Angiosperms (flowering) plants. Families and names of medicinal plants

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FAMILIES OF THE DEPARTMENT ANGIOSEED PLANTS

Class Monocots

Liliaceae family

It unites mainly land plants, although among them there are sometimes inhabitants of wet places and reservoirs. Liliaceae are a group of perennial herbaceous rhizomatous or bulbous plants. Flowering stems may be leafy or leafless. The structure of the bulbs is very diverse, but they always have roots extending from them. Flowers varied in size and shape, bisexual, usually regular. The perianth is simple, formed by 6 free or fused leaves arranged in two circles. Stamens 6, they are also arranged in two circles. The pistil consists of 3 fused carpels. Upper ovary. The fruit is a box. The flowers are pollinated by insects, which are most often attracted to nectar. Representatives of the family are distributed mainly in the temperate regions of Western and Eastern Asia, Europe. An example of a flower formula:

O 3+3 T 3+3 P 1 .

Representatives: irises, sowing saffron, tulips, hellebore, onions, garlic, two-leafed mullet, May lily of the valley, fragrant kupena, medicinal asparagus. Representatives of the lily family are used as food, ornamental and medicinal crops.

Cereals play an outstanding role in human life and occupy a dominant position in the formation of a number of types of herbaceous vegetation - meadows, steppes, prairies, pampas and savannahs. About 11,000 species of cereals are known. Plants of this family are represented almost all over the globe. Among the cereals there are many annuals, but perennials predominate. They have a straw-like stem. The only representative with a woody stem is bamboo. Branching of the stem in cereals is carried out near the base, where the so-called tillering zone is located. The leaves are simple, sessile. Flowers of cereals are usually bisexual. Dioecious flowers are rare (corn). The flowers are usually collected in complex inflorescences - panicles or spikes. The main component of such inflorescences are elementary inflorescences - spikelets. Each spikelet may contain from one to several flowers. The spikelet consists of an axis, near the base of which there are two spikelet scales, which often end in outgrowths - awns. By origin, these are modified leaves. Flowers are located between the scales. Each of them has its own awn, at the base of which are the upper and lower lemmas. These scales are also considered modified leaves. Above the upper lemma, on the axis of the flower, there are two small scales - lodiculae. They are the remains of the perianth. Cereals have 3 free stamens. The pistil consists of three fused carpels.

The fruit of cereals is a grain. Her pericarp fuses with the seed coat. Most The seed makes up the endosperm. Most grasses are wind pollinated plants. Cross pollination. Vegetatively propagated by rhizomes or rooted shoots.

Three main “breads” of man belong to cereals: rice, wheat and corn. Secondary cereal plants are barley, oats, rye, sorghum, and millet. Sugar cane is of great importance in human life. Grasses are important fodder plants, making up the main component of natural hayfields and pastures. Such plants include: fescue, bonfires, foxtails, wheatgrass, bluegrass, etc. Technical significance have bamboo and common reed.

Class Dicotyledons

Cruciferous family

Representatives of this family are found all over the world, but the greatest species diversity is observed in the countries of the temperate climate of the northern hemisphere: mainly in the Mediterranean basin. Cruciferous - mainly annual and perennial herbs, rarely shrubs and shrubs. The leaves are usually alternate, simple, without stipules, often strongly dissected. The stem and leaves are often covered with hairs. Flowers regular, bisexual. The perianth is double, four-membered, the sepals are free, the petals are free arranged crosswise (hence the name of the plants). Stamens 6. Of these, 2 are short and 4 are long. One pestle. Upper ovary. An example of a flower formula:

Ch 2+2 L 2+2 T 4+2 P 1.

The fruit of a cruciferous pod or pod. Inflorescences are most often a brush. In terms of their importance for humans, cruciferous plants are second only to cereals, legumes and nightshade. Some representatives belong to the most important vegetable crops. The most famous cabbage, which is widely cultivated by all European peoples. As vegetable plants are used: turnip, radish. Horseradish, sarepskaya and black mustard are used as seasonings. As medicinal plants are used: radish, mustard, grayish jaundice. The night violet and hoary left hand are popular ornamental plants. Turnip is used as a fodder plant. Many of the cruciferous plants are weeds: colza, wild radish, shepherd's purse,

Rosaceae family

Representatives of the family are distributed almost throughout the globe, but their greatest species diversity is noted for the countries of the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere. Rosaceae include evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs, subshrubs, annual and perennial herbs. Leaves alternate, rarely opposite, simple or compound, with stipules. The flowers are regular, bisexual, often quite large, which determines their decorative value. Perianth double. Calyx of 5, rarely of 4 fused sepals. Petals usually 5, rarely 4. They are free. stamens a large number of. The number of pistils varies from one to many. Petals, sepals and stamens are fused at the base with each other and with the edges of the receptacle. Such a detail of a flower is called a gepanthium. It is a special hallmark of the Rosaceae. The fruits are simple (drupe, nut, achene, apple) or combined (collective drupe or combined achene). The family is usually divided into 4 subfamilies:

1. Spirea. This subfamily includes various types of spirea, meadowsweet. Representatives of this family have many stamens and pistils. Spireas are often used in landscaping parks and squares.

2. Pink. This family includes roses that are used as ornamental plants (about 5000 varieties). As medicinal plants, wild rose, medicinal burnet, erection cinquefoil, raspberries, blackberries are used. Raspberries, blackberries, strawberries are used as fruit crops.

3. Apple. Unites mainly woody plants, which are often used as fruit plants. These include: apple, pear, mountain ash.

4. Plum. They have a drupe fruit. Represented mainly by trees. Many of them are fruit crops: cherries, plums, apricots, almonds, bird cherry, etc.

P (5) L 2+2+1 T 10 P 1 .

Beans, peas, beans, soybeans, peanuts are used as food plants. As fodder - sowing alfalfa, sickle-shaped alfalfa, clover. Many legumes are valuable medicinal plants: licorice, Ural licorice, cassia, Japanese Sophora. Legumes are used to improve soil fertility - as green manure.

Solanaceae are widely distributed, but the highest concentration of species is noted for Central and South America Australia. Solanaceae are mostly perennial herbs or subshrubs, rarely shrubs or small trees. The leaves are simple, alternate, with stipules. Sepals 5 fused. Petals 5 fused. Stamens 5. Pistil 1. Flower regular, bisexual. An example of a flower formula:

Ch (5) L (5) T 5 P 1 .

The fruit is a solanaceous berry, rarely a box. The majority of plants are cross-pollinated, but there are also self-pollinating species. Many species are rich in alkaloids.

Solanaceae are plants of exceptional practical value for humans. A special place is occupied by potatoes. Next in importance is eggplant. Various types of tomatoes are widely used. Among the nightshade there are medicinal plants: belladonna (Belladonna), Datura, Henbane, Scopolia. Of great importance are nicotine-containing tobacco real and shag tobacco. Ornamental nightshades are known, of which petunia hybrid is the most common.

Compositae are common wherever the existence of higher plants is possible. Rare only in tropical rainforests. Most Compositae are perennial and annual herbs, but vines, shrubs, and small trees can be found in the tropics. The leaves are simple, without stipules. Very rarely complex. The leaf arrangement is alternate or opposite. Many representatives have milkers. The flowers are collected in an inflorescence basket. There are 4 types of flowers in the inflorescence: tubular (bisexual), reed (bisexual), false-reed (pistil), funnel-shaped (asexual). The calyx is usually reduced. Flowers five-membered. Seed fruit. The vast majority are insect pollinated plants. Compositae often show apomixis. Among Compositae there are food plants: sunflower, chicory, Jerusalem artichoke, wormwood tarragon. Many have technical applications: dyeing safflower, kok-saghyz, tau-saghyz. Many have a decorative value: gerbera, aster, chrysanthemums, dahlias, marigolds, rudbeckia, etc. There are medicinal plants: chamomile, bitter wormwood, mat-stepmother, wormwood, sandy immortelle, calendula, common tansy, mountain arnica, dandelion roots, four-part series, yarrow.

