Dialectisms in the literary language. Dialectisms in various dictionaries

Have there been incidents with you when, while reading the works of Russian classics, you did not understand what they were writing about? Most likely, this was not due to your inattention to the plot of the work, but because of the writer's style, including obsolete words, dialectisms.

V. Rasputin, V. Astafiev, M. Sholokhov, N. Nekrasov, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, V. Shukshin, S. Yesenin liked to express themselves with words of this type. And this is only a small part of them.

Dialectisms: what is it and how many types exist

Dialect words are words whose distribution and use are limited to some territory. They are widely used in the vocabulary of the rural population.

Examples of dialectisms in Russian show that they are characterized by individual characteristics concerning phonetics, morphology, vocabulary:

1. Phonetic dialectisms.

2. Morphological dialectisms.

3. Lexical:

• actually lexical;
• lexico-semantic;

4. Ethnographic dialectisms.

5. Word-building dialectisms.

Dialectisms are also found at the syntactic, phraseological levels.

Types of dialectisms as separate features of the original Russian people

In order to recognize the original features of the dialect of the Russian people, it is necessary to consider dialectisms in more detail.

Examples of dialectisms:

• The replacement of one or more letters in a word is typical for phonetic dialectisms: millet - millet; Khvedor - Fedor.
• Word changes that are not the norm in terms of matching words in sentences are characteristic of morphological dialectisms: at me; I spoke with smart people(substitution of cases, plural and singular).
• Words and expressions that are found only in a certain locality, which do not have phonetic and derivational analogues. Words whose meaning can only be understood from the context are called lexical dialectisms. In general, in the well-known dictionary use, they have equivalent words that are understandable and known to everyone. The following dialectisms (examples) are typical for the southern regions of Russia: beet - beets; tsibula - onion.
• Words that are used only in a particular region, which have no analogues in the language due to their correlation with the characteristics of the life of the population, are called "ethnographic dialectisms". Examples: shanga, shanga, shaneshka, shanechka - a dialectism denoting a certain type of cheesecake with a top potato layer. These delicacies are widespread only in a certain region; they cannot be characterized in one word from general use.
• Dialectisms that have arisen due to a special affixal design are called derivational: guska - goose, pokeda - yet.

Lexical dialectisms as a separate group

Due to their heterogeneity, lexical dialectisms are divided into the following types:

• Properly lexical: dialectisms that, with general literary ones, have general meaning, but differ from them in spelling. They can be called peculiar synonyms of commonly understood and well-known words: beets - sweet potato; stitch - track.
• Lexico-semantic. Almost the exact opposite of proper lexical dialectisms: they have a common spelling and pronunciation, but differ in meaning. Correlating them, it is possible to characterize as homonyms in relation to each other.

For example, the word "cheerful" in different parts country can have two meanings.

1. Literary: energetic, full of energy.
2. Dialect meaning (Ryazan): smart, neat.

Thinking about the purpose of dialectisms in the Russian language, we can assume that, despite the differences with general literary words, they replenish the stocks of the Russian literary vocabulary along with them.

The role of dialectisms

The role of dialectisms for the Russian language is diverse, but first of all they are important for the inhabitants of the country.

Functions of dialectisms:

1. Dialectisms are one of the most important means of oral communication for people living in the same territory. It was from oral sources that they penetrated into written ones, giving rise to the following function.
2. The dialectisms used at the level of district and regional newspapers contribute to a more accessible presentation of the information provided.
3. Fiction takes information about dialectisms from the colloquial speech of residents of specific regions and from the press. They are used to convey local features of speech, and also contribute to a more vivid transmission of the character of the characters.

Some expressions slowly but surely fall into the general literary fund. They become known and understood by everyone.

The study of the functions of dialectisms by researchers

P.G. Pustovoit, exploring the work of Turgenev, focused on dialectisms, examples of words and their meaning, he names the following functions:

• characterological;
• cognitive;
• speech dynamization;
• cumulation.

V.V. Vinogradov based on the works of N.V. Gogol identifies the following series of functions:

• characterological (reflective) - it contributes to coloring the speech of characters;
• nominative (naming) - manifests itself when using ethnographisms and lexical dialectisms.

The most complete classification of functions was developed by Professor L.G. Samotik. Lyudmila Grigoryevna singled out 7 functions for which dialectisms are responsible in a work of art:

Modeling;

nominative;

emotive;

Culminative;

Aesthetic;

phatic;

Characterological.

Literature and dialectisms: what threatens the abuse?

Over time, the popularity of dialectisms, even at the oral level, decreases. Therefore, writers and correspondents should use them sparingly in their work. Otherwise, the perception of the meaning of the work will be difficult.

Dialectisms. Examples of inappropriate use

When working on a work, you need to think over the relevance of each word. First of all, you should think about the appropriateness of using dialect vocabulary.

For example, instead of the dialect-regional word "kosteril" it is better to use the general literary "scold". Instead of "promised" - "promised".

The main thing is to always understand the line of moderate and appropriate use of dialect words.

Dialecticisms should help the perception of the work, and not hinder it. To understand how to use this figure of the Russian language correctly, you can ask for help from the masters of the word: A.S. Pushkin, N.A. Nekrasov, V.G. Rasputin, N.S. Leskov. They skillfully, and most importantly, moderately used dialectisms.

The use of dialectisms in fiction: I.S. Turgenev and V.G. Rasputin

Some works of I.S. Turgenev is difficult to read. Studying them, you need to think not only about the general meaning of the literary heritage of the writer's work, but also about almost every word.

