white crow, wash your hands, puppet government, play the fool, knee-deep sea, first swallow, get into trouble, in broad daylight, lead by the nose, fall for the bait, the cat cried, set a bath.
Task 18.Using dictionaries, determine the meaning of phraseological units and the scope of their use. Choose phraseological units-synonyms for them.
Rub glasses, one or two, and miscalculated, in openwork, in full swing, wash your hands, under your boot, a drop in the ocean, too tough, climb on the rampage, the trail caught a cold, a little light, cut with the same brush.
Lesson 4
Morphological norms
n1.doc
5. Norms of phraseology and phraseological errorsPhraseology(from Greek phrase- expression, turnover and logos - doctrine) - a section of linguistics that studies phraseological units - stable expressions in the language, as well as the totality of these expressions.
Phraseologisms(phraseological units, phraseological turns, phrasemes) are stable, semantically non-free combinations of words, constant in their meaning, composition and structure, reproduced in speech as ready-made and integral lexical units. Phraseologisms can combine features of words, phrases and sentences: white crow, soar in the clouds, it is written with a pitchfork on the water. They can be unambiguous with an open mind- "without prejudice") and - less often - ambiguous ( Alpha and Omega- “beginning and end”, “essence, basis, most important”), may have synonyms ( from all legs, in full swing, headlong), antonyms ( in the sweat of your face - through the sleeves) and – rarely – homonyms ( open (open) mouth- “start talking, disagree, object sharply”; to open (open) one's mouth- "to be extremely amazed, to listen, to be absent-minded, inattentive").
Phraseological unions(idioms - from Greek idioma - a peculiar expression) - semantically indecomposable phrases, the meaning of which is not derived from the meanings of their constituent words: beat the buckets, play the fool, eat the dog, get into a mess, sharpen the foxes, on the topic of the day, the talk of the town, without hesitation etc.
Phraseological units- stable combinations, a single, integral meaning of which is metaphorically motivated by the direct meanings of their constituent words: white crow, make them fly an elephant, bring them to a white heat, shot sparrow, scratch with your tongue and etc.
Phraseological unions and phraseological units are equivalent to a word and have the same features (reproducibility, integrity, nominativity, independence, hierarchy, two-sidedness, etc.).
Phraseological combinations semantically decomposable, each word in them has its own meaning, but along with words that have free meanings, there is a word with a non-free, phraseologically related meaning: bosom friend, cry fashion, callous eyes, cry sobbing.
Phraseological expressions- phrases and sentences, semantically segmented and entirely consisting of words with free meanings, but in the process of communication reproduced as ready-made linguistic units with a constant composition and meaning. Phraseological expressions include aphorisms (winged words), proverbs and sayings: Love for all ages(Pushkin); To be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest(proverb); Money account love(proverb).
Aphorism(from Greek aphorismos- saying) - a complete thought, expressed concisely and succinctly: Genius and villainy - two things incompatible(Pushkin).
Winged words - figurative, well-aimed expressions, sayings (quotes) that are in common use. Winged words (aphorisms) differ from phraseological units, proverbs and sayings in that they have an author: Whoever came to our land with a sword - he will die by the sword(A. Nevsky); Man - that sounds proud(Bitter); And we hurry to live, And we hurry to feel(Lermontov); Speak so that I can see you(Socrates), etc.
Proverb- a short, stable expression, mostly figurative, which, unlike a proverb, does not constitute a complete statement, which has a literal meaning: The apple never falls far from the tree; A smart man won't tell, a fool won't understand; No matter how much the rope winds, there will still be an end; No matter how much you feed the wolf, everyone looks into the forest; God loves trinity and etc.
Proverb- a short folk saying with a complete meaning, instructive content and figurative meaning: Live and learn; You can’t even pull a fish out of a pond without effort; Do you like to ride - love to carry sleds; The quieter you go, the further you'll get; Take care of the dress again, and honor - from a young age and etc.
Phraseology norms- rules for the use of phraseological units in strict accordance with their lexical meaning, composition and form of words in their composition, as well as compatibility.
Phraseological errors- this is a distortion of the composition of phraseological units, word forms in their composition, use in an unusual meaning, a violation of the semantic and stylistic compatibility of a phraseological unit.
Types of phraseological errors
1.Replacing a word in a phraseological unit: She keeps him in her urchins mittens(mittens); Came to hat parsing (capped); They put him bars in wheels (sticks); Ivanushka grew by leaps and bounds, but at night(by hours); I have fulfilled the lion's part work (share), etc.
2.Truncation of a phraseological unit(missing word): I more or less ready for the exam (over or less); His successes leave much to be desired ... ( the best); You work for wear and tear, and this is fraught ... ( serious / unpleasant consequences); There is nothing to fight ... against the wall - it's your own fault ( head); Khlestakov throws beads ..., and everyone believes him ( before the pigs) etc.
3. Expansion of the lexical composition of a phraseological unit(extra word): It's time for you to take on mine mind; Not everyone can give good, worthy rebuff; I'm up to this his I will not forget the coffin; You didn't apply to that address; returned to paternal native penates; He has a heavy strong hand etc. .
4.Distortion of the grammatical form of components (words) in the composition of phraseological units: stop hitting bucket- it's time to work buckets); Nothing to pour crocodiles tears ( crocodile); Robbery among the white days ( mid-white); Don't go to barefoot leg ( barefoot); I'm a little crazy enough(enough); he works having let down sleeves ( later); returned to native penates (to relatives penates) etc.
5.Contamination(from Latin contamination- mixing) - mixing and combining parts of two phraseological units similar in form or meaning: He was out of his skin(climbed out of the skin + was exhausted); I am a grated sparrow(grated kalach + shot sparrow); It has a big role(meaning + plays a role); This issue has been given serious consideration.(pay attention + give importance); The book produced on people big influence (make an impression + influence), etc.
6. Pleonastic combinations with phraseological units: random stray bullet, guiding Ariadne thread, vulnerable Achilles' heel, vain monkey work, sing laudatory praises, unrhymed white verses, etc.
7. The use of phraseological units in an unusual meaning and, as a consequence of this, semantic mismatch: A trip to Italy is my cherished a swan song (a swan song- dying, farewell song); "The time has come for us go out to big road ", - said a graduate of the school ( get out on the big road- engage in robbery, robbery); We finish the work, for today our the song is sung(the song is sung- someone's success, prosperity, life has ended or is nearing its end); Watched the show fully (fully, i.e. completely, read books); His Sisyphean labor finally got positive results Sisyphean labor- hard, endless and fruitless work), etc.
