Poor quality adjective examples. Qualitative or relative? Which full adjectives have a special set of endings
Division of adjectives into groups in Russian and other languages
Adjectives are somehow divided into some categories in almost any language, including Russian. As a rule, in most languages, the classification includes two categories - qualitative and relative adjectives, for example, in English, Spanish and German there is such a division. In Russian, there is also a third category - possessive, which Europeans use pronouns and nouns in special forms.
Ranks of adjectives
Qualitative adjectives denote, as you might guess, the quality of the word being defined - cold, warm, tall, thin, fluffy, etc. They have a number of grammatical features that allow you to determine their category: they have a short form, degrees of comparison, forms of subjective assessment (short , long), in addition, they are combined with adverbs (very thin, extremely smart) and can even sometimes form them themselves (stupid - stupid,
envious - envious).
Apart from external signs defined by a noun or pronoun, qualitative adjectives can also define character and internal traits - stupid, lazy, jealous. Relative adjectives they talk about several other signs of the word being defined: the material of manufacture, time and spatial arrangement - a fur vest, yesterday's newspaper, a Turkish cap. As a rule, adjectives belonging to this category do not have grammatical features that are inherent in the first group. Finally, possessive adjectives indicate the ownership of the word being defined - fox tail, hare footprints, mother's lipstick. They also most often lack the morphological forms that quality adjectives can form.
Difficulties and errors in determining the category
It would seem that everything is very simple. But if this were the case, then the Russian language would not be so difficult to learn. The fact is that quite often there is a transition of this part of speech from one category to another. Most often, relative and possessive adjectives turn into qualitative adjectives, however, without acquiring their grammatical features, which seriously complicates the task of determining the category. Therefore, for an accurate classification, it is much more convenient to rely not only on the formation of morphological forms by one or another adjective, but also on the context and meaning of the definition in it. So, in the phrase "hare tracks" it is obvious that we are talking about tracks belonging to a hare.
And the hare collar is made of its skin, that is, here we are already talking about the material of manufacture, and the adjective becomes relative. Iron utensils are utensils made of metal, the adjective belongs to the category of relative ones, and in the phrase "iron will" or "golden heart" it is no longer about the material, these are already high-quality adjectives. "Hare cowardice" is another example of how freely adjectives change rank depending on the context. Therefore, in order not to be mistaken, one should first of all take into account semantics and context, and only then rely on grammatical features.
§ 1294. An adjective is a part of speech denoting a non-procedural attribute of an object and expressing this meaning in inflectional morphological categories of gender, number and case. The adjective has a morphological category of degree of comparison and has full and short forms.
The composition of an adjective as a part of speech, in addition to adjectives proper, that is, unmotivated or motivated words for which the name of a quality or property is their lexical meaning, includes groups of words whose lexical meaning does not express the quality or property of an object. These are ordinal adjectives (the so-called ordinal numbers), which name the relation to the number and determine the position of the object in the counting order ( first, second, the third, hundredth; for their meaning, see § 1296 ), and pronominal adjectives that do not name a quality or property, but only point to it ( my, that, mine, everyone). Adjectives also include a large group of unchangeable words of foreign origin, naming a sign ( Bordeaux, neckline,flare, pleated, khaki). These words do not change by gender and number and belong to the zero declension (see § 1328 ); the meaning of the attribute in them is found syntactically, in combination with a noun: Colour Bordeaux, trousers flare, skirt pleated, suit khaki.
Adjectives are classified on two grounds: firstly, according to the nature of the feature itself and, secondly, according to the nature of the designation of the feature, i.e., according to whether the feature in the word receives its lexical expression or the presence of the feature is only indicated, but itself sign is not named. These classifications, equally essential for the grammatical characteristics of adjectives, are not subordinate to each other and exist independently of one another.
Classification according to the first feature divides adjectives into two lexical and grammatical categories - into qualitative and relative adjectives. The composition of relative adjectives includes proper relative (possessive, see § 1296 , and non-possessive), ordinal and pronominal adjectives. Classification according to the second feature divides adjectives into significant and pronominal. Significant adjectives include all qualitative adjectives and all relative ones, except for pronouns.