For example, in the story "Bezhin Meadow" we can find the following sentence:

“With quick steps I walked a long “area” of bushes, climbed a hill and, instead of this familiar plain ˂…˃, I saw completely different places unknown to me”

An attentive reader has a logical question: “Why did Ivan Sergeevich put in brackets the seemingly ordinary and appropriate word “area”?”.

The writer personally answers it in another work “Khor and Kalinich”: “In the Oryol province, large continuous masses of bushes are called “squares”.

It becomes clear that this word is widespread only in the Oryol region. Therefore, it can be safely attributed to the group of "dialectisms".

Examples of sentences using terms of a narrow stylistic orientation used in the speech of residents individual areas Russia, can be seen in the stories of V.G. Rasputin. They help him show the identity of the character. In addition, the personality of the hero, his character is reproduced precisely through such expressions.

Examples of dialectisms from the works of Rasputin:

• Cool down - cool down.
• To roar - to rage.
• Pokul - for now.
• Engage - get in touch.

It is noteworthy that the meaning of many dialectisms cannot be understood without context.

Dialectisms are called language features characteristic of a particular area. It can be individual words as well as phrases and expressions.

The term comes from Greek word dialektos - "dialect, dialect".
There are phonetic, grammatical, derivational and lexical dialectisms.

Lexical dialectisms

Lexical dialectisms are heterogeneous, several groups can be distinguished: ethnographisms, proper lexical dialectisms, semantic and derivational dialectisms.
Ethnographisms name objects and concepts that are characteristic of everyday life, the economy of a given area, but synonyms in literary language Dont Have.

Poneva

For example: poneva- a kind of skirt (element of Russian folk costume, women's woolen skirt of married women from several pieces of fabric).

Tues- a small birch bark box with a lid. The classic tues has a cylindrical shape. Shalonik- the name of one of the winds near the Pomors. Zybka- cradle.
Proper lexical dialectisms have corresponding synonyms in the literary language: kochet(rooster), basque(beautiful), hefty(very), beetroot(beet).
Semantic dialectisms have their own meaning, different from the meaning of the literary language: in a word "bridge" in some localities they call it a canopy; word "thin" means "bad" skinny person= bad person).

Grammatical dialectisms

In some localities, verbs in the 3rd person are pronounced with a soft [t]: he go, they take etc.
In the endings of nouns, the letter changes: no longer(instead of the wife); from sister(instead of my sister).
The management of suggestions is changing: came from Moscow; go to the house.

Word-building dialectisms

In some areas, blueberries are called blueberries. "blueberry», « Chernigga”, i.e. invent a new word based on the literary one. The calf is also called in its own way: heifer, heifer, heifer.

Phonetic dialectisms

The peculiarity of such dialect words is in their specific pronunciation. For example, clatter: to [c]ka, but[c]; yak: [core], [heel]; pronunciation [x] in place [g] at the end of the word: dream [x], other [x].

The use of dialectisms in fiction

In fiction, dialectisms are used for the speech characterization of characters, to create local color, i.e. for a realistic depiction of reality. If we read how a Cossack speaks in a pure Moscow dialect, then we would not believe the author of the work, we would deny him veracity. Elements of dialect speech (dialecticisms) are found in the works of classical and modern literature by many Russian writers: V. I. Belov, V. G. Rasputin, V. P. Astafiev, M. A. Sholokhov, P. P. Bazhov, B. V. Shergin and others. The diversity of Russian dialects is reflected in numerous works of Russian folklore. Folklore is used in contemporary art: Folklore recordings in Russian dialects underlie the work of the Ivan Kupala group.

Group "Ivan-Kupala"
But sometimes dialect words can be found in the speech of people who have not fully mastered the norms of the literary language.
A dialect is a layer of a language that often does not have a written language.
French linguists, along with the term "dialect" (dialecte), use the term "patois" (patois), which also denotes locally limited speech of certain groups of the population, mainly rural.

History of dialects

Modern Russian dialect groups were formed as a result of interactions, transformations and regroupings of Old Russian dialects. The Russian northern dialect was formed as a result of contacts between Novgorod and Rostov-Suzdal settlers who explored the Russian North from the 12th-13th centuries. Western and eastern Central Russian dialects developed within the more ancient parts of the Novgorod and Rostov-Suzdal lands. decisive role In the development of the "transitional character" of these dialects, their interaction with the South Russian dialect region played a role, which alienated the southern Novgorod and Rostov-Suzdal territories from the northern ones.
Smolensk-Polotsk dialects gradually entered the sphere of influence of the southern Russian aka dialect, as a result of which the modern area of ​​​​the southern dialect of the Russian language was formed, connected by a wide band of transitional dialects with dialects of the Belarusian language.

Instruction

Dialectisms have certain features that distinguish them from common language structures, for example, phonetic, morphological, word usage and word usage that are unknown to the literary language. Depending on these features, dialect words are divided into several groups.

Lexical dialectisms are words that speakers of a certain dialect use in speech and writing, and which most often do not have derivational and phonetic variants. For example, the words “tsibulya” (onion), “buryak” (beetroot), “gutorit” (speak) are typical for southern Russian dialects, and for the northern ones - “golitsy” (mittens), “sash” (belt), basky (beautiful) etc. At the same time, dialectisms usually have equivalents in the common language. The presence of synonyms is the main difference between lexical dialectisms and other varieties of dialect words.