Angiosperms or flowering plants are the most numerous division of the plant kingdom. What plants are hidden under these terms? The most important thing is simple and clear.

Angiosperms: general characteristics

235 thousand species of such plants are distributed throughout the planet. Most representatives of this department are in tropical forests.

The flower is the main distinguishing feature of angiosperms. He can be different shapes and kind. They are responsible for reproduction. It is in flowers that important processes of pollination, fertilization, the emergence and growth of the fetus take place.

Flower seeds are of two types. Seed with one share is a sign of the monocot class. Seeds with two lobes form the dicot class.

The main differences between these classes are:

• according to the structure of the roots (fibrous root system monocots versus rod - dicots);
• on the formation of the cambium (in monocots it is not formed);
• according to the structure of the flower (simple perianth of monocots versus double in dicots);
• according to the structure of the embryo (the number of cotyledons of the embryo laid the foundation for the name of the class).

Signs of angiosperms

Plants have common features structure, development and reproduction.

The most important distinguishing features:

• flowers of various structures;
• there is a pistil that develops into a fruit;
• the pistil has stigmas that trap pollen;
• the seeds are protected by the fruit;
• Plants have vessels (tracheae).

Structure and reproduction

A flowering plant consists of a root and a shoot. Escape is a stem, leaves, buds. Flowers grow from buds.

The process of sexual reproduction of angiosperms begins with pollination.

The pollen is transferred from the stamens to the pistil.

Pollination is cross-pollination and self-pollination. Violets and peanuts are able to pollinate in an unopened flower of the same plant.

Most self-pollinating flowering plants are pollinated within a single plant.

The second type of pollination is cross-pollination. Pollen is carried from the stamens male plants on the pistils of women. Plants pollinated in this way are more viable because genes are exchanged.

At present, the angiosperms dominating the Earth are the youngest and most numerous plants. They passed their evolutionary path in those living conditions that were characteristic of the end of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, that is, in an environment close to modern. Therefore, their structure and life activity are most consistent with the environmental conditions of various natural and climatic zones of the globe and the more ancient flora and fauna that have developed.

Of all plants, angiosperms are the most widely distributed both in natural habitats and in agricultural conditions. The evolution of mammals, birds, insects is largely associated with flowering plants, and they are not only food, habitat for each other, but also in many ways a means for survival and reproduction. So, raspberry seeds sprout better if they pass through the digestive tract of a bird that eats the fruit of this plant. Herbivores, feeding on grass, fertilize the soil with their excrement, creating better conditions for the life of these same herbs. Insects, feeding on pollen and nectar of flowers, contribute to the cross-pollination of plants.

But at the same time, giant swarms of locusts destroy vast fields; herds of goats completely, with roots, knock out plants, leaving bare wastelands.

As a result of such interactions in nature, the number of any population increases, and then sharply decreases, which equally applies to locusts and goats, since they themselves subsequently remain without food and die.

So, weeds are the same angiosperms that lived in the area earlier (natives) or brought by the person himself with seeds from another area. Since they have always been subjected to extermination, they have been selected for viability, resistance, intensity of reproduction both by seeds and vegetatively. A field left without care is immediately filled with weeds that shade cultivated plants, suck water and nutrients from the soil, and oppress them with poisonous root secretions, as a result of which the yield is sharply reduced.

Angiosperms, together with gymnosperms, create the human habitat - these are the "green lungs" of the Earth, this is the integrity of our nature, its beauty, originality, this is the food and health of people both in the spiritual and physical sense. However, forest fires, deforestation, trampling, gas pollution, radiation exposure, drainage, flooding change the face of the planet and pose a threat to human existence.

The scientific and technological revolution has brought unforeseen changes to the natural environment. The ecological balance of the Kola Peninsula, the Tyumen north, and the vicinity of the lake is deeply disturbed. Baikal. Before our eyes, the Aral Sea and the lake are dying. Balkhash. Almost cut down the taiga in the European part of Russia. All people of the Earth must remember this, because the future depends on each person, on his attitude to nature. Each person must protect nature by all means available to him, from the promotion of ideas of nature conservation to the organization of environmental work.

600 species of angiosperms are listed in the Red Book of the USSR.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FAMILIES