8.Violation of the stylistic compatibility of phraseological units(the use of phraseological units of reduced stylistic coloring in book styles, and vice versa - book phraseological units in everyday situations): Kalashnikov set the heat Kiribeevich; Helen made Pierre Bezukhov cash cow, and herself instructed him horns; my husband Golden calf overcame; etc.
Stylistic stratification of phraseological units.
Proverbs and sayings of the Russian people.
Winged words in speech.
1.Ashukin, N.S. Winged words / N.S. Ashukin, M.G. Ashukina. - M., 1987.
2.Golub, I.B. Stylistics of the Russian language / I.B. Golub. - M., 1997.
3.Zhukov, V.P. Dictionary of Russian proverbs and sayings. - M., 1991.
4. Phraseological dictionary of the Russian language. - M., 1986.
6. Norms of morphology and morphological errors
Grammar(from Greek grammatikē
- the art of reading and writing
1) the structure of the language, the system of the most general patterns of the use of its significant units - words and sentences. Within the framework of grammar, two subsystems are distinguished - morphological and syntactic;
2) the field of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of the language, represented by two related scientific disciplines - morphology and syntax.
Morphology(from Greek morphē - form and logos - teaching) -
1) part of the grammatical structure of the language, which is a system of morphological categories that reflect the grammatical properties of words and their forms (word forms);
2) a section of linguistics that studies the grammatical properties of words (word forms); grammatical doctrine of the word (parts of speech and their features).
Morphology norms- rules for the formation or choice of forms of words related to different parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, verbs and their special forms - participles and participles).
Genus indeclinable nouns defined:
1) by category of animation / inanimateness. animated nouns are masculine unless the context indicates a female ( gray kangaroo, agile chimpanzee, pink flamingo, funny pony, noisy cockatoo, Asian zebu, but a chimpanzee was feeding a cub, a kangaroo was carrying a kangaroo in a bag). inanimate nouns are neuter ( a new highway, a beautiful scarf, an interesting interview, a fixed-route taxi; exception - coffee- male);
2) by generic concept: take-take(disease), kohlrabi(cabbage), salami(sausage), iwashi(fish), Mississippi(river), young frau(mountain), The Times(newspaper) - female; sirocco(wind), Bengali, Swahili, Pashto, Hindi, Sami(language); Sochi, Tbilisi(city), Capri(Island), "Figaro literer"(magazine) - masculine; Erie(lake) - neuter;
3) by equivalent or synonym: avenue(equivalent in Russian - the street) - female; sou, peso, euro(currency ), slang(jargon), narghile(hookah) - masculine;
4) by the main concept (in abbreviations): Tyumen At(university) - masculine, F With B (service) - feminine, IT BUT P (agency) - neuter.
5) in relation to the real gender of the designated person: rich rentier, weary coolie, old lady, kind frau, respected miss/mrs.
Words are bigeneric counterpart, protégé, incognito, hummingbird. The names of the letters of the Russian alphabet are of the middle gender: in the word "application" two "pe", one "el" are written, and in the word "appeal" - one "pe", two ales.
Many nouns denoting a person by profession, position, work performed, occupation, academic title, etc., retain the masculine form even when they refer to women: judge, director, geologist, lawyer, chemist, biologist, associate professor, Ph.D. etc., i.e. do not have a generic parallel. The designations of some specialties have only the feminine form: manicurist, typist(on a typewriter) nurse, nurse and etc.
Don't bow down :
2) female surnames ending in a consonant letter (y Adam Mickiewicz, but Maria Mickiewicz). However, if the surname is consonant with the name of an animal or inanimate object ( Beetle, Goose, Belt), it is preserved in the initial form, i.e. the masculine does not bow either;
3) foreign surnames ending in a vowel (except for unstressed -and I): prose Dante, novels Zola, operas Verdi.
4) female names Ninel, Rachel, Nicole, Gabriel, Nadel etc.
For masculine nouns in the genitive singular, the ending is preferable -a, -I(cup tea, lot snow). Forms on -u, -u(cup tea, lot snow) have a reduced - colloquial connotation; they are characteristic of phraseological combinations : without a year a week, face to face, our shelf has arrived etc.
For masculine nouns in the prepositional singular with adverbial meaning, the ending -u/-u(growing in forest, garden), with object value – ending -e(knows all about forest, about garden). In other cases, the end -e has a bookish character vacation, in workshop), and the ending -u/-u- colloquial (professional, sometimes with a touch of colloquial: on vacation, in the shop, at tea). When choosing one of the forms, the phraseological nature of the expression, the direct or figurative meaning of the word, semantic shades, and the nature of the context also play a role: work at home - number on the house, scolding does not hang on the collar - seam on the collar, in the first row - in some cases, all covered in snow – in fluffy snow etc.
For masculine nouns in the nominative plural, the ending -a/-I have monosyllabic words ( running - running, forest - forests, snow - snow), words with stress on the first syllable ( evening - evenings, voices, cities, districts) and words that have lost their book character ( director, doctor, professor). The ending -s/-and have trisyllabic and polysyllabic words ( pharmacists, librarians, accountants, orators), words with an accent on the last syllable ( auditors, ships; exceptions - sleeves, cuffs), words that retain a bookish character ( authors, designers, lecturers), and words of French origin in -er/-er(engineers, officers, directors, drivers). The ending -s/-and- general literary, -a/-I- obsolete, colloquial, colloquial or professional. Forms on -and I, -s/-s are also associated with the difference in the meanings of homonymous words ( loaves- baked, of bread- on the root).
AT genitive plural null ending have nouns:
with a non-derivative stem into a solid consonant (except for sibilants): a pair of boots, a lot of soldiers, hair, times;
names of paired objects: a pair of felt boots, boots, stockings ( but socks); without shoulder straps, epaulette; eye color;
names of some nationalities, mainly based on -n, -r: Armenians, Bashkirs, Tatars, Georgians, Turkmens, Buryats, Turks, Gypsies etc., but Kalmyks, Mongols, Tajiks, Yakuts and etc.;
names of military groups and military branches: detachment of partisans, soldier; squadron of hussars, grenadiers, dragoons; group of cadets, lancers, but company of miners, sappers;
some names of units of measurement used with numerals: several amperes, watts, volts, ohms; micron; hertz, x-ray, but several joules, coulombs, newtons, ergs; cable; carats and carats; hectares;
names of vegetables and fruits of the feminine and neuter gender: melons, pumpkins, cherries, plums, apples;
female: barges, songs, sheets, nannies, herons, drops, waffles, domain, poker, roofing, fritters, minxes, sorceresses, young ladies, fables, rakes, shafts; rod, gossip, estates, but shares, skittles, fines, handfuls, sakley, candles;
neuter: dyshel, channels, tyagol, backwaters, coasts, drugs, lands, shoulders, knees and knees, saucers, mirrors, troughs, blankets, logs, towels, deeds, places, funds, but swamps, hooves, windows, laces and lace;
graduation -ov/-ev, -ey have nouns:
masculine names of vegetables and fruits: cucumbers, tomatoes, oranges, tangerines, bananas, tomatoes;
names of indivisible objects (not having a singular form): frost, precipitation(rain, snow) clavichords, rags, rags, weekdays, firewood, sledges, mangers, but attacks, darkness, twilight, harem pants, leggings, tights.