Ethnographic dialectisms are words that denote objects known to the inhabitants of a certain area: “shanezhki” (pies prepared according to a special recipe), “dranki” (potato pancakes), “manarka” - (a variety outerwear), "nardek" (watermelon molasses), etc. There are no ethnographisms, since the objects indicated by these words have an exclusively local distribution. Usually, the names of household items, clothes, plants and dishes act as ethnographic dialectisms.

Lexico-semantic dialectisms are words with an unusual meaning. For example, the floor in a hut can be called a bridge, mushrooms - lips, etc. Such dialectisms are most often homonyms for common words that are used in the language with their inherent meaning.

Phonetic dialectisms are called words with a special phonetic design in dialect: "chep" (chain), "tsai" (tea) - in northern dialects; "zhist" (life), "pashport" (passport) - in the southern dialects.

Word-forming dialectisms are distinguished by a special affixal design: “evonian” (his), “pokeda” (for now), “otkul” (from where), “darma” (gift), “forever” (always) and others.

In addition, there are morphological dialectisms, which are inflections that are not characteristic of the literary language: the presence of soft endings for verbs in the third person (go, go); ending -e: at you, at me; ending -am in creative y in plural(under the pillars), etc.

In linguistics, the term "dialectism" has two main meanings. Firstly, this term is sometimes referred to as a set of narrower terms, such as "vulgarism", "professionalism", etc. Secondly (and this concept of dialectism is much more established), it is a collective name for the territorial features of speech.

On the territory of Russia there is a huge number of dialects and dialects. This is due to the multinationality of the state, historical events and even natural conditions. There are so many dialects that even in one locality there can be completely different names and one in use. There is, for example, the book “Dialects of Akchim”, where dialectologists had about forty dialects on the territory of just one village.

So, these are linguistic features characteristic of a particular territory and used in literary speech.

There are several types of dialectisms.

Lexical dialectisms are words that are used exclusively in a given territory and have no phonetically close analogues in other territories. For example, in the southern Russian dialects, a ravine is called "riding". Despite the fact that these words are used only in one territory, their meaning is familiar to everyone.

But ethnographic dialectisms name concepts that are in use only in a certain area. As a rule, these are the names of household items, dishes, etc. For example, paneva (poneva) is a woolen skirt, which is exclusively in the southern Russian provinces. In general Russian there are no analogues of such a concept.

Lexico-semantic dialectisms are words that change their usual meaning in a dialect. Like, for example, "bridge" - in some dialects, the floor in the hut is called that.

Phonetic dialectisms are the most common phenomenon in dialects. This is a distortion of the sound of the word familiar to us. For example, “bread” in southern Russian dialects is called “hlip”, and in northern dialects you can hear “zhist” instead of “life”. Most often, such dialectisms arise due to the fact that the word is difficult to pronounce. For example, older people may call a radio a “radivo” because it is easier for the articulatory apparatus.

There are also word-formation dialectisms - these are words formed differently than in the literary language. In dialects, for example, a calf can be called "heifer", and a goose - "goose".

Morphological dialectisms are forms of words for the literary language. For example, "me" instead of "me".

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B agres cloths- fabric of purple color (from "crimson", "crimson").
bass- beauty, decoration; Basco is beautiful.
Baskoy- beautiful, elegant.
Hood- the head of the fishing cooperative.
Bayat- speak, say.
Safely- boldly.
Safely- without warning.
Beloyarovaya- light, selected; a constant epithet in epics, indicating the ideal quality of grain.
Berchataya - patterned.
Besedushka- seat, bench; a special place under a canopy on ships; company, party .
birdo- affiliation of the weaving mill.
bloody- young, young.
Bortnik- one who is engaged in beekeeping, that is, forest beekeeping, the extraction of honey from wild bees.
Bochag- a deep puddle, pothole, pit, filled with water.
Bozhatushka- godmother.
Most - position.
Brany- patterned (about fabric).
Bratchina- a feast arranged on holidays in clubbing .
Brother, brother- brother, a metal bowl for drinking.
Buoy wand- battle club.
Burzametsky (spear) - see: Murzametsky.
bro- brother, a vessel for beer.
Brasno- food, food, meal, edible.
Bullshit, bullshit- a small net, which is used to fish together, fording.
Buyava, buyovo- cemetery, grave.
Former - like, like.
bylica- a blade of grass, a stalk of grass.
Bylichka- story about evil spirits, the authenticity of which is not in doubt.

Important- hard, hard.
Valyak, valyachny, valyashchaty - cast, chased, carved, chiselled, skillfully made.
Vargan(“on a mound, on a jew's harp”) - maybe from “worg” - a clearing overgrown with tall grass; sloping, open place in the forest.
Vereda - boils, sores.
Verei - pillars on which the gates are hung.
Veres- juniper.
Vereya(rope, rope, rope) - a pole on which the gate is hung; jamb at the door, gate.
Veretier- coarse hemp fabric.
Spindle (snake-spindle) - perhaps the spindle is meant, i.e. the type of sucker - a legless, snake-like lizard .
Verst- equal, couple, couple.
Pounded miles - probably from "gverst" - coarse sand, crushed stone.
nativity scene- cave; hangout; big box with puppets controlled from below through slots in the floor of a box in which performances on the theme of the Nativity of Christ were played out.
Vershnik- riding; riding ahead.
Evening- yesterday.
uplift- raise.
Viklina- tops.
Vitsa- twig, rod, long branch.
Water carrier - vessel for carrying and storing water, drinking.
Volzhanskaya - meadowsweet, from meadowsweet.
Volokitnoy (bow) - ordinary, everyday, worn out.
Volochazhnaya - slutty.
Votchina - estate (hereditary, family); patronymic; "by patrimony" - by inheritance law, by father.
Volotki- stems, straws, blades of grass; top part sheaf with ears.
Voronets- a beam in a hut serving as a shelf.
Vyzhlok- hunting dog, hound; presumably: a wolf leading a pack.
dress up- say something to yourself.
howl - food, eating; the amount of food at a time; meal hour.
Outputs - tribute, give.
Outputs are high - balconies.
Elm, vyazinochka - club made of flexible wood, used for the manufacture of skids, rims, etc.
Vyazivtso - rope.
Vyray (viry, iry)- a wondrous, promised, warm side, somewhere far away by the sea, accessible only to birds and snakes.
Vyalitsa- winter storm.