CLASS MONOTED

4.1. Subclass Liliidae

4.1.1. Liliaceae family The Liliaceae family is the main and most primitive in the ancient Liliales order, in which the typical features of the Monocotyledonous class are most clearly expressed. The taxonomy of lily-colored has not been brought to its logical conclusion. Therefore, in the scientific and educational literature there is no consensus on the species composition of the Liliaceae family. Lily includes about 200 genera and up to 4000 species of perennial plants growing in different climatic zones of the globe. However, lilies are most common in the extratropical regions of Europe, Asia, Africa and North America. They are especially numerous in the subtropics with periodic droughts, as well as in the steppes and semi-deserts. In mountainous areas, lilies reach the level of alpine meadows. In the natural flora of Belarus, there are 25 species from 15 genera, but many varieties of introduced species are used in vegetable growing and decorative gardening. The family is dominated by herbaceous plants. However, in the tropics there are tree-like ones: dracaena (Dracaena drago), Karnerosan yucca (Yucca carnerosana), Baines aloe (Aloe bainesii) and a “herbaceous tree” - Australian Kingia (Kingia australis), etc. Less common are creepers (Mirziphyllum - Myrsiphyllum). Indoor leaf succulent is aloe tree (A. arborescens), in natural habitats, it forms the habitus of a woody plant. Most lilies are characterized by the formation of underground bulbs characteristic of ephemeroids (onion - Allium, lily - Lilium, tulip - Tulipa), corms (colchicum - Colchicum) or rhizomes (hellenic - Veratrum, lily of the valley - Convallaria, asparagus - Asparagus). These modifications of the shoots ensure the preservation of renewal buds during the summer heat and winter cold. aerial stem straight, rarely curly, leafy or leafless, called flower-bearing arrow. Leaves more or less fleshy, sessile; narrow, rarely wide; entire with parallel or arcuate venation. The leaf arrangement is alternate, in the crow's eye (Paris) 4 - 10 leaves form a whorl on the stem. Flowers solitary, like colchicum, or numerous, like lily of the valley. The inflorescences are very diverse: paniculate (hellenic), racemose (eremurus - Eremurus), sometimes an umbrella (onion). Flowers actinomorphic, bisexual. The perianth is simple, often consisting of six free leaves or fused into a long tube. The perianth is usually corolla-shaped, less often, as in the varicella's eye, out of eight tepals, four form an outer calyx circle. Androecium consists of 6, sometimes 4 or 8 stamens arranged in two circles. Gynoecium syncarpus of three carpels. The stigma is usually sessile, like that of a tulip. Ovary superior, very rarely semi-inferior; three-celled, less often one- or four-celled, with numerous ovules. Flower formula: P 3+3 A 3+3 G (3) or P (3+3) A 3+3 G (3). The fruit is a 3-celled capsule (onion) or berry (lily of the valley). Seeds with endosperm. Plants are pollinated in most cases by insects, rarely by wind, in the tropics by birds. Liliaceae are of great economic importance. Numerous types of onions and asparagus are valuable vegetable crops. The genus Onion (Allium) is represented by bulbous or rhizomatous plants. Bulbs are simple (onion - A. cepa) and complex (garlic - A. sativum). The leaves are either flat, like those of porreya (A. porrum) and garlic, or tubular, like those of onions and onions (A. fistulosum). The inflorescence is an umbrella, covered with a membranous wrapper before blooming, located on a flower-bearing arrow and includes up to 2000 flowers. The flowers are small, bisexual on long pedicels; greenish, white, purple, pink, yellow and other colors. Sometimes bulbs develop in the inflorescence - brood buds. The fruit is a trihedral, three-celled capsule. Pollinated by bees and flies. There are 6 wild-growing species in Belarus. In culture, the most widely distributed onion comes from Central Asia. Bulbs contain 2 - 15% sugars, 12 - 16 mg% essential onion oil, which has a bactericidal effect, inulin, phytin, saponins, vitamin C, potassium, phosphorus, and iron salts. The leaves are rich in vitamins. Varieties are divided into sharp (Bessonovsky), peninsular (Strigunovsky) and sweet (Kata and others. ). Among the numerous varieties in Belarus, Vetraz, Diyament and Supra are recommended for production. Everywhere in the middle and central strip of Europe, in the Caucasus, in the Asian region, garlic is cultivated. The bulb consists of numerous buds-cloves sitting on a flat bottom. The leaves are flat. Each subsequent leaf grows inside the tube of the previous one and exits above it. As a result, a false stem up to 50 cm high is formed. Kidney buds are often formed in the inflorescence. Fruits and seeds, as a rule, are not formed. Garlic cloves contain about 35% dry matter, up to 27% carbohydrates, 8% protein, up to 30 mg% vitamin C, inulin and phytoncides. Along with onions, it is widely used in folk medicine. Valuable in Belarus is the winter variety Vitazhenets. Porrey onion (A. porrum), batun onion (A. fistulosum), shallot onion (A. ascalonicum), slime onion (A. nutans) are also of nutritional value. Of the wild-growing species, victorious onion (Allium victorialis) and bear onion, or wild garlic (Allium ursinum), are used. gourmet vegetable crop is asparagus (Asparagus). These are rhizomatous plants with a strongly branched stem. The leaves are very small, membranous-scaly, with small spines at the base. From the axils of the leaves, usually numerous green, mostly needle-shaped branches emerge - cladodia, replacing the leaves. Plants are dioecious and dioecious. Perianth of 6 fused leaves, 6 stamens, the fruit is a berry. Boiled young tender etiolated shoots rich in carbohydrates, vitamins, amino acids are used for food. It is impossible to overestimate the decorative value of lilies. The most important of them are lilies (Lilium): white lily (L. candidum), yellow-colored lily single brotherly (L. monodelphum), royal lily (L. regale), curly lily, or martagon (L. martagon). They have large elegant flowers with a persistent pleasant smell. Tulips are grown not only in gardens and parks. They are the object of the flower industry in the Netherlands and elsewhere in the world. More than 10 thousand varieties have been created, many of which belong to the species Tulip Gesner (Tulipa gesneriana). Spectacular ornamental plants are eremurus (Eremurus), in which the arrow reaches 2 m in height and up to 800 flowers of red and other colors are collected in one racemose inflorescence. Of the other decorative lilies, it is possible to note the magnificent colchicum (Colchicum speciosum), yellow red (Hemerocallis flava), Edward's hazel grouse (Fritillaria eduardii), Siberian kandyk (Erythronium sibiricum), hyacinths (Hyacinthus), miniature spring blueberries (Scilla), muscari (Muscari) . Medicinal products include medicinal cupena (Polygonatum officinale), May lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis), tree aloe (Aloe arborescens), etc. Colchicine, extracted from autumn colchicum (Colchicum autumnale), is used in genetics to double the number of chromosomes. In forests and among shrubs, rhizomatous poisonous plants are quite often found, at the same time medicinal ones: lily of the valley, kupena, raven eye and others. Poisonous also include meadow onion (A. angulossum) and hellebore Lobel (V. lobelianum). They cause nervous excitement and disruption of cardiac activity. 8 species of protected plants of the Liliaceae family are listed in the Red Data Book of the Republic of Belarus. These are tofildia calyculata (Tofieldia calyculata), bear's onion (Allium ursinum), koroda onion (Allium schoenoprasum), autumn colchicum (Colchicum autumnale), meadow goose onion (Gagea pratensis), goose onion cover (Gagea spathacea), forest tulip (Tulipa sylvestris ), curly lily (Lilium martagon).

daylily

RUSSIAN RUSSIAN HALTON Red Data Book of the Chelyabinsk Region

Fritillaria ruthenica Wikstr. Family lily Liliaceae.