When forming a short form from adjectives on -enny preceded by two or more consonants, the preferred form is na -en(not on -enen): inactive, immoral, militant, ambiguous, frivolous, mediocre, related, characteristic, mysterious, identical, clear etc.
The combination in one adjective of two forms of a comparative or superlative degree does not correspond to the norm: better, the most capable.
When declining compound cardinal numbers, not only all the words in their composition change, but also parts of compound words. For example, in the instrumental case - eight thousand nine hundred fifty rubles.
Numerals forty, ninety, one hundred, one and a half, one and a half hundred in the genitive, dative, instrumental and prepositional cases they have the form forty, ninety, one hundred, one and a half, one and a half hundred.
numeral both combined with masculine and neuter nouns ( both students, both exercises); numeral both- with feminine nouns both books, both students).
When declining compound ordinal numbers, only the last word changes: in one thousand nine hundred and forty-five.
Collective numbers - two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten(actively used only two – seven) are combined:
with masculine and common nouns: two friends, three orphans;
with nouns that have only plural forms: two hours, three scissors, seven days;
with nouns - the names of human children and animal babies: two sons, seven kids, three kittens, as well as with the words people, face(meaning "person"): two elderly people, five unknown persons;
with substantiated numerals, adjectives, participles: two, three acquaintances, five vacationers entered;
with personal pronouns (we, you, they): there are two of us, three of you, four of them.
To personal pronouns after all simple prepositions ( without, in, for, to, for, from, to, on, over, o, from, by, under, in front of, at, about, with, at, through) and a number of adverbial prepositions ( near, around, in front, past, opposite, about, after, in the middle, behind etc.) the initial n-: without her, into him, at them, past her, near him, after them etc.; except for prepositions that govern the dative form: in spite of, according to, in defiance of, following, towards, accordingly, like, thanks to(to whom; to what?) him, her, them.
reflexive pronoun myself should be referred to the word that names the producer of the action: He said that I thought About Me.
1) not used in the forms of the 1st - 2nd person singular and plural, since they denote processes taking place in the animal and plant world, in inanimate nature etc. ( calve, bud, flow, see through, rust and etc.); their use in the indicated forms is possible only under special conditions (with impersonation, rhetorical address);
2) those that do not form the 1st person singular of the present (future simple) tense, partly due to phonetic-orthoepic reasons, partly due to the tradition of their use ( win, convince, find yourself, feel, wonder and etc.). If it is necessary to use these verbs in the 1st person, a descriptive (analytical) form is used: I will be able (should) win, I want (strive) to convince, I can (hope) find myself, I want (I will try) to feel, I will not be weird.
Verbs recover, recover, recover belong to the I conjugation, therefore the forms are normative: I will recover (-eat, -eut), disgusted (-eat, -eut), disgusted (-eat, -eut).
When forming imperfective verbs (what to do?) by means of a suffix - yva-/-willow- in some cases there is an alternation of stressed vowels a//about fundamentally ( usv about it - usv a ive), in others - the root vowel about preserved (neighbor about sharpen - middle about sharpen). In accordance with the norms of the literary language, the root about(no alternation o//a) in verbs: slam - slam, disturb - disturb, worry - worry, disgrace - disgrace, defame - defame, delay - delay, condition - condition, sum up - sum up, time - time, legitimize - legitimize and etc.
Usually the suffix -well- (wet - wet) drops out in prefixed verbs ( faded, wet, dry) and, regardless of the prefixed or non-prefixed formation, in the forms of the feminine and neuter gender, as well as the plural: hung, hung, hung, went out, went out, went out. In masculine forms, there is also a tendency to gradually lose the suffix -well-: wilted, accustomed, faded, faded, faded etc. In non-prefixed verbs - the predominant distribution of options without -well- in connection with the general trend towards saving language resources (shorter forms): soh, lip, deaf, vis, kitty and turned sour.
When using verbs in - Xia one should take into account the possibility that they have different meanings, for example, passive ( poems are written by poets) and return ( wash your face), which creates ambiguity ( I'm cleaning- do the cleaning? leaving?). Verbs on -sya in the technical literature, it is advisable to use in cases where the action itself comes to the fore, regardless of its manufacturer: The door opens automatically but you can't: Then the seeds are crushed, kneaded and washed from the pulp.
Non-prefixed verbs with suffix -well- save it in participles: deafened, sticky, wet, and prefixes, as a rule, lose: deafened, stuck, wet.
Forms of gerunds on -lice (taking, giving, coming etc.) have a colloquial or colloquial character, sometimes a shade of obsolescence and are used only in proverbs and sayings: Having given the word, be strong; Taking off head, do not cry for hair. Therefore, the preferred forms -in: giving, taking off, thinking, meeting etc.
In pairs of adverbs pulling out - pulling out(run with tongue out) putting - put(hand on heart) open - open(listen to open mouth) fastening – holding together(reluctantly) breaking down - breaking down(breaking my head) descending - later(to work carelessly, after a while) the second form is outdated and is used mainly in stable phraseological combinations.