Qualitative and relative adjectives
§ 1295. Qualitative adjectives denote a property inherent in the object itself or discovered in it, often one that can be characterized by varying degrees of intensity: white – whiter, beautiful – more beautiful, lasting – stronger, stubborn – more stubborn,good – it is better. The core of this category is made up of adjectives, the basis of which denotes a sign not through relation to the subject. This includes words that name such properties and qualities that are directly perceived by the senses: color, spatial, temporal, physical and other qualifying signs, qualities of character and mental make-up: red, blue,light, bright; hot, loud, thick, fragrant, voiced, round, soft, cutting, sweet, warm, quiet, heavy; far, long,long, short, small, close, narrow; barefoot, deaf, healthy, young, blind, old, thick, skinny, frail; proud, kind,greedy, evil, wise, bad, stingy, clever, cunning, good, brave, generous; important, harmful, fit, required, useful, right.
Qualitative adjectives have two series of forms - full (attributive) and short (predicative): white, white, white, white and white, white, white, white; dark, dark, dark, dark and parietal, dark, dark, dark; bitter, bitter, bitter, bitter and bitter, bitter,bitterly, bitter; they form comparative forms. degree (comparative): important – more important, kind – kinder, sweet – sweeter, smooth – smoother,thick – thicker. From qualities. adjectives it is possible to form adverbs on - about, -e: hot – hot, far – far, long – for a long time,surplus – unnecessarily, wise – wisely, melodious – melodiously, brave – bravely. Most of the qualities. adjectives are also characterized by a number of derivational features: the ability to form other qualities. adjectives that name shades and degrees of quality ( whitish, huge, hefty), and nouns naming abstract concepts ( depth, courage, emptiness) (cm. § 607 ). Qualities. adjectives are replenished at the expense of participles in the adjective meaning. (cm. § 1579 ) and at the expense of relative adjectives - provided that the latter acquire a qualitative meaning (see § 1299 -1301 ).
§ 1296. Relative adjectives call a feature through a relationship to an object or to another feature: the motivating basis denotes the subject or feature through which the given property is represented: wooden, steel, summer,bathing, yesterday's. The nature of the expressed relations is very diverse: it can be a designation of a feature according to the material ( wooden,metal), according to belonging (possessive adjectives: fathers, fishy, sisters, husband, my), by appointment ( children's book,school benefits), by property ( autumn rains, evening cool). Relates adjectives name a sign that cannot manifest itself with varying degrees of intensity.
Relates adjectives make up the main and continuously replenished mass of Russian adjectives (only groups of ordinal and pronominal adjectives are not replenished). Unlike qualities. adjectives, represented by both unmotivated and motivated words, refers. adjectives are motivated by words of other parts of speech: nouns ( iron, door,fathers, sisters, lamp, Komsomol, spring, upper); verbs ( tannic, swimming, danceable, medical), numerals ( fourth, tenth, fortieth, 200th) and adverbs ( near, former, then, yesterday's, present). The exception is ordinal adjectives. first, second and many pronominal adjectives (see § 1297 ), which are unmotivated words.
Ordinal refers. adjectives that name a feature through a relation to a number (quantity, place in a series), in their meaning are similar to other relates. adjective: they denote attitude. Pronominal adjectives are peculiar in their meaning: they are demonstrative words. Pronominal and ordinal adjectives have a certain similarity: ordinal adj. may indicate a place in a row (see § 1366 ); thus they behave like demonstrative words. The latter applies primarily to adj. first, second, the third. On the other hand, pronominal adj. that, this, another, different can act as ordinal adjectives. A similar interchangeability of some ordinal and pronominal adjectives is observed when listing: and then,and other, and third; and those, and other, and third.
Demonstrative functions are also characteristic of the counting-pronominal adjective one – alone; compare: alone stayed, a otherwent in cinema; spring freezing sensitive Dried and cheered up grove. More alone, other day, And under bark wake up the juice(Tward.). Word one can also be used as an indefinite pronoun some: Which produced consequence This arrival, the reader can discover from one conversation, which happened between alone two ladies(Gogol); lived on the earth in antiquity alonepeople, impassable forests surrounded with three parties camps these of people, a with fourth was steppe(Bitter.).
§ 1297. Pronominal adjectives are divided into six groups: 1) possessive (so-called possessive pronouns): a) personal, indicating belonging to the first person ( my, our), to the second person ( your, your) or a third party (indeclinable adj. his, her, them); b) returnable, indicating belonging to any of the three persons: mine; 2) index: that,this, such, sort of(colloquial), such is, next, as well as the words that-then, such-then, see section "Word formation", § 1039 ; 3) defining: any, all kinds, everyone, any, the whole, whole, different, another, myself, most; 4) interrogative: which, which,whose, what; 5) indefinite: which-then, some, some; 6) negative: no, nobody's.