Lily of the valley

daffodils

daffodils

^

yellow onion

Lily

raven eye

4.1.2. Sedge family The sedge family (Suregaseae) is the only representative of the order Cyperales. It includes about 100 genera and over 4000 species. The sedge family is cosmopolitan. It is widespread from the equator to the high latitudes of both hemispheres. Although most sedge species are concentrated in the tropical zone, many cold and temperate sedges are an integral component of meadow and marsh vegetation. In the flora of Belarus there are 93 species of 15 genera. The vast majority of sedges are hygrophytes growing in excessively humid places (forest reeds - Scirpus sylvaticus). At the same time, sedges are found in moderately humid forests (forest sedge - Carex sylvatica, hairy sedge - C. pilosa), in steppes and on dry slopes (low sedge - C. humilis), sandy deserts (bloated sedge - C. physodes). Sedges are mostly perennial rhizomatous, often very large herbs (reeds - Scirpus, papyrus - Cyperus papirus) up to 1.5 - 5 m high and up to 7 cm in diameter. In equatorial West Africa, almost tree-like scaly microdracoides (Microdracoides squamosa) is found. On stones and rocks near waterfalls, and even as epiphytes on the bark of trees, shrub cephalocarpus (Cephalocarpus) grow in South America. Among the sedges, there are also creepers, such as, for example, cutting scleria (Scleria secans) growing in tropical rainforests. Relatively few representatives of the genera Syt and reeds are annuals. The root system is formed by adventitious roots extending from the lower part of the stem or from the rhizome nodes. The stems are trihedral (sedge), rarely cylindrical (reed) or almost flat, usually filled with parenchymal tissue and poorly differentiated into nodes and internodes. The nodes are usually very close together at the base of the stem, sometimes located along its entire length (scleria, sword-grass - Cladium). The stems are usually leafy, but some plants (bogweed - Eleocharis) have a leafless stem, at the base covered with a leaf sheath. The leaves are linear or linear-lanceolate with a long closed and rarely open (coleochloa - Coleochloa) sheath. At the point of transition of the sheath into the leaf blade, there may be (sedge, coleochloa) a tongue in the form of a narrow plate or cilia. Most sedge laminae are bilateral, trihedral or almost cylindrical in diameter; with rough or sharp edges due to the presence of teeth mineralized with calcium salts and silica. The leaf arrangement, as a rule, is another three-row, less often two-row. Sedge flowers are collected in a variety of spikelets located in the axils of leaf-shaped bracts. Spikelets form complex inflorescences - spike-shaped, paniculate, umbellate, racemose or capitate. The flowers are small, inconspicuous, bisexual or unisexual. Based on the structure of spikelets and flowers, the Sedge family is divided into 3 subfamilies - Sytovye (Cyperoideae), Rhynchosporoideae (Rhynchosporoideae) and actually Sedge (Caricoideae). Sytevye are characterized by bisexual flowers, with or without perianth, spikelets are usually many-flowered. Rhynchospores - inhabitants of warm countries, usually have bisexual flowers, spikelets are small, 1-3-flowered. The sedge subfamily is distinguished by unisexual flowers that do not have a perianth. The perianth is either completely atrophied (sedge, sedge), or strongly reduced and consists of 6 (3 in reeds) scales, or 3–14 (usually 6) finely toothed bristles, or 6 or more silky hairs. In bisexual and male flowers there are 3 stamens, very rarely 1 - 2, 6, 12, located in one circle. The stamens have long drooping filaments and elongated, opening anthers. In the process of microsporogenesis, the tetrad of microspores is reduced. It contains only one pollen grain, covered, in addition to intine and exine, by the membrane of the mother cell of the tetrad. In the bisexual and female flower, the gynoecium consists of 2–3 fused carpels. The gynoecium may be enclosed in a sac consisting of 2 fused bracts. Ovary superior, unilocular, with one ovule. The style of the pistil is long, with 2-3 long stigma branches. Flower formulas are varied. For example, in a bisexual flower of vaginal cotton grass - P ∞ A 3 G (3) . In the sedge, the female flower has the formula ♀ P 0 A 0 G (3), and the male flower has the formula ♂ P 0 A 3 G 0. The fruit is nut-shaped, indehiscent, triangular, slightly biconvex or spherical with firm pericarp. Seeds with a small embryo surrounded by well developed starchy or oily endosperm. The structure of the inflorescence is an important systematic feature, according to which sedges are divided into equal-eared and hetero-eared. In equal ears (fox sedge - C. vulpina) in the upper part of the ear are male flowers , and in the lower - female, or vice versa (spread sedge - C. remota). Variegated sedges have separated male and female spicate inflorescences. At the same time, plants are monoecious (low-flowered sedge - C. pauciflora), when male and female ears are on the same plant, and rarely dioecious (dioecious sedge - C. dioica), when different ears are located on different plants. Sedges are wind-pollinated plants. Their reproduction is carried out by seeds, which are spread by wind, water, birds, as well as vegetatively - rhizomes. In natural phytocenoses, sedges are a nesting place for birds and habitats for wild animals (bulrush, cotton grass, sedge, sytcha, sword grass), a place of fresh water accumulation (shore sedge - C. riparia). Cotton grass (Eriophorum vaginatum), lake bulrush (Scirpus lacustris), along with other species, take part in peat formation. Long-rhizomatous species, such as sand sedge (C. arenaria), are good sand fixers. The economic importance of sedges is relatively small. In ancient Egypt, the core of papyrus stems (Cyperus papyrus) was used to make writing material. It was cut into longitudinal strips, folded into two layers - one across the other and compressed until their natural gluing. The dried strips were polished with pieces of ivory and glued into scrolls 20–30 cm wide and up to 40 m long. succulent rhizomes of tropical reeds and papyrus are used for food. In particular, chufa is cultivated in Spain and Italy for the sake of small tubers, up to 3 cm long, which contain up to 50% carbohydrates, 25% oil, 9% protein. The quality of the oil is almost not inferior to olive and nut. Reeds, fimbristyllis, papyrus, rhynchospora are used as a building material and for the manufacture of wickerwork. Forest reed, vaginal cottongrass, swollen sedge and others, species of cobresia (Kobresia) are used to feed domestic and wild animals. Antibiotics of sweet bog and other sedge plants have medicinal value. Cotton grass (Eriophorum angustifolium), which causes diarrhea in animals, is poisonous. Indoor and greenhouse ornamental plant is the sycamore (Cyperus alternifollius). The flora of Belarus is rich in sedges. Of the 68 species, the most common are soddy sedge (C. cespitosa), grayish sedge (C. cinerea), hare sedge (C. ovalis), swollen sedge (C. rostpata), bladder sedge (C. vesicaria), etc. Numerous species Sitnyaga, or swamps (Eleocharis) - 6 species, cotton grass (Eriophorum) - 4 species. Of the reeds (Scirpus), lake reeds (S. lacustris) and forest reeds (S. sylvaticus) are widespread. Rare and endangered species of sedge grow on the territory of Belarus. Common sword-grass (Cladium mariscus), Devell's sedge (C. davalliana), Buxbaum's sedge (C. buxbaumii), hairy sedge (C.capillaris), bird-legged sedge (C. ornithopoda), sedge squat ( C. supina), drooping sedge (C. flacca), cut sedge (C. otrubae), few-flowered sedge (C. pauciflora), bay sedge (C. paupercula), rhizome sedge (C. rhizina), shadow sedge (C. umbrosa). Literature: 1, 5 (p. 292 - 310), 6 (p. 508 - 510), 8 - 12, 14 (p. 443 - 447), 15 (p. 477 - 483), 17. ^ 4.1.3. Family Bluegrass The family Bluegrass (Roaceae), or Cereals (Gramineae), belongs to the order Poales. This is one of the largest families of flowering plants, numbering up to 700 genera and 10,000 species. About 150 species from 70 genera are noted in the natural flora of Belarus. Bluegrass are evenly distributed throughout the land of the globe. About the same number of their species grow in the tropical zone as in countries with a temperate climate, and in the Arctic latitudes they occupy the first place among other families in terms of species composition. Bluegrass play a crucial role in the formation of the vegetation cover of meadows, steppes, prairies and savannahs. Lowland meadows are characterized by bluegrass (Poa), fescue (Festuca), timothy grass (Phleum), brome (Bromopsis), and shag (Briza). Stipa (Stipa), fescue (Festuca valesiaca), wheatgrass (Agropyron) are common in the steppes. In the prairies, the primary role belongs to chloris (Chloris), bison grass (Buchloé dactyloides). Selin (Stipagrostis) and sand-loving (Ammophila) live on shifting sands. The role and diversity of bluegrass in forests and peat bogs are great. The wide distribution of bluegrass is associated with the structure of their vegetative and reproductive organs, physiological and biochemical features that allow plants to have a very high adaptability to a variety of environmental conditions. Typical mesophytes are found in the family - these are almost all cultivated cereals: rye (Secale), wheat (Triticum), barley (Hordeum), corn (Mais), oats (Avena) and others, hygrophytes - rice (Oriza), manna (Glyceria) , as well as xerophytes - white sticking out (Nardus stricta), sheep fescue (Festuca ovina), feather grass, wheatgrass, etc. And common reed (Phragmites australis) can grow in swamps of various types, and on mountain slopes. Representatives of the family are perennial (meadow fescue - Festuca pratensis), biennial (foxtail cranked - Alopecurus geniculatus) and annual herbs (Canarian canary grass - Phalaris canariensis, field cultivated cereals), less often tree-like plants (bamboo - Bambusa). Closely related to bamboo, dinochloa (Dinochloa) has thorny liana-like species. The root system of bluegrass is fibrous during seed and vegetative propagation. The main root is formed from the germinal root, but completes its development early. It is replaced by numerous, well-developed adventitious roots. The stem is a straw with pronounced nodes and hollow or core-filled internodes. Signs of the anatomical structure of the stem are used in the systematics of cereals. Thus, most extratropical species (fescue, wheat, rye) are characterized by internodes with a wide cavity and arrangement of vascular bundles in two circles, with smaller bundles located in the outer circle and serving the remains of the primary crust. In tropical species (corn, millet, sorghum) internodes with a small cavity or filled with parenchyma. The intercalary meristem is localized at the bases of the internodes. Rudimentary tubercles of the lateral axillary buds can also be laid here. However, the rudiments of above-ground buds do not develop and lateral shoots are not formed from them. Therefore, bluegrass is characterized by tillering, i.e. the formation of lateral shoots from the buds of the underground part of the stem. Tillering can be dense (white-bearded sticking out - Nardus stricta), loose (soft wheat - Triticum aestivum) and rhizome (creeping wheatgrass - Elytrigia repens). The leaves consist of a sheath covering the stem, which is usually open, a linear leaf blade, a tongue - a membranous outgrowth located at the junction of the sheath and leaf blade. Sometimes the uvula is absent or a row of hairs develops instead. In some cereals (barley - Hordeum), the edges of the sheath in the place of the bend form bilateral linear outgrowths - ears. In the epidermis of the leaf there are motor cells that ensure the folding of the leaf in a hot season. In many forms, a parenchymal lining is located around the vascular bundles, which is involved in photosynthesis. The leaf arrangement is two-row alternate. Many