Most typical species morphological errors
In noun forms:
distortion (mixing) of the form of the genus: alabaster(alabaster), worm(worm), reserved seat(reserved seat), shoes(shoe), slippers(slipper), sandal(sandal), queen(queen), jam(jam), booking(armor), about?(sheet); new tulle (new), good shampoo (good) steel rail(steel rail), etc.;
distortion of the form of number and case: We painted the walls whitewash(whitewash); One pasta(pasta) do not eat; dumplings ready (dumplings); At night there was a frost(there were frosts); Bought kurei(hens); choice(elections), driver(chauffeurs) soup(soups) mother(mothers) daughter(daughter) stockings(stocking), sock(socks) boots(boot), to aunt Nina(to Nina), etc.
combination in one adjective of two forms of comparative or superlative degree: better, more beautiful, smartest, highest etc.;
formation of degrees of comparison: cheaper(cheaper), longer(longer) prettier(more beautiful), weaker(weaker), sweeter / sweeter(sweeter) worse(worse), more better(better or better), etc.
confusion and misformation both, both: They are wallpaper came ( both or both); On the both cheek dimples ( both); wallpaper? studying at the university both - both) etc.;
incorrect declension of cardinal numbers (or lack of declension); with fifty(fifty) workers; from two hundred(two hundred) take one hundred; co stami(one hundred) rubles; in six hundred(six hundred) kilometers from Tyumen; near one and a half(one and a half) thousand, etc.;
distortion of the forms of ordinal numbers: in one thousand nine hundred eighty-seventh (one thousand);
the use of collective nouns with feminine nouns: two daughters five girls, in the household three cows, etc.
formation and use of non-literary (colloquial) forms : theirs(them), her(her), Evonian(his), of all(belonging to everyone), etc.
violation of the rules for the use of insufficient verbs: I will convince / run away / hope, I will win etc.;
distortion of verb forms: resist(oppose) get well(get well); climb out(I'll get out) laziet(climbs) ride(I drive) lie down / lie down(put) lies / lies(put) sort out(post it) get along(fold) wants(wants), waving(waving) pours(sprinkle), put in(put in, put in) go / go / go(go) lie down(lie down) don't touch(Do not touch), legitimize(legalize), mother erased(washes clothes), children are played(play), etc.;
distortion of the forms of substantiated and non-substantiated participles with -sya: workers of our city (workers), students schools (students), creeping apple tree (creeping), mammals animals (mammals), washable facilities, issuing scientist (outstanding), etc.;
distortion of the forms of other participles: gnawed(gnawed) sour milk (sour) moved table (moved) extinguished oven (extinguished) splattered mud (splattered), etc.;
the use of vernacular forms and the inappropriate use of gerunds: Katya sick and her husband undressed to the street jump out, And you drunk and sweating and also sick; seated on the sofa (sitting down); arrived home (arriving), head sick(fell ill), etc.
Topics for self-study
Morphological features of scientific speech.
Stylistic use of nouns.
The style of the adjective.
Origin and style of numerals.
Etymology and style of pronouns.
The place of the verb in different styles of speech.
The adverb is the youngest part of speech.
Declension of proper names.
Vinogradov, V.V. Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the 17th - 19th centuries. / V.V. Vinogradov. - M., 1984.
Vinogradov, V.V.. Russian language. Grammatical doctrine of the word / V.V. Vinogradov. - M., 1986.
Golub, I.B
Russian grammar. - M., 1952.
Rosenthal, D.E. Practical stylistics of the Russian language / D.E. Rosenthal. - M., 1998.
Senkevich, M.P. Stylistics of scientific speech and literary editing of scientific works / MP Senkevich. - M., 1984.
7. Syntax norms and syntax errors
Syntax(from Greek syntaxis- combination, construction, order, compilation) -
1. One of the subsystems (along with morphology) of the grammatical structure of the language, in which morphological categories and inflection are implemented, and there are also their own units, categories and means. The basic unit of syntax - a sentence - does not name individual objects, features, actions, etc., but reports events, situations; the language function of the sentence is communicative (communication, messages). The specificity of the syntax is manifested in the expression of relations: between word forms, predicative units, text components; between the participants of the speech situation; between the speaker, the statement and reality, etc.
2. A section of linguistics, the subject of which is syntactic units - a sentence and a phrase, syntactic relations (connections) and syntactic means.
phrase- a syntactic construction formed by the combination of two or more significant (independent, full-valued) words that are grammatically and semantically related to each other; phrases are formed in the sentence and are separated from it.
Offer- 1) block diagram, model, formula of the minimum speech message; 2) speech implementation of this formula, a specific message (statement, phrase). A sentence as a structural scheme is a fact of language, a statement (phrase) is a fact of speech, a free combination of signs (words and phraseological units) that performs a communicative function. A sentence (statement) is a chain of words that are sequentially connected to each other; the minimum specific speech product that has a structure, lexical content and meaning.
Valence- this is a combination ability, the combination potential of a linguistic unit, first of all - a word. Distinguish lexical valence (compatibility) and grammatical(categorical, syntactic). Words are combined in a sentence in accordance with their valency: I don't understand you, but not * Mine doesn't understand yours. Syntactic valence is realized in the ways (types) of syntactic connection of words in a sentence: agreement, control, adjunction.
Coordination- this is the likening of the form of number, case and gender, or only the number and case of the dependent word to the form of the dominant (main) word: white snow, my sister, third day, new books. When the main word changes, the dependent word changes similarly: white snow, my sister, the third day, new books.
Control- case subordination of a noun or a substantiated word, direct or with the participation of a preposition to the main one: uttered(what? vin. p.) speech, runs across the road, the cold of autumn, a brick house, a forest by the river. When changing the main word, the dependent word form does not change: I made / I will make speeches, I ran / I will run across the road, in the cold of autumn, brick houses, in the forest by the river.
adjoining- dependence of invariable words (adverbs, adverbs, infinitives, comparatives): spoke softly, stares without blinking, ability to think, faces brighter than roses, walked faster. The main word with its grammatical form and / or semantics motivates the dependent word form.
Simple sentence(PP) - the main structural type of the proposal, which has one predicative basis(subject and predicate, or only subject, or only predicate): The snow has melted; Spring; It became warm.
Subject- the main member of a two-part sentence, correlative with the predicate, denoting an object (subject) or action (infinitive subject): Book- source of knowledge; To study will always come in handy. In the role of the subject, all significant parts of speech (except for the participle) and phrases can be used.
Predicate- the main member of a two-part sentence, correlative with the subject, grammatically subordinate to it, denoting a predicative sign (action, state, quality, etc. of the subject - subject): Oil went; Geologists were delighted; Their work was not in vain.
Word order in a simple sentence is the typical relative arrangement of words in their specific functions. Grammatical word order (direct) is determined by the following rules: the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition - the word being defined, the circumstance - the predicate (verb), the addition is located after the verb: Tyumen oil workers selflessly work for the good of the Motherland. Communicative word order (reverse): in the first place are word forms representing the topic (given), after them there is a rheme (new): In the north of the region // geologists discovered a new oil field. Stylistic, expressive word order (inversion) serves to bring to a “prominent” place the key words for the meaning: On the the edge of the road was an oak tree(L. Tolstoy); Quietly came into balance unsteady heart scales(Bryusov); To the madness of the brave we sing a song! (Bitter).