Note. Colloquial words also belong to the category of pronominal adjectives. such, theirs, ours, Vashenskiy. These words are reflected in the language of fiction.
All pronominal adjectives except postfixal and prefixal (see § 1036 -1039 ) and also simple. such, theirs, ours,Vashenskiy, are unmotivated words.
Relates from everyone. adjectives pronominal adjectives differ in the nature of the lexical meaning; they denote such signs that arise on the basis of the speaker's attitude to persons, objects and phenomena. Yes, the words my, your, his, mine indicate possessive relationships established by the speaker: (referring to me, to you, to yourself, etc.); the words this, such on behalf of the speaker, they point to a sign ((one that the speaker definitely points to, which he characterizes)); similar meanings of words which-then,some, some((the one to which the speaker points vaguely)). Pronominal adjectives can indicate any sign; their content is determined in speech.
Pronominal adjectives also have other features of lexical meanings that are characteristic of demonstrative words. Yes, the words my, your, our, your, mine may have abstract typing meanings characteristic of personal pronouns as well (see § 1277 ). For example, in statements of a generalizing nature, in proverbs, these adjectives denote belonging to any generalized conceivable person: My hut with edge; Not yours sadness strangers children sway; Its shirt closer to body.
demonstrative pronouns such and that in addition to the pointer value itself ( A handful of land, similar on the another, How much in loveless and superstition! O such and on the sky yearn, And in such before graves believe. Ehrenb.) amplifying value is characteristic. At the same time, the word such emphasizes the degree of manifestation of the feature (a), and that also highlights the carrier of the feature called the noun (b): a) Ringing music in garden So inexpressible grief(Ahm.); He delirious in rays votes | and "fairy tale Vienna forests", | and caress Bryansk forests, | Ichem-then so cornflower blue, | to whom | thousands years(Invalid); b) Crane at dilapidated well, Above him, as boil, clouds, AT fields creaky gate, And smell of bread, and yearning, And those dim open spaces, Where even voice wind weak(Ahm.); There is in Leningrad hard eyes and that, For of the past enigmatic, dumbness, That bitterly compressed mouth, those hoops on the a heart, What, maybe be, alone rescued his die(Ehrenb.).
§ 1298. The semantic boundary between qualitative and relative adjectives is conditional and changeable: refers. adjectives can develop qualitative meanings. At the same time, the meaning of the objective relation in the adjective is combined with the meaning of the qualitative characteristic of this relation. Yes, the word iron how it relates. adjective means (containing iron) or (made of iron) ( iron ore, iron nail); the same adjective also has a number of figurative, qualitative meanings: (strong, strong) ( iron health), (hard, inflexible) ( iron will, iron discipline). Adjective children's as a relative means (belonging to, peculiar to children, intended for children) ( children's toys,children's book, children's house); as qualities. adjective this word gets figurative meaning: (not characteristic of an adult, immature) ( children's reasoning, children's behavior). Similarly: gold character, golden rye, wolf hunger, canine cold, cock-like enthusiasm;Us opens[a door] Mitrofan Stepanovich Zverev, very home, in dressing gown(M. Aliger); Soon sanatorium silencepublishing houses violates tractor bolt shoes Khamlovsky(gas.).
§ 1299. The shade of quality may be present in all relates. adjectives, but to varying degrees. To a greater extent, the development of qualitative meanings is characteristic of relative adjectives proper and, to a lesser extent, of possessive, ordinal and pronominal adjectives.
Among possessive adjectives, the ability to acquire a qualitative meaning is distinguished primarily by adjectives with the suffix - uy. Adjectives with this suffix have a meaning. (peculiar (less often - belonging) to the one who is named by the motivating word): fishy,feline, canine, veal, human. In context, such adjectives easily acquire qualitative meanings. In combinations fishy temperament, feline gait, canine devotion, veal tenderness relates. adjectives act as qualitative: I I don't want, to you ate alms compassion and canine devotion(Cupr.); BUT jump behind thunder, behind four Elijah Prophet, subjet – My veal would enthusiasm, Veal b tenderness your(Pastern.).