bluegrasses are monocarpic plants, i.e. bloom and bear fruit once in a lifetime (cultivated field cereals, bamboos with woody stems). Most species have bisexual flowers. In the case of dioecious flowers, plants can be either monoecious (corn - Zea) or dioecious (pampas grass - Cortaderia selloana). Flowers with membranous perianth are collected in elementary inflorescences - spikelets, which in turn form complex inflorescences: spike (rye, wheat, barley), complex brush, or panicle (oats - Avena, millet - Panicum), sultan (timothy - Phleum, foxtail - Alopecurus). In corn, the female flowers are collected on the cob, and the male flowers are in a panicle. At the base of the spikelet are spikelet scales. The chaff (Lolium) has one. In wheat, rye and many other plants, the spikelet bears two spikelet scales - upper and lower; millet, rice (Oryza), fragrant spikelet (Anthoxanthum) and others have more than two. In the structure of spikelet scales, a keel, a keel tooth and a shoulder are distinguished, the size and shape of which are taken into account when determining the types and varieties of cereals. The spikelet consists of an axis on which there is either one (barley) or several flowers (wheat), arranged alternately in two rows. Flowers in spikelets are formed in the axils of the lower lemmas of leaf origin. The keel teeth of the lower scales may be short or develop into an awn in spinous forms. Persian wheat (Triticum persicum) has awns on both the glume and the glume. Opposite the lower scale in the flower is a two-keeled upper floral scale, formed by two fused tepals of the outer circle of the perianth. The inner circle of the perianth is usually represented by two films, or lodiculae. Bamboo and feather grass have three of them. During flowering, water actively enters the lodicules; they increase in size and move apart the lower and upper lemmas, allowing the flowers to open. Most bluegrass flowers have three stamens, but there may be six (rice, bamboo, sugarcane - Saccharum officinarum), two in the fragrant spikelet, and even one (cinna - Cinna). The pistil is formed by two fused carpels, a style with a bifid pinnate stigma. Upper ovary. Flower formula: P (2) +2 A 3 G (2). The fruit is dry, indehiscent, one-seeded, called a caryopsis and has a thin pericarp tightly adjacent to the seed coat. Often, in membranous species of wheat, barley, oats and other plants, when a caryopsis ripens, its pericarp sticks together with lemmas tightly adjacent to it. Unlike them, in naked forms (rye, soft wheat, etc.), the seeds do not stick together with the scales. The seed embryo has one developed cotyledon - the shield, which borders on the endosperm. The second cotyledon is an epiblast, reduced. The germinal bud is surrounded by a leaf-like formation called a coleoptile, which protects seedlings when they emerge from the soil surface. Germinal roots are protected by a root sheath, or coloriosis. The endosperm of the seed is well developed, rich in starch and protein. Seeds have different duration of post-harvest ripening. In winter forms, it is short, even freshly harvested seeds can sprout, in spring forms it is long, up to several months. Some species, including certain varieties of wheat, are "two-handled", i.e. can sprout both in autumn and in spring sowing. Most grasses are wind pollinated. These are corn, rye, sorghum, Sudanese grass, timothy grass, rump, fescue and others. To optional, i.e. optional, self-pollinators include wheat, Aegilops, etc. For chasmogamous (open-flowering) wind-pollinated cereals, the daily rhythm of flowering plants is of great importance. The coincidence of flower opening time ensures the success of cross-pollination in the population. A more strict, abligate, self-pollination is characteristic of cleistogamous (closed-flowering) barley and oats. Apomictic reproduction, in which seeds are formed without the fusion of germ cells, occurs in tropical millet and sorghum cereals. Viviparia is observed less often in bluegrass. So, in the Arctic species of bluegrass (Poa), fescue (Festuca), pike (Deschampsia), reproduction occurs with bulbous buds, which are formed in the inflorescence from spikelets. Taking into account the diversity of anatomical and morphological features of the vegetative and reproductive organs, the Bluegrass family is divided into subfamilies. Six subfamilies are distinguished in the multi-volume "Life of Plants": Bamboo (Bambucoideae), Rice (Oryzoideae), Bluegrass (Pooideae), Reed (Arundinoideae), Field (Eragrostideae), Millet (Panicoideae). ^ Subfamily Bamboo formed by tall tropical and subtropical woody plants (arundinaria - Arundinaria, bamboo, dendrocalamus - Dendrocalamus) and herbaceous plants (maclurolyra - Maclurolyra, pyresia - Piresia). Bamboo are widely distributed in Africa, Central and South America, Southeast Asia, where they are of nutritional and technical importance. ^ Subfamily Rice combines herbaceous one- and perennial self-pollinating plants. They are characterized by laterally flattened spikelets with one developed flower. There are four glumes, two lodicules, and six stamens. The inflorescence is a one-sided, spreading or compressed panicle. The most important crop in world agriculture is rice (Oryza sativa), used for the manufacture of cereals, flour, spirits, paper and wickerwork. To subfamily Bluegrass belongs to the majority of extratropical herbaceous annual and perennial grasses. Many of them have membranous leaf tongues. One- and many-flowered spikelets are collected in a complex spike (wheat), panicle (oats), sultan (timothy). There are two glumes and lodiculae, three stamens. This includes grain, cereals, as well as fodder grasses. The genus Wheat (Triticum) has about 30 species. In culture, two types are most common: soft wheat (T. aestivum), which is distinguished by a hollow stem under the inflorescence and a loose long spike with splayed awns, seeds with floury endosperm, as well as durum wheat (T. durum), in which the stem under the inflorescence is made , the ear is laterally compressed, dense, the awns are straight, the seed has a vitreous endosperm. Valuable varieties of soft winter wheat in the conditions of Belarus are Zavet, Spektr, Prem’era, etc. Wheat grain contains a lot of gluten-forming proteins and therefore is the main grain crop. It is also used for the manufacture of cereals, starch, alcohol. In rye (Secale cereale) the inflorescence is an unbreakable spinous complex ear, spikelets are two-flowered, often with the rudiment of a third flower. It is distinguished by high winter hardiness and unpretentiousness to soils, therefore it is widely cultivated in Belarus. Valuable varieties are Talisman and Zarnitsa. Used for food and feed purposes. As a result of intergeneric hybridization of wheat and rye, triticale amphidiploids were obtained, the varieties of which have good prospects for use in agriculture. The genus Barley (Hordeum) has a dense brittle spinous spike, spikelets are single-flowered, three sit on the ledge of a segment of the spiked rod. Leaves with well developed ears. Common barley (N. vulgare) has a wide spike, 4 - 6-sided, all spikelets are fertile. In two-row barley (H.distichon), the ear is linear, flat, the middle spikelet is fertile, and the lateral ones are barren. Varieties of spring barley Stratus, Yakub, Sonor are distinguished by high productivity. Cereals, beer, animal feed are made from grain. Sowing oats (Avena sativa) is an annual, leaves with a long tongue, panicle inflorescence, large spikelets, 2-3-flowered. There are membranous and naked forms. Oatmeal is valued as a dietary product. The grain is used for animal feed. Meadow herbs of the subfamily Bluegrass are brome, bluegrass, fescue, timothy grass and others; feather grass is characteristic of the steppes. For subfamily Cane characterized by tall, perennial herbaceous plants with multi-nodular stems, strongly developed rhizomes and many-flowered spikelets. They can be found in forest clearings and swampy meadows. the greatest species diversity countries with warm climates. Reeds include common reed (Phragmites australis), pampas grass (Cortaderia) subfamily Polevichkovye dominated by herbaceous plants, natives of the arid regions of the tropics. In the southern regions of Belarus, weed species of field grass (Eragrostis) are occasionally found, on the salt marshes of North Africa, the coastal grass (Aeluropus) is common, in the North American prairies - distichlis (Distichlis). ^ Subfamily Millet is the most highly specialized in the family. Spikelets are usually two-flowered, arranged singly or in groups of 2-3 on spike-shaped branches. The subfamily includes millet (Panicum miliaceum), barnyard or chicken millet (Echinochloa), barnyard grass (E. frumentaceae), sorghum (Sorghum), sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum), as well as the most important food and fodder crop of world agriculture - corn (Zea mays). Corn grain is processed into cereals, flour, starch, molasses, alcohol and other products. In the conditions of Belarus, there is not enough heat for the full ripening of grain, so corn is grown for livestock feed. For these purposes, heterotic hybrids of corn Bemo 182 SV, Polessky 212 SV, Krasnodar 194 MV and many others are used. The bluegrass family is of exceptionally great economic importance. They play an outstanding role in shaping the settled way of life of many peoples of the world in connection with the transition from collecting seeds of cereal plants to their cultivation and baking. The main grain crops in Belarus are soft wheat and rye. Groats are obtained from barley, oats, millet, rice, corn. Zubrovka (Hierochloё) and fragrant spikelet (Anthoxanthum) contain aromatic substances used in perfumery, food industry and medicine. Poisonous include water mannik (Glyceria aquatica), which, when fresh, causes convulsions and impaired cardiac activity in animals. Many cereal grasses are the main components of natural hayfields and pastures and have been introduced into cultivation. These are meadow timothy (Phleum pratensis), cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata), meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis), giant bent grass (Agrostis gigantea), awnless bonfire (Bromus inermis), perennial chaff (Lolium perenne), meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis), bluegrass meadow (Roa pratensis), high ryegrass (Arrhenatherum elatius), etc. Red fescue (F. rubra), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and others are used in ornamental gardening as a lawn grass. To fix moving sands, sandy sandworm (Ammophila arenaria) and sandy grate (Leymus arenarius) are used. Many cereals can be used as a building material. In tropical countries, strong and light bamboo stalks are used as water pipes. paper High Quality made from feather grass and rice. Among the cereals there are many weeds. These are couch grass (Elytrigia repens), rye bonfire (Bromus secalinus), barnyard grass (chicken millet), annual bluegrass (Poa annua), some types of foxtail (Setaria). The weeds in the meadows are the soddy meadow grass, or pike (Deschampsia cespitosa), and the white-striped sticking one (Nardus stricta), which are of little nutritional value. REFERENCES 1. Herbaceous plants of the USSR. T. 1. / Yu.E. Alekseev, V.N. Vekhov, G.P. Gapochka and others. M.: Thought, 1971. 487 p.: ill. 2. Herbaceous plants of the USSR. T. 2. / Yu.E. Alekseev, V.N. Vekhov, G.P. Gapochka and others. M.: Thought, 1971. 309 p.: ill. 3. Plant life. In 6 volumes / Ch. ed. A.L. Takhtadzhyan. T. 5 (1). Flowering plants / ed. A.L. Takhtajyan. Moscow: Education, 1980. 432 p.: ill. 4. Plant life: In 6 volumes / Ch. ed. A.L. Takhtadzhyan. T. 5 (2). Flowering plants / ed. A.L. Takhtajyan. Moscow: Education, 1981. 512 p.: ill. 5. Plant life: In 6 volumes / Ch. ed. A.L. Takhtadzhyan. T. 6. Flowering plants / ed. A.L. Takhtajyan. Moscow: Education, 1982. 544 p.: ill.