Difficult sentence(SP) is a structural, semantic and intonation association of two or more predicative units grammatically similar to a simple sentence. The difference between SP and PP is not quantitative, but qualitative: the grammatical meaning of SP is typified syntactic relations between its parts. In the Russian language, there is a set of means by which the parts of the joint venture are connected and the relations between them are expressed: intonation, conjunctions, allied words, demonstrative words and the ratio of verb forms. joint ventures are separated on the allied and unionless. Allied joint ventures are divided into two structural-semantic subtypes: compound and complex.
Compound sentence(SSP) is a type of SP formed on the basis of a coordinative syntactic connection: the formal mutual independence of the parts (SP) included in it, and their functional and syntactic homogeneity. The main indicator of this meaning, a means of connecting parts into a whole and expressing the relationship between them, is a coordinating union: Spring has come and nature has come to life.
Complex sentence(SPP) - a type of SP formed on the basis of a subordinating syntactic connection of parts (SP), of which one is the main one, the other is subordinate (dependent on the main one). Communication and expression of relations between them is carried out with the help of subordinating unions and allied words located in the accessory part: When I graduate from university, I will become an engineer. There can be several subordinate clauses in NGN, while the same part can be dependent (subordinate) and at the same time dominant (main): Often in autumn I would closely watch falling leaves to catch that imperceptible split second when a leaf separates from a branch and begins to fall to the ground.(Paustovsky).
Associative compound sentence(BSP) is one of the main structural and semantic types of SP; stands out on a formal basis - the absence of a union: There is no penny in the ruble, and the ruble is not full(proverb).
Direct speech- a special syntactic formation (a way of verbatim transmission of someone else's speech), consisting of two parts - input (author's words) and someone else's speech, which differ in function and style: Someone said: “Many are obsessed with the passion to write books, but few are ashamed of them afterwards”(Bitter); "Tomorrow I'm going on a business trip"- said the father.
Indirect speech- a way to convey the content of someone else's speech as completely as possible, but without preserving its form and style: Father said that tomorrow he was going on a business trip.
Participial- a syntactic formation that complicates the structure of the PP, consisting of a participle with subordinate words: He looked at the sky, strewn with myriads of stars.
Participial turnover- a syntactic construction, the structural center of which is a special verbal form - the gerund. In the adverbial turnover, the meaning of the action and the additional, elementary message are realized; it correlates with the subject (subject) of the main action (predicate): Once, returning home I met my old friend.
Syntax norms- these are the rules for constructing sentences, taking into account the lexical and syntactic compatibility of words.
Nominative form of the nominal part compound predicate expresses a stable, permanent, inherent feature (characteristic) of the subject, and the form of the instrumental case usually indicates a temporary feature: My grandfather was general; He was workers, after foreman, foreman, and as a result, after graduating from university, became factory director.
With linking verbs to become, to become, to be, to appear, to become, to be etc. the nominal part of the predicate has the form of instrumental case: Life seems like a fairy tale; same with verbs to call, be called: Her name is Tatyana; His called a hero.
In declarative sentences, the subject usually precedes the verb: Technique requires qualified personnel.
In interrogative sentences, the predicate often precedes the subject: say whether you?
The agreed definition is usually placed before the word being defined: White birch under my window covered in snow...
An inconsistent definition is placed after the word being defined: help friend, notebook with lectures, but his help, them books.
The addition usually comes after the control (main) word: compilation abstract, rejoice life, write letter to a friend.
The circumstances of the mode of action, measure and degree, time, place, cause and purpose are usually placed before the verb-predicate: We are quite fits; students attentively listen; Yesterday it was raining heavily; far away the bell rings; Due to bad weather the competition was postponed ; For success you have to work hard.
The predicate agrees with the subject grammatically (in form), as well as in meaning: Most students studies successfully; Most students are learning successfully.
Nouns majority, minority, major/minority, plurality, row, despite the grammatical form of the singular, they denote many objects, and therefore the predicate can take the form of the singular and plural. The plural form is used if 1) the predicate indicates the active nature of the action ( The majority of deputies strongly rejected additions to the constitution); 2) the subject calls animate objects (A bunch of of people took to the square); 3) the predicate is separated from the subject by other members of the sentence ( Most of the students successfully passed the session gone on vacation); 4) the subject has homogeneous members ( Majority teachers, staff and students got acquainted with the Charter of the University). Also, with the subject, expressed by a quantitative-nominal combination ( five planes took off, in the hangar left two planes; Eight students are engaged sports). If the quantity is indicated approximately or specified by the words only, just, everything the predicate is put in the singular ( It's come Total six persons). Also, with a subject with an indefinitely quantitative numeral a few, how many, many, many, few, few, many (Gone some Human).
Prepositions thanks to, in spite of, in spite of, contrary to(what?) require the dative case of a dependent noun or pronoun: according to order, thanks to diligence, despite forecast contrary to illness.
Pretext on requires the prepositional case of dependent nouns with the meaning of time: upon arrival, upon completion, upon arrival, upon return, upon arrival(home), after(term).
Types of Syntax Errors
Wrong match: The youth love go to the theater (likes); Dog Ball had seen cat and chased after her (saw and chased); young engineer Irina Petrovna entered the workshop (young); I live in the city Tyumen(Tyumen); The boy grew up round orphan (round).
Mismanagement: According to orders rector (by order), head departments(department), pay for travel(pay the fare, pay the fare); worried about you(for you), advantage over the enemy(before), indicate about shortcomings(for shortcomings), review per article(about the article), dissatisfaction for low wages(low salary), came from university(of), noted about success(success), confidence in victory(victory), laments about it(on this), on arrival remembered (upon arrival).
Pronominal duplication of the subject: Yakushev - is he our governor; Children - they love to play pranks; The sun - it already warm; Tanya - she is very smart student.
Incorrect construction of the predicate: I will grow up and soccer player(football player); The mechanisms must be off and locked after work (off and locked); The boy dreamed of being sailor(sailor).
Lack of types of temporal correlation of verbs-predicates: Back from work had dinner, and then I read(revered); students got notebooks and prepared for the lecture (get ready); girls laughed and watching at each other (looked); doors closed, and the bus gets under way from a place (started).