Note. In cases where relative adjectives are motivated by the same noun, but are formed with different suffixes ( cockerel and cock-like, shepherd and pastoral, human and human), non-possessive adjectives acquire qualitative meaning more easily: cock-like enthusiasm,shepherd's idyll, human attitude.
A possessive adjective formed with suf. - ov, -in, -nin (fathers, grandfathers, maternal, sisters, brother), the development of qualitative values is not typical. This is explained, firstly, by the fact that such adjectives denote a concrete-singular affiliation (see § 781 , p. 1), secondly, by the fact that they are generally limited in use: relations of ownership in the modern language are more often indicated by the form gender. n. n. ( fathers house – house father).
Note. App. damn along with the possessive meaning, it is widely used to denote an expressive negative attitude towards the object being defined: damn undertaking; damn abyss cases; And introduced that I wear damn I in second floor(Nekr.).
Qualitative adjectives denote such a sign (quality) of an object, which may be in this object to a greater or lesser extent: And a bright night is walking on the ground, spreading white sheets on slopes (V. Shukshin); Tonight the night is brighter; Yesterday was the brightest night.
--- shape(straight, angled, curved, round)
size (narrow, low, huge, large)
color (red, lemon, purple)
Qualitative adjectives denote a feature of an object according to
property (durable, tough, brittle)
¦- taste (bitter, salty, sour, tasty)
weight (heavy, weighty, weightless)
smell (fragrant, odorous, cloying)
temperature (warm, cool, hot)
sound (loud, deafening, quiet)
general assessment (important, harmful, useful)
And etc.
Most quality adjectives have full and short forms: cheerful - cheerful; cheerful - cheerful; fun - fun; cheerful - cheerful.
Full form varies by case, number and gender.
Adjectives in short form change by number and gender. Short adjectives do not bow; in a sentence are used as predicates.
When forming short forms of adjectives male a fluent vowel o or e may appear in their stems (if the stem of a full adjective has a consonant sound at the end of d * i): long - dblog, strong - strong, warm - warm, smart - smart, etc.
The adjective worthy has a short masculine form worthy.
From adjectives ending in -n, short masculine forms are formed in -en and -enen, however. In modern Russian, forms in -enen are actively replaced by forms in -en: essential - essential (not "essential"), painful - painful (not "painful"), related - related (not "related"), limited - limited (not "limited"). Only in some cases is the correct form in -enen: sincere - sincere, low - low, frank - frank.
Some short adjectives do not have a masculine form, less often - female, even more rarely there is a plural form.
Some adjectives are used only in a short form: glad, much, must, necessary: Ah, Chatsky, I am very glad to see you (A. Griboyedov); But is the handsome Lel really good at songs? (A. Ostrovsky); In the morning I must be sure that I will see you in the afternoon (A. Pushkin); Where you can’t take it by force, you need a grip (I. Krylov).
Some quality adjectives do not have an appropriate short form: adjectives with suffixes (comradely, efficient, advanced, skillful, crow, lilac), denoting a high degree of attribute (strongest, tiny), and adjectives that are part of terminological names (deep rear, fast train ).
stupid - stupid - stupid - stupid - stupid, dbbry - kind - good - ddbro - good, green - green - green - green - green, right - true - right - right - you, empty - empty - empty; - empty - empty, sharp - sharp - cutting - sharp - sharp.
Qualitative adjectives can be combined with an adverb very (very swarthy, very cheerful), have antonyms (long - short).
Qualitative adjectives have comparative and superlative degrees of comparison. Each in shape
the degree can be simple (consists of one word): I have become more modest in my desires (S. Yesenin); Here, every piece of the coast was already known to him to the smallest detail (V. Kataev) in a compound (consists of two words): This first sound was followed by another, painfully hard and lingering (I. Turgenev); It's been five hours. Morning is the quietest hour of the day (K. Simonov).
COMPARATIVE
The comparative degree shows that in one or another subject the sign manifests itself to a greater or lesser extent than in another, for example: Conversations became louder, more incoherent and more fun (A. Pushkin); Further experiments were more complex than the previous ones (Academician I. Pavlov).