G ah- oak forest, grove, small deciduous forest.
Gluzdyr - a chick that cannot fly; in an ironic sense - smart guy.
Golnyaya - Gluzdyr - a chick that cannot fly; in an ironic sense - smart guy.
Golnyaya - naked, naked, devoid of vegetation and stones.
bitter - angry, annoying.
Guesthouse, guesthouse - feast.
Grenesh - you will jump, you will fly (from "to burst").
reception room, dining room, rest; actually a room in the palace.
Bed, bed - hanging pole, crossbar in the hut for clothes .
bitter - angry, annoying.
Guesthouse, guesthouse - feast.
grenesh- you will jump, you will fly (from "to burst").
Gridenko, Gridnya, Grinya, Grynushka - reception room, dining room, rest; actually a room in the palace.
Bed, bed - hanging pole, crossbar in the hut for clothes.
Guzhiki - loops in the harness over the shafts.
Gusli, goslings, goslings- plucked string instrument.
fit- marvel, admire, stare; stare, stare; laugh, mock.
godina- good clear weather, bucket.
Golik- a broom without leaves.
dutch- chervonets beaten at the St. Petersburg Mint.
golitsy- leather mittens without wool lining.
Gostika- guest.
Hryvnia- a dime; in Ancient Russia monetary unit - a silver or gold ingot weighing about a pound.
garden bed- a shelf going from the oven to the wall.
Lip- gulf, bay.
Horn- a three-string violin without notches on the sides of the body. Barn - a room, a shed for compressed bread; ground for threshing.

D eever- Brother husband.
Nine- Nine days.
Grandfather-father - probably the lineage of the hero.
Del - share division of production ("share to divide").
Hold - spend; does not hold - is not spent, does not dry out.
Sufficient - befits, befits; enough, enough.
Dolmozhano - a ratovishe, i.e., a weapon, perhaps long-stinging - with a long edge.
Dolon - palm.
Dolyubi - enough, as much as needed .
Household - coffin.
Got it? (enough?)- in the end, after everything.
Duma - advice, discussion (“it does not enter the thought”).
Fool - portly, stately, prominent.
Uncle's estate - family estate, passed into possession by lateral inheritance.
deja- dough for dough, sourdough; tub in which bread dough is kneaded.
Dolon- palm.
Dosyulny- old, old.
Doha- a fur coat with fur inside and out.
Drola- dear, dear, beloved.

E ndova- a wide copper bowl with a spout.
Epanechka - short sleeveless jacket, fur coat.
Ernishny- from "yernik": small, undersized forest, small birch bush.
Yerofeich- bitter wine; vodka infused with herbs.
Estva- food, meal.

Zhalnik- cemetery, graves, churchyard.
Stomach- life, property; soul; cattle.
Zhito- any bread in grain or on the vine; barley (northern), unground rye (southern), any spring bread (eastern).
Zupan- an old semi-caftan.

W complain- to complain, to cry.
Zagneta (zagneta)- the ash pan of the Russian stove.
conspiracy- the last day before fasting, on which it is allowed to eat meat.
Hall- twisted bunch of ears; usually done by a sorcerer or witch for damage or destruction of the field, as well as the owner of the field.
Renovated- soiled or contaminated something new clean; lightening the heart (from “renew”; take the soul to lighten the heart).
get excited- rejoice.
Zarod- a large stack of hay, bread, not a round masonry, but an oblong one.
Zasek- bin, bin; bin partition.
Zen- Earth.
Zinut- take a look.
Zipun- a peasant caftan made of coarse thick cloth, in the old days without a collar.
Mature- ripe berries.

And sleep- praise, glory, thank you.

To the azak, the Cossack- employee. (worker), laborer, employee.
Damask- ancient dense silk patterned Chinese fabric.
Eve- festive beer, mash.
loaves- wheat pancakes.
wire rod- boots.
cue, cue- stick, staff, batog.
kitty- bag.
kitina- grass stem, pea stalk.
Kichka- an old Russian festive headdress of a married woman.
Intestine- homemade sausage.
crate- room or pantry in the house; barn; extension to the hut, closet.
Kluka- a hook, a stick with a bend to support the gutter under the eaves of a peasant plank roof or to bend down a thatched roof.
Kokurka- an egg bun.
Komel- thickened Bottom part spinning wheels; adjacent to the root, part of a tree, hair, horn.
Komon- horse, horse.
Konovatny- from Asian silk fabric, which went to the bedspread, veil.
kopan- a hole dug to collect rainwater; shallow well without a log house.
Kopyl- a short bar in the sledge runners, which serves as a support for the body.
Mower - big knife with a thick and wide blade.
Bonfire (bonfire)- hard bark of flax and hemp, remaining after their beating, scratching.
Skewed (skewed) window- a window made of mesh-jambs or metal rods intertwined at an angle, typical of Russia until the 18th century.
cats- a type of warm footwear.
red corner- the corner in the hut where the icons hung.
the beauty- the bride's crown of ribbons and flowers, a symbol of girlhood and girlish will.
Croma- bag, beggar's bag; “Foma-big cream” (October 19) - an abundance of bread and supplies, that is the name of a rich, wealthy person.
Red (cut)- manual weaving machine; thread warp when weaving on manual machine; cloth woven on crosses.
Krosenets- homespun shirts.
Krynitsa- spring, key, shallow well; krinka, milk pot, narrowish and high.
Tow- a combed and tied bunch of flax or hemp, made for yarn.
Kuzhel (kuzhal)- tow, combed flax; linen yarn of the highest quality.
Kuzlo - blacksmith work, forging; generally arable shells.
Kukomoya- slovenly, untidy person.
Kuna- marten.
Kuren- a place for burning coal in the forest, a coal pit and a hut for workers.
Kurzhevina- frost.
smoke- make up.
Kurchizhka- bitch, stump.
Kut- corner, especially in the hut under the images or near the stove: "rotten kut" - northwest wind.
Kutya- boiled and sweetened wheat grains.