Skipping sentence members: The driver turned on the light in the cabin and (?) started off ( bus moved); At the stake (?) the best people of the village ( present); There are (?) writers hanging on the wall ( portraits of writers); In the spring, ice breaks on the river, (?) Overflows, floods its banks ( she/river); The kiosk sells (?) movie actors ( portraits / photos of actors).
Wrong word order: Residents of the flood-affected area received timely assistance; We saw a tree twenty paces away; Our country needs smart people; Rybtrest starts recruiting young men under the age of twenty-five for expeditionary fishing; The best milkmaid of the Marusinsky collective farm Kozlova M.P. on the twenty-eighth day after calving, she received 37 liters of milk from a cow named Maruska; The owner pushed the dog away with his foot, which immediately took offense and ran away.
Double syntactic link: Residents demanded troubleshooting and repairs (demanded repairs or liquidation of repairs?); He sought leave without pay and a ticket (he sought a ticket or leave without a ticket); Training of hunters for the extermination of wolves and those responsible for carrying out this event.
Syntactic ambiguity: Reading Yevtushenko made an indelible impression (read Yevtushenko or read his works?); Return of children (children returned or someone returned them); the story of the writer excited everyone (told by the writer or the story he wrote).
Violation of the syntactic connection of revolutions with prepositions except, in addition to, instead of, along with(these turns must be controlled by predicate verbs): In addition to sports, read books; Along with psychological shock, As a result of the fire, people lost their homes.
Free (independent) gerund: Coming home after school, the kitten will meet me with a joyful meow; Learned about the competition, I had a desire to participate in it; The boy led the dog merrily wagging tail; Walking down the hallway found a pencil; Running under a tree, the rain is over; Filming "American Daughter", the pain released Shakhnazarov; Being unconscious, he was taken to the hospital.
Establishing homogeneity relations between members of a simple sentence and parts of a complex one: The boy was waiting for the evening and when mother will come; Walking in the cold and if do not take care, you can catch a cold; I do not like to be ill and when I am being brought up.
Structural displacement(the speaker builds the beginning of the sentence according to one model, and the end according to another): The last thing I will stop on is it's in the making control work (this design); The main thing to pay attention to it's their literacy(this is literacy); The first thing I ask you it's about discipline(this is discipline); The only thing missing here this list references (this is a list of references); When Bazarov did not want to see anyone, and this he went somewhere (then he went somewhere).
Mixing direct and indirect speech(lack of necessary replacement of first person pronouns with third person pronouns, etc.): The teacher said that I check all notes (he will check ...); Bazarov said that my grandfather plowed the land (his grandfather); Pushkin writes that good feelings I lyroy awakened that in our cruel age I praised freedom; My brother told me in confidence that I today I'm going for the first date.
Wrong choice of union or allied word: The issue was discussed with the rector, where a decision was made (and it was ...); Can't put up with it when students are late, use foul language and smoke at the entrance (with the fact that ...); I borrowed a book from the library where there are all the rules of spelling and punctuation (in which); I am late, because traffic jams everywhere (because; union because not in literary language).
Duplication of unions: In the darkness he felt as if someone is following him; He said, as if already wrote a term paper.
Incorrect placement of parts of a compound union: We were Not only at the conference, but also made a report (We not only were, but also spoke; Bulgakov's novel "The Master and Margarita" makes Not only think high, but also educates (not only makes you think, but also ...); In the forest we collected Not only many mushrooms and berries, but also we caught a squirrel (we not only collected ..., but also caught ...).
Extra relative word in the main clause(demonstrative pronoun): We looked at those the stars that dotted the sky; The puppy rolled on volume a floor that was wet; Has entered that teacher who teaches physics.
Simultaneous use of a subordinating and coordinating union: When the fire started, and people were not at a loss, but extinguished it; If a it will rain, a we hide under a tree; To to be healthy, and Here I go in for sports.
Diversity of structure of the homogeneous parts of the non-union complex sentence: The following can be said about the student's report: the report is not quite corresponds topic; it is desirable to use more facts; not specified practical significance the research conducted (The following can be said about the student's report: incomplete correspondence to the topic, insufficient use of facts, lack of indication of practical significance ...).
Topics for self-study
Stylistic use of word order in a sentence.
Stylistic assessment of options for harmonizing the main members of the proposal.
Stylistic assessment of control options.
Stylistic use of homogeneous members of the sentence.
Stylistic use different ways transmission of someone else's speech. Quotes.
Stylistic use different types complex sentence.
Golub, I.B. Stylistics of the Russian language / I.B. Golub. - M., 1997.
Kolesov, V.V.. The language of the city / V.V. Kolesov. - M., 1991.
Rosenthal, D.E. Practical stylistics of the Russian language / D.E. Rosenthal. - M., 1998.
Rosenthal, D.E. Management in Russian: Dictionary-reference book / D.E. Rosenthal. - M., 1981.
Compatibility Dictionary of Words of the Russian Language / Ed. P.N. Denisova, V.V. Morkovkin. - M., 1983.
8. Stylistics. Style requirements
and stylistic errors
Stylistics - a section of linguistics that studies functional styles (varieties), the qualities of exemplary speech and figurative and expressive means of the literary language, giving speech figurativeness and expressiveness.
Style(from Greek stylos- rod for writing) - historically developed functional variety literary language, serving one of the spheres of human life, characterized by relative isolation, a set of linguistic means and genres in which it exists. This kind of language is called functional style, since it performs one (two) of the most important functions of the language - communication, communication, impact. In accordance with the functions performed, the following functional styles are distinguished: colloquial, or conversational household(communication function); scientific and official business(message function); journalistic and literary and artistic(impact function).
book styles- scientific, official business, journalistic and literary and artistic - characterizes the written form of speech.
Conversational style exists in the form of dialogic or polylogical oral speech.
Genre(from French genre- genus, type) - a historically established specific type of text that has specific features and signs of the style that exists in this genre.
Figurative and expressive means of language- means used to enhance the expressiveness of speech: tropes and stylistic figures.
Conversational (conversational) style:
Scope of operation - free communication of people in an informal (domestic) setting.
Substyles: colloquial-literary, vernacular-familiar (literary vernacular).
Main function - communicative (communication).
Target - informal communication of the participants in the speech.
Main style features: lack of preliminary consideration of the statement and selection of language material, immediacy of verbal communication; expressiveness, emotionality, ease, generalization; the use of extralinguistic means (gestures, facial expressions, pauses, etc.); oral form.