Origin of flowers. Flowering plants appeared on Earth in the Mesozoic era, in the Cretaceous period from gymnosperms. It happened 120-130 million years ago, the most probable ancestors of flowering ferns are considered to be a non-specialized group of seed ferns. Flowering - the largest and highly organized department in the plant kingdom, uniting 250 thousand species out of 350 thousand species of all plants. The term angiosperms is probably not entirely successful - in gymnosperms, and in the same pine, the seeds develop inside the cone and are quite well protected. But the appearance of a flower, which provides more reliable pollination, and a fruit, which protects the seeds and ensures their distribution, are the most important aromorphoses associated with the reproduction of flowering plants.

The flower is a shortened shoot with limited growth, as well as a cone of gymnosperms. The wind is sufficient for pollination of the gymnosperms, but in the tropical forest, wind pollination of plants of the lower tiers is difficult. Perhaps it was there that the first flowering plants appeared. Most scientists believe that the flower originated from a bisexual cone (strobili) of ancient extinct gymnosperms. This is strobilary, or evant hypothesis. This hypothesis is confirmed by the findings of ancient gymnosperms - Bennettites, which had bisexual strobili, microsporophylls with microspores (future stamens) were formed on microsporophylls, ovules with megaspores (future pistils) were located on megasporophylls. To protect the ovules, the female spore-bearing leaf (megasporophyll) folds and forms a closed receptacle of the ovules - the carpel.

In the most primitive modern flowering plants - magnolia the flower still looks like a cone of gymnosperms - numerous carpels, stamens, petals and sepals are arranged in a spiral on an elongated conical receptacle.

Structure. The conductive system is the most perfect, in the xylem there are real blood vessels (trachea), in the phloem are formed sieve tubes with companion cells.

The structure of the photosynthetic apparatus - leaves, becomes more complicated, the leaves are simple and complex, the flattened shape of the leaves significantly increases the surface and efficiency of photosynthesis.

Reproduction. The life cycle is dominated by a heterosporous sporophyte, which is a leafy plant; the gametophyte is extremely reduced (male - to pollen grain, female - to the embryo sac); archegonia and primary endosperm in the female gametophyte and antheridium in the male are absent. The reduction of gametophytes is of great importance - they develop very quickly (in gymnosperms, it takes two to three years from pollination to fertilization). The absence of the primary endosperm in the female gametophyte of flowering plants was compensated by the second fertilization and the formation of a triploid nutrient tissue, the endosperm, already in the seed..