Ladka- a little fluff.
Ladom- well, as it should.
swallows- colored quadrangular inserts under the armpits of the shirt sleeves.
Lolden- ice cube.
Lenny- linen.
Luda- stranded, stones in the lake protruding from the water.

Maina- polynya.
Mother, mother- average ceiling beam in the hut.
Intermediate (intermediate)- long, long, summer.
low water - middle level water, which is established after the flood (in June - before the heat and drought).
Merezha- a fishing net stretched over a hoop.
Worldly- made, prepared together, "by the whole world."
Molodik- young month.
Muzzle- braided wicker.
Morok- (haze) - a cloud, a cloud.
Bridge- floor, canopy.
Mostina- floorboard.
Motushka- a skein of yarn, a spool of wound yarn.
Mochenets- hemp soaked in water.
ant- glazed.
Myalitsa- a pulper, a projectile with which flax and hemp are crushed, cleaning the fibers from the bonfire.

N azem- manure.
Nazola- melancholy, sadness, annoyance, chagrin.
Nat- it is necessary (abbreviated from "put on" - it is necessary).
pull on- to stumble, attack.
Neblyzhny- real, real.
Unsatisfactory- irresistible; deprived, unhappy.
novelty- peasant woven canvas; harsh unbleached canvas; new harvest grain.
night- last night.

Oh attendants- mushroom, boletus.
to charm (to charm)- stipulate, jinx it.
deaf-eared- long-eared, eared, long-eared.
spin- dress; dress up (young after the crown in women's clothing); marry.
Omshanik- a felling frame for the wintering of bees.
Onuchi- windings for a leg under a boot or bast shoes, footcloth.
Flask- frost.
Supports- shoes made from old boots with the tops cut off; remnants of worn and tattered shoes.
yell- plow.
Aftermath- grass grown after mowing; fresh grass that grew in the same year on the site of mowed.
Ochep- a pole attached to the ceiling in the hut, on which the cradle was hung.

to live- pasture, pasture.
pasma- part of a skein of thread, yarn.
pelchaty- with a fringe.
fallow- neglected arable land.
Tell me, tell me- barn, barn; shed, roof over the yard; covered courtyard.
Pogost- cemetery, rural parish.
undercut- “sleigh with undercuts” - with a shackled sledge rune.
Pokut- front angle; place of honor at the table and at the feast.
Noon- south.
Polushka- an old small copper coin in a quarter of a kopeck.
Poppelunik (sprinkler)- from "peel": ashes, ash.
porn- strong, healthy; adult.
powder- falling snow layer of freshly fallen snow.
Poskotina- pasture, pasture.
post- strip, field; plot, a section of a field occupied by reapers.
jaundiced- from wool of the first shearing of a lamb.
Voice (song)- lingering, mournful.
span- the beginning of summer, June, it's time to petrovka.
Pryazhets- cake, pancakes in butter; black flour pancake with butter.
spinner- scrambled eggs in a frying pan.
Pryaslo- part of the fence from pole to pole; a device made of longitudinal poles on poles for drying hay.
Putin- the time during which the fishing is carried out.
Pyalichki- hoops.

Dress up- to try, to care, to assist. Get undressed - undress.
Ramenier- a large dense forest surrounding the field; edge of the forest.
Expand- splay, spread, split, bare teeth.
Zealous- a heart.
zealous, zealous- about the heart: hot, angry.
Riga- a barn for drying sheaves and threshing.
Rosstan- crossroads, crossing roads, where they say goodbye, part, part.
Rubel - wooden block with a handle and transverse grooves for rolling (ironing) linen.
Sleeves- the upper, usually decorated part of the shirt.
Dig- throw, toss.
Row (rada)- conditions, contract, contract, transaction when buying, hiring, supplying, etc.
Ryasny- plentiful.

From hell- everything that grows in the garden: berries, fruits.
Salo- small plates, pieces of ice on the surface of the water before freezing.
Scroll- top long clothes (usually for Ukrainians).
sister-in-law- Wife's sister.
Sevnya- a basket with grain, which the sower wears over his shoulder.
week- seven days, a week.
Semeyushka- husband, wife (in funeral lamentations).
Siver, siverko north, north wind.
to give birth quickly- harrow; drag something along the ground; bend, bend, bend.
get bored- gather in a bunch, in one place.
funny- tasty.
Smychin- knotty, strong stick, going to the harrow.
Sporina- growth, abundance, profit.
in order- neighbor, fellow villager (from "row" - street).
Stavets- big cup, bowl.
flock- a stall, a barnyard, a paddock, a fenced-off place for livestock.
Stamovik, stamovik- hedge from a small forest.
Village inconvenient- the children of the deceased.
Surplice- clothes of a clergyman, straight, long, with wide sleeves.
fear- lower, hanging edge of the roof wooden house, huts.
tie- poles, lay down, thick sticks to strengthen a haystack or cart with hay.
Sukoleno- knee in the stem.
Sumet- snowdrift.
Adversary- rival.
Susek- a compartment or chest in a barn where grain is stored.
Suhoroso- no dew, dry.
Syta- honey broth; water sweetened with honey.