Language features: widespread use of everyday vocabulary and phraseology, introductory words, emotionally expressive vocabulary (including particles, interjections), elliptical and incomplete sentences, addresses; word repetitions; widespread use of interrogative and exclamatory sentences, sentence words ( Not really and etc.); breaks in speech caused by various reasons (selection of the right word, excitement of the speaker, etc.); connecting constructions, which are an additional statement; inversions; a dialogical form of communication, less often - monologue, sometimes - polylogical.
Scope of operation- scientific, industrial and technical, agricultural, educational, art history activities of a person.
Substyles (varieties): actually scientific, popular science, scientific and technical (industrial and technical), educational and scientific.
main function- informative (messages).
Target– as accurately and fully as possible, explain the facts of the surrounding reality, show cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena, identify patterns, report the results of scientific research, etc.
Main style features: logical sequence of presentation; unambiguity, accuracy, conciseness with informative saturation of the content; argumentation, concreteness, dispassion, objectivity of the statement; written form of existence.
Language features: saturation with terms (15 - 25% of the total vocabulary), scientific phraseology, the predominance of abstract vocabulary ( development, formation, factor, activity etc.); the use of the singular in the meaning of the plural and vice versa ( Spruce is an evergreen plant; technical oils etc.); saturation with verbal nouns; use of complex sentences, etc.
Genres: science articles, reports, abstracts of articles / reports, monographs, dissertations, abstracts, textbooks, etc.
Scope of operation- official and industrial relations of people (organizations, states).
Substyles: official-documentary, everyday business.
main function- informative.
Target- provide information of practical importance, give instructions, instructions, etc.
Main style features: conciseness, compactness of presentation, "economical" use of language tools; the standard arrangement of the material, often the mandatory form; concreteness, accuracy, impartiality, formality of the statement; written form of existence.
Language features: numerous speech standards - cliches; specific vocabulary, phraseology (official, clerical) and terminology, nomenclature names, abbreviations; frequent use of verbal nouns, denominative prepositions ( in connection with, due to, on account of, on the basis of and many others. etc.), complex unions ( in view of the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that etc.), stable phrases ( on the grounds that…, the fact that…, on the grounds that… and etc.); use of nominative sentences with enumeration; direct word order; tendency to use complex sentences; lack of expressive means.
Genres: constitution, diplomatic notes, treaties, acts, laws, charters, resolutions, orders, instructions, regulations (on something), memos, letters, statements, memorandums, certificates, protocols, powers of attorney, certificates and other documents.
Journalistic style:
Scope of operation - social and political relations of people.
Substyles: socio-political, newspaper and magazine.
Main functions: informative, voluntarily (impact).
Target - communicate information and influence the minds of people, agitate them, call for action.
Main style features: brevity of presentation with informative saturation; clarity of presentation; emotionality, generalization, often - ease of expression; special civil pathos; predominantly written form of existence.
Language features: socio-political vocabulary and phraseology; economy of language means; speech stereotypes, cliches; combining features of a journalistic style with features of other styles (scientific, official business, literary and artistic, colloquial); the use of figurative and expressive means of the language (rhetorical questions and exclamations, parallelism of construction, repetitions, inversions, elliptical sentences, parcellations, etc.); free use of all resources of the national language.
Genres: articles, essays, feuilletons, notes, reports, interviews, reports, travel notes, correspondence, open letters, speeches at rallies, pamphlets, etc.
Scope of operation - literary, verbal and artistic creativity of people, the relationship "writer - reader".
Substyles (shapes): prose, poetry.
Main functions: voluntarily (impact), aesthetic, communicative.
Target - by aesthetically influencing the feelings of the reader to evoke an emotional response ( co- feeling).
Main style features: unity of communicative and aesthetic functions; multi-style - a combination of elements of other styles in artistic texts; manifestation of the creative individuality of the author; figurativeness, emotionality.
Language features: widespread use of visual means of the language (tropes, stylistic figures), vocabulary and phraseology of other styles, non-literary vocabulary - dialect words, jargon (professionalisms, slang, slang), non-literary vernacular; the use of archaisms and historicisms, etc.
Genre variety: novels, novellas, short stories, essays, memoirs, poems, poems, fables, plays, scripts and more. others
Epithet - This is a word that figuratively defines an object, phenomenon or action and emphasizes in them some characteristic property, quality.
Comparison- this is a comparison of two objects, phenomena in order to explain one of them with the help of others.
Metaphor- this is a word or expression that is used in a figurative sense to refer to an object or phenomenon based on its similarity in shape, size, color, etc. with another object or phenomenon.
Metonymy- this is a word or expression that is used in a figurative sense based on the adjacency of two objects and phenomena: 1) between the content and the containing (I three plates ate); 2) between the author and his work (Read Pushkin and Nekrasov); 3) between the action (or its result) and the instrument of this action (Their villages and fields for a violent raid he doomed swords and fires); 4) between the object and the material from which the object is made ( Amber in his mouth smoked); 5) between the place of action and the people who are in this place ( Parterre and armchairs- all boils).
Synecdoche- this is a kind of metonymy based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them, i.e. use: 1) singular instead of plural (it was heard before dawn, how rejoiced Frenchman); 2) plural instead of singular (We all look in Napoleons); the name of the part instead of the name of the whole (Remained without a roof overhead); 4) a generic name instead of a specific one (Well, sit down, light); 5) a species name instead of a generic one (Take care of a penny).
Hyperbola- this is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of the size, strength, value, etc. of an object: one hundred and forty suns sunset glowed.
Litotes- This is an expression containing an exorbitant understatement of the size, strength, significance of an object or phenomenon: Boy with a finger
Irony- this is the use of a word or expression in a sense opposite to the literal, direct, which creates a subtle mockery: breakaway, smart, are you delirious, head?(in reference to a donkey). The highest degree of irony - sarcasm- an evil laugh.
Allegory(allegory) is a trope, which consists in the allegorical depiction of an abstract concept with the help of a specific life image (animals, objects, natural phenomena).
personification - this is a trope, consisting in transferring the properties of a person to inanimate objects or abstract concepts.
Paraphrase(s) - a turnover consisting in replacing the name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their essential features: Sun of Russian poetry(about A.S. Pushkin).
Stylistic (or rhetorical) figures- special syntactic constructions used to enhance the figurative and expressive function of speech: anaphora, epiphora, parallelism, antithesis, oxymoron, gradation, parcellation, inversion, ellipsis, omission, rhetorical appeal, rhetorical question, multi-union and non-union.
Anaphora(unity) - the repetition of words or phrases (sometimes sounds) at the beginning separate parts statements.
Epiphora(ending) - repetition of words or expressions at the end of adjacent passages.