The organ of asexual and sexual reproduction is a flower; due to idioadaptations, flowers appear that are pollinated by wind, water, self-pollinated, pollinated by insects and other animals. The appearance of a flower facilitates the pollination process. Seeds are small, protected by ovary walls. Fertilization does not depend on the presence of water; double, after which not only a diploid embryo is formed, but also a triploid endosperm. After fertilization, seeds are formed that have an embryo, a supply of nutrients and a peel, they are protected by the tissues of the pericarp from external influences, in the future, the pericarp ensures the distribution of seeds in one way or another.

Manifold. Plants of the department Flower taxonomists are divided into two classes - dicotyledons and monocots, the main feature is the number of cotyledons in the seed embryo. Dicotyledonous plants are considered more ancient plants, their flowers are more primitive. A large number of flower elements (stamens, pistils, petals), a double perianth, unfused flower elements (sepals, stamens), and the correct shape of a flower are considered to be primitive signs in the structure of a flower. Arboreal life forms are also considered primitive features. Specialization of a flower in relation to a particular group of pollinators, reduction or fusion of flower elements, herbaceous life forms and an irregular flower are considered progressive characters.

monocot plants either descended from one of the groups of primitive dicots in the early stages of dicot evolution, or possibly from different groups of primitive dicots.

Characteristics of classes of flowering plants. Distinctive features of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants are summarized in Table. 1 and fig. .

Table 2. The most important features monocots and dicots:

Dicotyledonous plants. The dicotyledonous class unites about 200,000 species, united in 280 families, which in turn are united in orders. Out of 280 families, let us consider the characteristics of five families of the school curriculum.

Family Cruciferae. About 3,000 species, mostly annual, biennial and perennial herbaceous plants, rarely shrubs (Fig. 74). This family includes plants with flowers, the formula of which is * Ca 2 + 2 Co 4 A 2 + 4 G (2) and fruits - pods, or pods.

Leaves simple, without stipules; the leaf arrangement is alternate, sometimes the leaves are collected in basal rosettes.

flowers bisexual, regular (actinomorphic). Perianth double, four-membered. Calyx of four free sepals, corolla of four free petals arranged crosswise and alternating with sepals. There are six stamens, in the outer circle - two short, in the inner circle - four long (androecium four strong). Pistil one, formed by two carpels, ovary superior. The flowers are collected in simple and complex racemose inflorescences.

Fetus - pod or pod.

Meaning. A large number of vegetable, oilseed, ornamental, fodder and melliferous species. There are medicinal species (shepherd's purse, jaundice, meadow core). There are many malicious weeds in fields and gardens (colza, yarutka, shepherd's purse).

In the Mediterranean, until now, you can find wild-growing garden cabbage, which has been cultivated for about 5000 years.

The Slavs have been growing cabbage since the 9th century, they invented a method for fermenting it, and the absence of heat treatment preserves the entire complex of vitamins - C, K, P, B 1, B 2 and others; cabbage contains a whole range of essential trace elements.

Cruciferous include turnip, which was the second bread before potatoes, radish, a kind of radish - radish. Mustard is used as a spicy seasoning, mustard oil is used as food, horseradish is also used as a seasoning. The most productive oil plant of temperate latitudes is rape, its oil is used in the technical industry. Of the decorative cruciferous, the most famous are left-handed, night beauty.

Rosaceae family. Up to 3500 species, life forms - trees, shrubs and grasses (Fig. 75). This family includes plants with flowers, the formula of which is *Ca 5 Co 5 A ∞ G ∞ or * Ca 5 Co 5 A ∞ G 1 , there are rosaceous and with other formulas of flowers. The fruits are very diverse - nuts, boxes, drupes, polydrupes, apples, strawberries.

Leaves both simple and compound, with stipules (sometimes fall off early). The leaf arrangement is alternate, rarely opposite.

flowers usually correct (actinomorphic), bisexual. Perianth double, five-membered. Calyx of five sepals (free or fused at the base), corolla of five (rarely four) petals, always separate-petal. Sometimes there is a subchalice. The stamens are usually indefinite in number, arranged in circles of five to ten. Pestle one or many. Ovary inferior, semi-inferior or superior. One of the features of the flower is the presence of hypanthium in the form of a saucer, bowl or glass. Flowers are often collected in inflorescences: brush, panicle, simple umbrella, shield and others.

Diverse and fruit . In spireas - a leaflet or a box, in pinks - a multi-nut or multi-drupe, in apple trees - an apple, in plums - a drupe.

Meaning. Among the rosaceous plants there are many fruit and berry crops, medicinal and ornamental plants. Cherry, apricot, plum, strawberry, sweet cherry, raspberry, apple tree, pear, quince, cherry plum - all these are fruit and berry crops rosaceous. There are many medicinal plants (rose hip, common raspberry, erect cinquefoil, medicinal burnet, bird cherry, etc.). Some rose petals are used to make rose oil. Among the decorative roses, of course, roses are in the first place, about 25,000 varieties of roses are currently known.

Family Legumes (or Butterflies). About 18,000 species, perennial and annual herbs, rarely trees, shrubs, lianas (Fig. 76).

This family includes plants with flowers, the formula of which is Ca (5) Co 1 + 2 + (2) A (9) + 1 G 1 or Ca (5) Co 1+2+(2) A (10) G 1 , there are legumes with other flower formulas. The fruit of the moth bean.

A characteristic feature of legumes is the presence of nodules on the roots , resulting from the occurrence of symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing nodule bacteria.

Leaves trifoliate, pinnately and palmately compound, rarely simple, with stipules, alternate leaf arrangement.

flowers zygomorphic (irregular), bisexual, moth-like. The calyx consists of five fused sepals; corolla five-petal, "moth" type: the largest, upper petal - sail or flag, two lateral wings or oars, the two lower ones are fused into boat. Stamens ten, pistil one, formed by one carpel. Upper ovary.

Flowers often collected in inflorescences brush, head, spike, sometimes solitary. Fetus - bob.

Meaning. Among moths there are many food (beans, peas, lentils, beans, soybeans, peanuts) plants. Vika, alfalfa, rank, clover are excellent fodder plants. Licorice, elm, gorse, sweet clover and many others are used as medicinal plants. Japanese Sophora reduces capillary fragility.

As a result of symbiotic relationships with nodule bacteria, they are accumulators of nitrogenous substances in the soil; seeds and green mass contain a large amount of protein. For these features, legumes received the names "vegetable veal", "live fertilizers". When the green mass of legumes is plowed into the soil, they enrich it with nitrogen compounds available to other plants. Therefore, they are used as green fertilizers (sederates) . Lupine is considered the best green crop, its plowing enriches the soil with nitrogen up to 200 kg per hectare.

There are decorative species - lupins, sweet peas, wisteria, robinia (white locust), caragana (yellow locust), silver locust, which in everyday life is called mimosa.

Solanaceae family. About 3000 species, mostly herbaceous plants, occasionally tree-like forms - semishrubs, shrubs, trees (Fig. 77). Combines plants whose flower formula is *Ca (5) Co (5) A 5 G (2) , the fruits of which are a berry or a box.

Leaves simple, with whole or dissected leaf blade, without stipules. The leaf arrangement is alternate.

Flowers bisexual, five-membered, regular. Perianth double, formed by a calyx of five fused sepals and a corolla of five fused petals. Androecium : usually five stamens. They alternate with corolla teeth and adhere to its tube. Gynoecium : one pistil, most often formed by the fusion of two carpels (coenocarp), the ovary is superior.

inflorescences : flowers are often collected in inflorescences, a curl or single. Fetus - box, berry.

Meaning. All nightshades are poisonous, as they contain different alkaloids.