T alan- happiness, luck, destiny.
Talina- thawed earth, thawed earth.
tank- round dance.
Tenetnik- web.
Tesmyany- made of braid.
Tonya- fishing; one throw of a seine; a place where they fish.
Torok- a gust of wind, a squall.
Torok (torok)- straps behind the saddle for tying cargo, a travel bag to it.
Torok- a bat, a torn road.
Snaffle- a metal chain to hold the mouthpiece in the horse's mouth, used as a kind of musical instrument.
Tuleley- tulle frill.
yablo- kivot, shelf for icons.

At beam- elegant headdress, wedding veil.
supper bread- kind, plentiful supper, straw, the number of sheaves.
Shrink (of water)- to come to low water, to the usual, average state, quantity.
steal- caulk in one fell swoop, prepare for the winter.

H alo- hoped, it seemed.
Chelo- the front of the Russian stove.
Cheremny- red, red.
Blackberry, blueberry- monk, nun.
Chernitsa- blueberry.
Chernoguz- martin.
Thursday- an old Russian measure or object containing 4 any units (for example, a bag of 4 pounds).
Chuyka- a long cloth caftan.

Shalyga (shelyga)- braided ball; wooden ball; whip, whip, whip.
shanga- Cheesecake, juicy, simple cake.
scaly- with a convex hat.
Sherstobit- the one who beats, pats, pushes wool.
wool- hornets.
Shestok- a platform in front of the mouth of the Russian furnace.
Fly- a towel, a cloth, a piece of fabric in full width.
Sholom- roof; canopy, roof on pillars.

scherbota- inferiority.

I'm barking, barkingbarren (of cattle).
Yarovchaty - from sycamore, a constant epithet for the harp.
Yar, yaritsa - spring bread.

Dialectisms as an expressive means of speech can be used only in those styles in which going beyond the normative boundaries of the vocabulary of the literary language into folk dialects is stylistically justified. In scientific and official business styles, dialectisms do not find application.

The introduction of dialect vocabulary into works of journalistic style is possible, but requires great care. In journalism, the use of dialectisms along with literary vocabulary is undesirable; dialectisms in the author's narrative are especially unacceptable. for example : Then Shirokikh saw Lushnikov, and they returned to the gathering place, made a fire and began to shout comrades; The icebreaker was moving quickly, but Stepan hoped to slip to the right bank until the path on the river was destroyed - replacing dialectisms with common words, the sentences can be corrected as follows: ... they began to call comrades; The icebreaker moved quickly, but Stepan hoped to slip to the right bank while the ice on the river was still intact (until the ice broke).

It is absolutely unacceptable to use dialect words, the meaning of which is not quite clear to the author. So, telling about the anniversary voyage of the steam locomotive, the journalist writes: Everything was the same as 125 years ago, when the same steam engine passed along the first pass ... However, he did not take into account that the word p ervoputok means " first winter trail on fresh snow».

It should be borne in mind that the use of dialectisms is not justified even as a characterological means if the author quotes the words of the characters spoken in an official setting. For example: ... It is necessary to watch the animal in a timely manner, notify the veterinary service; Chefs bring food, bridges will be washed, linen will be handed over to the laundry. And sometimes they’ll just come in for the evening (the speech of the heroes of the essays).

In such cases, dialectisms create an unacceptable diversity of speech means, because in a conversation with journalists, villagers try to speak in a literary language. The authors of the essays could write: ... It is necessary to take care of the animal in time; ... the floors will be washed; Sometimes they just come in for dinner.

Second variety national language is an vernacular.

It consists of widespread words of colloquial everyday speech, which, due to their rudeness, deviate from exemplary literary norms of pronunciation and use. Vernacular is not territorially limited, unlike dialects. This is the speech of a poorly educated population who does not know the norms of the literary language.

The vernacular has developed as a result of mixing different dialect speech in the conditions of the city, where people from various rural regions of Russia have long moved (in search of work, etc.).

We note some character traits modern Russian vernacular:

1) Softening consonants before soft consonants: candy, brick, envelope;

2) Inserting a sound th or in between adjacent vowels within a word: shpien instead of a spy, kakavo, radivo, pianino;

3) Inserting a vowel inside consonant combinations: life, rubel;

4) Assimilation of consonants in verb forms: fear, like;

5) Dissimilation of consonants: dilector, collidor, tranway, seclitar, laboratory;

6) Alignment of stems when conjugating verbs: want, want, want, bake, bake;

7) Mixing noun genders: eat all the jam, what apples are sour;

8) Mixing different case forms of one word: with my sister, with my mother, with my sister;

9) Ending -OV in R.p. plurals of nouns, which in the literary language have null ending: a lot of business, no places, came from neighbors;

10) Declension of some indeclinable foreign words: without a coat, there will be no kin, we rode by meter;

11) Use of kinship terms in the referencing function to a stranger: father, mother, sister, brother;

12) Using nouns with diminutive suffixes to express politeness: do you want a tea? Are your temples straight or oblique?