Parallelism- the same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech.
Antithesis - sharp opposition of concepts (antonyms), phenomena, objects.
Oxymoron(witty-stupid) - an intentional combination of opposite in meaning (semantically contrasting) words: living Dead, miserable luxury.
Gradation - the arrangement of words in a sentence in order of change in meaning.
Parceling- a syntactic device in which the sentence is intonationally divided into independent, very short parts, graphically highlighted as independent sentences: I believe. The hour will come. My turn will come.
Inversion- the arrangement of the members of the sentence in a special order that violates the usual, direct word order.
Ellipsis- omission of any member of the sentence (which is implied) in order to give speech dynamism.
Default- a turn of speech in which the author intentionally does not fully express the thought, leaving the reader or listener to guess what was not said.
Rhetorical appeal - an underlined appeal to someone or something, not so much to name the addressee of the speech, but to express an attitude towards a particular person, object, or to characterize it.
Rhetorical question- this is a question that is not posed in order to get an answer to it, but to draw the attention of the reader or listener to the subject of speech.
polyunion- such a construction of speech in which alliances are intentionally repeated between members of a simple sentence or between parts of a complex one.
Asyndeton- such a construction of speech, in which unions are deliberately omitted between members of a simple sentence or between parts of a complex one in order to give dynamism to the statement.
Style requirements
Appropriateness of speech this is its correspondence to the sphere of communication, the topic of the statement and the nature of the audience: in the domestic sphere - the use of colloquial and everyday style, in the field of science and technology - scientific style, in the socio-political sphere - journalistic style, in the field of business, official relations - official business style style, in the field of verbal and artistic creativity - literary and artistic style.
The availability of speech no difficulty in understanding its content. Clear speech is intelligible speech. For speech to be accessible, it is necessary to use only those units of the language that are known to the addressee, and not to abuse the peripheral means of the language - foreign and purely bookish words, professionalisms and neologisms, terms or explain them.
Shortness of speech this is the use of a minimum of linguistic means to express a maximum of content, “the ability to express a lot in a few words” (Plutarch). “Follow the rule stubbornly: So that words are cramped, Thoughts are spacious” (Nekrasov).
Wealth ( or variety) of speech - this is the use of a maximum of various units of the language, but not to the detriment of the content: synonymous, phraseological resources of the language. The less often the same words, forms and constructions are repeated in speech, the richer the speech.
The euphony of speech this is the most expedient organization of sounds from the point of view of speakers of a given language, convenient for pronunciation (articulation) and pleasant for hearing. “What is written must be legible and pronounceable” (Aristotle).
Figurative speech - this is the use of figurative and expressive means of language (tropes and stylistic figures, artistic techniques), since figurative speech affects not only the mind, but also the feelings of the addressee.
The peculiarity of speech it is its own, special, unique manner of expressing thoughts, its own individual style (idiostyle). Peculiar speech is speech that bears the stamp of the author's personality. “Just as a person can be recognized by the society in which he moves, so can he be judged by the language in which he is expressed” (J. Swift).
Types of stylistic errors
Deviations from the principle of relevance, those. violation of the unity of style, the rules of stylistic agreement:
unmotivated use of colloquial, colloquial, slang words in book styles (Onegin and Lensky first arranged showdown and then duel; Ophelia the roof went; satin was inveterate drunk; Pechorin is a man advanced, superfluous for its time; Turgenev loves his hero, but at the end of the novel he makes it so that he, having become infected, played in the box; Mtsyri helluva lot yearned and wanted run away home);
unmotivated use of book vocabulary in everyday situations, i.e. in a colloquial everyday style (We spouse we try do not conflict, and calmly discuss everything over a cup of tea in the kitchen; Something my vacuum cleaner does not want function; What kind take measures you for revitalization bite?; On the green spaces the first leaves bloom; I have difficult financial situation, so I grab sandwiches from home for lunch);
abuse of clericalism (reverse order of names and surnames - Student Petrov Nikolay, scientific director - Golubev V.N..; Fertilizer in the face manure; Seeding girls of the wild field; your home is not yet okabelili; Provide rat-proof residential buildings).
Deviations from the principle of accessibility are most often observed in the scientific and technical literature and are manifested in the abuse of peripheral, low-frequency vocabulary, special terminology, term creation and the construction of complex sentences of large volume, which turn scientific works into a “graveyard of the Russian language” (V.E. Kovsky): areal distribution, law provinciality and vertical zonation, spawning, sourness and earthing, inside, anteriorly, posteriorly, low water content etc.
Deviations from the principle of brevity - this is verbosity, i.e. unjustifiably detailed description of simple and indisputable truths, repeated expression of the same thought in different words (Oil fields - births - Not unusual for our area. We have many of them; Winner championship was the team of Tsogu. She won first place).
Deviations from the principle of richness of speech - these are unjustified repetitions of words, word forms and phrases that make speech poor, monotonous: We, management Houses, came to you after the general meeting of residents Houses, which raised the issue of compaction of apartments Houses... (Bulgakov. Heart of a dog); This is a book director's brother's son; I read the new detective which my friend gave me which Dontsova wrote, which I love very much.
Deviations from the principle of euphony of speech - This:
accumulation of vowels at the junction of words ( And at ae report; I was and at O lg and, and Ioa nna; at A nn y ay R a about negative);
accumulation of consonants, especially hissing and whistling (We went out without ssh smart, h not to wake you up with pav w they are small w her; With port with men udo with toen at for for for military victory; What river is as wide as the Oka?);
rhyme in a prose text (In Tyumen, according to the bureau forecasts, tomorrow 20 degrees frost; Attracts Attention it's modern building- Shopping center "Goodwin").
Deviations from the principle of figurative speech - this is an unmotivated (inappropriate) use of tropes, i.e. inappropriate, unnecessary "pretty things": September 1 - the beginning of a new academic era; fiery war years left deep wounds on our land; Young milkmaid possessed by an unquenchable desire to further increase the milk yield from its own black-eyed beauty Burenki.
Deviations from the principle of originality of speech - is the use of speech stamps, universal words:
speech stamp - this is originally a figurative phrase, which, as a result of too frequent use, has lost figurativeness; this is an erased image, an impersonal metaphor ( get a residence permit, white / black / fluffy (soft) gold, harsh criticism, fighters of the fiery front, field workers, people in white coats, hot support, give a start in life);
universal words - words whose frequency clearly exceeds the norm ( showed, emphasized, illuminated, told, revealed, read out, voiced, question, problem, situation etc.).
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