This family includes vegetables (tomato, eggplant, pepper, potato, tobacco). Potato or tuberous nightshade is a perennial herbaceous plant that is cultivated as an annual. Homeland - South America. Potatoes came to Europe in 1565, the French agronomist Antoine Parmentier came to the ball with a bouquet of potato flowers. The king liked the overseas flower, and the potato became a fashionable ornamental crop. In order to introduce potatoes into the practice of agriculture, Parmentier proposed to put armed guards around the fields, which were removed at night. The peasants began to steal the protected crop and grow it in their fields.

Potatoes came to Russia with the help of Peter I, he sent a bag of potatoes after tasting potato dishes in Holland. However, the introduction of potatoes in Russia met with strong resistance and even "potato riots". Firstly, the church took up arms against the potato, calling it a “devil's apple”, and secondly, at first, the peasants, and sometimes the nobles, ate the fruits of potatoes - green, tomato-like berries that caused poisoning, up to death. But potatoes, under optimal growing conditions, make it possible to obtain 2-3 times more dry matter per unit area than cereals.

Plants of the Solanaceae family contain a large number of different alkaloids, so among them there are many poisonous and medicinal (henbane, dope, belladonna) plants. The anesthetic and antispasmodic effects of dope make it possible to use it in the treatment of stomach ulcers, intestinal ulcers, gallbladder diseases, and bronchial asthma.

Of the ornamental nightshades, the most famous are hybrid petunia, fragrant tobacco, and physalis. Real tobacco and shag tobacco are industrial crops. Some nightshades (black and red nightshade) are weeds.

Aster family (or Compositae). The largest family of the Dicotyledonous class, with about 25,000 species. Represented by perennial or annual herbs, in the tropics there are semi-shrubs, less often shrubs, lianas or small trees (Fig. 78). This family includes plants whose flowers are always collected in an inflorescence basket, fruit - achene.

Leaves simple, entire or dissected, without stipules. The leaf arrangement is alternate, rarely opposite or whorled.

flowers , as a rule, small, regular or irregular, bisexual, unisexual or asexual. The perianth is double, but there is no typical calyx, the sepals have turned into hairs that form a tuft. Corolla five-membered, joint-petal. Stamens five, fused with anthers, pistil one. There are four types of flowers (Fig. 79):

tubular flower. The perianth is double, the flower is regular (actinomorphic). The calyx is poorly developed, often looking like a crest. The petals of the corolla fuse into a tube. Flower formula *Ca 0-∞ Co (5) A (5) G (2) .

reed flower. Perianth double, irregular flower. The calyx is poorly developed, in the form of a tuft or teeth. The petals of the corolla grow together. A short tube is formed in the lower part, which is split on one side, and on the other, forms a tongue, ending with five teeth. Bisexual flower, flower formula Ca 0-∞ Co (5) A (5) G (2) .

False-lingual flower. The corolla consists of three fused petals (two are reduced), has the appearance of a more or less long tongue, ending with three teeth. These flowers are often pistillate, sometimes asexual. Flower formula Ca 0-∞ Co (3) A 0 G (2) .

funnel flower. The whisk is shaped like a funnel. Asexual flower, serves to attract insects. Flower formula Ca 0-∞ Co (5-7) A 0 G 0.

The most characteristic feature of the plants of the family is the simple inflorescence basket , the lower part of the basket, from below the inflorescence is surrounded by a wrapper and green leaves. Baskets can be collected in complex inflorescences corymb or panicle. Fetus - seed. In dandelions, the development of fruits occurs parthenogenetically - without fertilization. Such a phenomenon is called apomixis.

Among Compositae there are food (Jerusalem artichoke), oilseeds (sunflower), fodder (wild lettuce), melliferous (elecampane), medicinal (coltsfoot) and ornamental (dahlias, asters,) plants. Many are weeds (wormwood, thistle, sow thistle, mustard).

monocot plants. The class Monocotyledonous plants includes 80-85 families and about 64,000 species. Life forms are mostly annual, biennial and perennial herbs. But there is a small number of tree forms - trees, shrubs, lianas. From this class, consider two families of the school curriculum - lilies and cereals.

Lily family. About 1300 species, perennial rhizomatous, bulbous or bulbous herbaceous plants (Fig. 80).

Leaves simple, entire, with parallel venation, often sessile, vaginal. The leaf arrangement is alternate.

flowers correct, bisexual. Perianth simple, corolla-shaped, six-membered, joint- or separate-petal. Stamens six. One pestle. Flowers are often collected in inflorescences of a brush, panicle, spike, umbrella, less often solitary. The formula of most flowers is *P 3+3 A 3+3 G (3).

Fetus - box, berry.

Among the linear ones there are many beautifully flowering ornamental plants: lily, tulip, hazel grouse, hyacinth, scylla.

Family Bluegrass (or Cereal). About 10,000 species are known, mostly perennial, rarely annual or biennial herbs. Only representatives of the Bamboo subfamily have a lignified stem (but not capable of secondary thickening). These are cosmopolitan plants, that is, species found in most of the inhabited regions of the Earth. In terms of species diversity, cereals are second only to orchids and Compositae (about 25,000 species).

root system, like all monocots, fibrous, it is interesting that most cereals (wheat, rye) form several primary roots at once.

Stem - straw, cylindrical, segmented, with well-defined nodes and hollow (rarely solid) internodes. For cereals, it is typical tillering- branching under and above the soil surface.

Leaves simple, vaginal. The leaf blade consists of a sheath, leaf blade and uvula, with parallel venation. Germinating leaves break through the soil with the hard top of the first leaf, which is cap-shaped and is called coleoptile. The leaf arrangement is alternate.

flowers strongly reduced, bisexual, rarely unisexual, spikelets collected in inflorescences, which in turn form complex inflorescences: a complex spike, panicle, false spike (sultan), less often an ear. Each spikelet is a shortened inflorescence, at the base of which there are two spikelet scales (modified leaves), often ending in awns. The flower consists of two flowering scales, two flower films - lodicula, three stamens and one pistil with two pinnate stigmas (Fig. 81). One of the flower formulas P (2) + 2 A 3 G (2) . inflorescences - a complex ear, panicle, cob or brush.

Fetus - the pistil of cereals consists of 2 carpels, but one of them is reduced, resulting in a pseudomonocarp fruit weevil.

Meaning . Wheat, rye, barley, oats, corn, rice, sugar cane form the basis of our diet. Wheat is one of the oldest cultivated plants, cultivated for about 10,000 years. All species (about 30) are annual herbaceous plants. The inflorescence is a complex spike, most cultivated wheats are self-pollinators. Durum wheat varieties contain 20-26% protein and are used to make pasta. Soft wheat varieties contain 11-15% protein and are used to make baked goods. Spring varieties are sown in spring, winter varieties in autumn.

Among the cereals, there are many forage plants - wheatgrass, fescue, bonfires, bluegrass, foxtails, timothy, etc. some cereals are used in the textile and chemical industries, in construction. There are many weeds - wild oats, couch grass, chicken millet, etc. Some cereals are used as medicinal plants.

Key terms and concepts

1. Evant theory. 2. Trachea. 3. Sieve tubes. 4. Gametophytes of flowering plants. 5. Sederats. 6. Flowers and fruits of cruciferous. 7 Flowers and fruits of Rosaceae. 8. Flowers and fruits of legumes. 9. Flowers and fruits of nightshade. 10. Flowers and fruits of Compositae. 11. Lily flowers and fruits. 12. Flowers and fruits of cereals.