13) Widespread use of emotional vocabulary, and in an indefinite meaning: play up, spit, chip, scratch: The rain is sparing; He plays the guitar from morning to evening. She speaks great English.

The third type of national language is jargon.

Jargon, in contrast to professional, denotes concepts that already have names in the national language. Jargon - a kind of colloquial speech used by a certain circle of native speakers, united by a common interest, occupation, position in society.

jargon - words peculiar to the speech of individual social groups, united on any basis (age, local, i.e. place of residence, professional).

So, for example, in the jargon of pilots, the bottom of the fuselage is called belly, training aircraft - ladybug. Sailors call grandfather not the one who is older than the others on the ship, but the chief engineer; captain - cap, minder - bloodworm b, coca - candey.

The jargon of the ofenes - wandering merchants that existed in Russia in the 19th century, was characterized by the words: eye"house", melekh"milk", sarah"money", chime in"speak", tinker"build", etc.

All slang words are stylistically reduced vocabulary and are outside the literary language. They are used mainly among "their own", i.e. in communication with people of the same social circle as the speaker. Therefore, the main purpose of jargon is to make speech incomprehensible to others.

Jargons, like any words of a literary language, dialect, become obsolete and disappear over time, or instead of some jargons, others appear. So, jargon is no longer found among the names of money crunch (ruble), fifth (five rubles), red (ten rubles), corner (25 rubles), piece (1000 rubles), but appeared piece (1000), lemon, grandmas and etc.

Some of the reinterpreted words of the popular vocabulary are slangy: wheelbarrow in meaning "car" molt b "quietly leave", ancestors"parents", etc.

In modern Russian, they distinguish youth jargon , or slang (from English slang - words and expressions used by people of certain professions or age groups) / . A lot of words and expressions came from slang into colloquial speech: cheat sheet, cram, tail (academic debt), swim (do not answer well on the exam), fishing rod (satisfactory grade) etc. The emergence of many jargon is associated with the desire of young people to express their attitude to the subject, phenomenon more vividly, more emotionally. Hence the words of appreciation: awesome, awesome, cool, laugh, go crazy, buzz, fuck, plow, sunbathe, etc..P. All of them are common only in oral speech and are often absent in dictionaries.

However, there are many words and expressions in slang that are understandable only to the initiated. For example, let's take a humoresque from the newspaper "University Life" (09.12.1991).

Abstract of one cool student on one downhole lecture.

Hammurabi was a sickly politician. In nature, he rolled a barrel at the surrounding Kents. First, he ran into Larsa, but specifically broke off. To fight with Larsa was not to show figurines to the sparrows, especially since their Rim-Sin was such a sophisticated closet that he glued Hammurabi's beard without any problems. However, it was not so easy to take on a show off, Larsa became purely purple for him, and he turned the arrows to Marie. He managed to throw noodles on the ears of Zimrilim, who was also a tough man, but in this case he snapped his beak. Cursing, they ran into Eshnuna, Uruk and Issin, who bounced their tail for a long time, but flew by like a flock of rasps.

For the uninitiated, such a set slang words turns out to be an insurmountable obstacle to understanding the text, so we will translate this passage into literary language.

Hammurabi was a skilled politician. He pursued an expansionist policy. First, the ruler of Babylon tried to capture Larsa, but he failed. Fighting Larsa was not so easy, especially since their ruler Rim-Sin was such a dodgy diplomat that he easily forced Hammurabi to abandon his intention. But Hammurabi continued his aggressive campaigns in order to expand the territory of his state. And, leaving for a while the attempt to conquer Larsa, he changed the political course, and the Babylonian army rushed to the north. He managed to conclude an alliance with the ruler of Mari, Zimrilim, who was also a good politician, but in this case succumbed to the military force of Hammurabi. The united forces subjugated Eshnunu, Uruk and Issin, who stubbornly defended themselves, but in the end were defeated.

When comparing these so different "editions", one cannot refuse the first , saturated with jargon, in liveliness, imagery. However, the inappropriate use of slang in history lectures is obvious.

Note that slang, like jargon in general, is based on expressive use, it has a "bright color". This is what lies danger constant use of slang: the predominance of evaluative vocabulary in speech leads to the fact that the speaker prefers to evaluate rather than transmit and analyze information (he can say what he likes or not, but cannot explain why). The whole argument boils down to the pronunciation of the words: cool, cool, super, etc. Another danger of being carried away by slang is that the speaker shows an impersonal speech that is no different from the speech of his own kind. There is no speech identity.

Thus, communication with the help of slang makes primitive not only a linguistic personality, but also a social personality.

The expressiveness of jargon vocabulary contributes to the fact that words from jargons turn into common colloquial and everyday speech, not bound by strict literary norms. Most of the words that have become widespread outside of jargons can only be considered jargonisms from a genetic point of view, and at the time of their consideration they already belong to the vernacular. This explains the inconsistency of labels for jargon in explanatory dictionaries. So, in the "Dictionary of the Russian language" S.I. Ozhegova crumble in the meaning of “fail” (colloquial), in the meaning of “get caught, be caught in something” (simple), and in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. D.N. Ushakov, it has marks ( colloquial, from thieves' slang). Ozhegov cramming ( colloquial), and Ushakov gave a note to this word ( school slang).

Many jargons in the latest dictionaries are given with a stylistic mark ( simple.)[for example, Ozhegov: ancestors- "parents" ( simple, joke.); tail- "the remainder, the unfulfilled part of something, such as exams" ( pros t.); salaga -"newcomer, rookie, junior in relation to seniors" ( simple) and t.d.].

A special socially limited group of words in modern Russian is camp jargon used by people placed in special conditions of life. He reflected the terrible life in places of detention: zek ( prisoner), veneer or shmon(search), gruel a (chowder), tower(shooting) snitch(informer), knock(deliver) and under. Such jargon is used in the realistic description of camp life by former "prisoners of conscience" who have been given the opportunity to openly recall the repressions. Let us quote one of the most talented Russian writers who did not have time to realize their creative potential for well-known reasons:

If you are called to watch, it means - expect trouble. Either a punishment cell follows, or some other dirty trick ...

... True, this time they didn’t put me in a punishment cell and didn’t even “deprive me of a stall”. “Deprive by stall” or “deprive by date” are bossy formulas that arose as a result of a tendency to laconism, this is 50% economy of expression. "Deprive the right to use the stall" or "... a date." The authorities, completely tormented by the desire for an ideal, had to resort to saving tongue twisters quite often, and, naturally, they tried to save seconds. So, something unusual awaited me. Entering, I saw several guards and at the head of them - the "Regime". After all, we were also prone to brevity, however, for other reasons: when danger approached, it was easier and more profitable to whisper: “Regime!”, Than to say: “Deputy head of the camp for the regime.”

There was someone else in the room besides Regime, the guards, and me, and I immediately stared at him.

(July Daniel)

From this passage, one can get an idea about the very "mechanism" of the appearance of these strange jargons. . I would like to hope that there will be no extralinguistic conditions for their consolidation in the Russian language and that they will quickly pass into the composition of passive vocabulary.

This cannot be said about the language of the underworld (thieves, vagabonds, bandits). This slangy variety of language is defined by the term slang ( fr. argot - closed, inactive). Argo - a secret, artificial language of criminals (criminal music), known only to the initiated and also existing only in oral form. Separate argotisms are spreading outside of slang: thug, mokrushnik, pen (knife), raspberry (den), split, nix, fraer, etc., but at the same time, they practically pass into the category of colloquial vocabulary and are given in dictionaries with the corresponding stylistic marks: “ colloquial", "coarsely colloquial".

The use of jargon in the literary language

The emergence and spread of jargon in speech is assessed as a negative phenomenon in the life of society and the development of the national language. However, the introduction of jargon into the literary language in exceptional cases is permissible: writers may need this vocabulary to create speech characteristics of characters or journalists describing life in the colonies. To emphasize that jargon in such cases is given "citationally", the author usually encloses them in quotation marks. For example: "Godfathers", "bumps" and others (name of a newspaper article); ...People are "lowered" by the verdict of thieves for various sins: squealing, non-payment of card debt, disobedience to "authority", for "surrendering" accomplices during the investigation, that he has relatives in law enforcement agencies... (Trud. 1991. Nov 27)

Many famous writers were wary of jargon. So, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, when reissuing the novel "The Twelve Chairs", abandoned some jargon. The desire of writers to protect the literary language from the influence of jargon is dictated by the need for an uncompromising struggle against them: it is unacceptable that jargon vocabulary be popularized through fiction.

In journalistic texts, it is possible to refer to argotisms in materials on a certain topic. For example, in the section "Criminal plots":

The "cream" of the underworld - "thieves in law" ... Below are the usual thieves, who are called "denial" or "wool" in the colony. The life credo of the “denial” is to counteract the demands of the administration and, conversely, to do everything that the authorities forbid ... And at the base of the colony pyramid is the bulk of the convicts: “muzhiks”, “hard workers”. These are those who sincerely embarked on the path of correction.

In rare cases, jargon can be used in newspaper materials that have a sharp satirical focus.

Stylistically unjustified use of jargon

1. A stylistic flaw is the appeal to jargon not in satirical contexts, dictated by the authors' desire to revive the story. So, the author was carried away by a play on words, naming his note like this : Artist Dali quite ofonarel (the note describes an unusual sculpture of the artist - in the form of a lamp, which gave grounds to the correspondent for a pun: a lamp - ofonarel). For a reader who does not own jargon, such words become a mystery, and after all, the language of the newspaper should be accessible to everyone.

2. Journalists who write about crimes, murders and robberies in a joking tone should not get carried away with jargon. The use of slang and slang words in such cases gives the speech an inappropriate, cheerful tone. Tragic events are narrated as a fascinating incident. For modern correspondents of Moskovsky Komsomolets, this style has become familiar. Here is just one example:

On Tverskaya Street last Thursday, police officers picked up two girls who were trying to “push” a VCR to a passer-by for gold. It turned out that the girls had cleaned out the apartment on Osenny Boulevard the night before. (...) The ringleader was a 19-year-old homeless woman ...

3. There is a tendency to mix styles, creating inappropriate comedy in serious publications, which leads to a decrease in the style of newspaper articles. Recently, the use of jargon and argotism has become more frequent even in serious materials, and for short notes, reports, the style, “colored” with reduced vocabulary, has become common. For example:

And I will not give you a corridor

There is a new leap in the Kremlin: to give fraternal Belarus access to the sea through Kaliningrad. “We are going to come to an agreement with the Poles and get their consent to build a section of the highway through their territory,” the President of Russia said just now.

So, dialect words, vernacular, and even more jargons, as a rule, are unacceptable in speech. They can be introduced into speech only for a specific purpose, for example, as means of expression emphasizing the attitude of the speaker or writer. But this must be done carefully, with an understanding of the appropriateness and appropriateness of such an application in each specific case.