Comparative Degree Education
| The initial form of the adjective, from which the comparative degree is formed | Facilities education comparative degree | Comparative adjective |
| Adjectives with | -e + truncate suffixes | |
| suffixes -k-, -ok- | ||
| (-ЄК-) | ¦k-, -ok-(-ek-) | . |
| short | BUT below |
|
| tall | BUT higher |
|
| long thin | /V , -she + truncation of the final consonant stem r, k | * L longer BUT thinner |
| tall | pd- + -she(-e) | - taller \ |
| large | "more | |
| good bad little | from other bases | it is better worse smaller |
| Composite form | ||
| solid weak- sweet | more or less words | harder less weak more sweet |
Should be correctly pronounced:
boring - duller, light - lighter, beautiful - more beautiful, greenish - greener, strong - stronger, uglier - scarier.
- A simple comparative degree is an invariable form of an adjective: The clouds have become, as it were, thinner and more transparent (M. Gorky).
- A comparison of two objects on some basis can be expressed in different ways: The left bank of the river is steeper than the right; The left bank of the river is steeper than the right; The left bank of the river is steeper than the right.
- Some adjectives do not form a simple form of the comparative degree: bulky, emaciated, superfluous, brittle, massive, sloping, advanced, early, timid, etc.
Notes. 1. When forming a composite form of a comparative degree, after the word more (less), you cannot use an adjective in a simple comparative degree: The stern face of the father became more gloomy (V. Korolenko); The stern face of the father became even more sullen. You can not say "more gloomy."
- Forms of the comparative degree of adjectives formed with the prefix po- (meaning "a little more") are more often used in colloquial speech.
Superlatives shows that one or another subject is superior to other subjects in some way, for example: Labor is the best, most radical medicine (K. Simonov); In the morning, he spent a long time choosing among the printed pictures the most distinct ones. Finally, two of the best were postponed (JI. Radishchev); I want to make the most majestic word shine again - the Party (V. Mayakovsky); Even now Lenin is more alive than all the living. Our knowledge, strength and weapons (V. Mayakovsky).
Formation of superlative adjectives
| The initial form of the adjective from which the superlative degree is formed | Facilities education excellent degree | Superlative adjective |
| brave wonderful | -eysh- | bravest miraculous |
| tall beautiful і і | nai + -sh- (truncation of the suffix -ok) pai + -eysh- | highest most beautiful |
| good bad little | from other bases | best the worst less |
| hard accessible faithful cheerful sad) smart gt; interesting) | Compound form of the word most words most, least comparative adjective + genitive pronoun all - all | the hardest the most accessible the most faithful the least cheerful the saddest of all the smartest of all the most interesting of all |
Adjective
The adjective is an independent significant part of speech that combines words that
1) indicate a non-procedural feature of the subject and answer questions which?, whose?;
2) change by gender, number and case, and some - by completeness / brevity and degrees of comparison;
3) in a sentence there are definitions or a nominal part of a compound nominal predicate.
Ranks of adjectives by meaning
Three categories of adjectives are distinguished by meaning: qualitative, relative, possessive.
quality adjectives denote the quality, property of an object: its size ( large), shape ( round), Colour ( blue), physical characteristics ( cold), as well as the propensity of the object to perform an action ( talkative).
relative adjectives designate a sign of an object through the relation of this object to another object ( book), action ( reading room) or another feature ( yesterday's). Relative adjectives are formed from nouns, verbs, and adverbs; the most common suffixes for relative adjectives are the suffixes - n- (forest), -ov- (hedgehog), -in- (poplar-in-th), -sk- (warehouse), -l- (fluent).
Possessive adjectives denote the belonging of an object to a person or animal and are formed from nouns by suffixes - in- (mum-in), -ov- (father-ov), -uy- (fox). These suffixes are at the end of the stem of the adjective (cf. possessive adjective fathers and relative adjective paternal).
Qualitative adjectives differ from relative and possessive adjectives at all language levels:
1) only qualitative adjectives denote a feature that can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent;
2) quality adjectives can have antonyms ( deep - shallow);
3) only qualitative adjectives can be non-derivative, relative and possessive ones are always derived from nouns, adjectives, verbs;
4) qualitative adjectives form nouns with the meaning of an abstract attribute ( rigor) and adverbs in - about(strictly), as well as adjectives with a subjective assessment suffix ( blue-yenky-y, evil-yushch-y);
5) only qualitative adjectives have a full / short form and degrees of comparison;
6) qualitative adjectives are combined with adverbs of measure and degree ( very big, but not * very readable).
Thus, we see that qualitative adjectives are grammatically opposed to relative and possessive adjectives, which, in turn, are grammatically very similar. The difference between relative and possessive adjectives is manifested only in the type of their declension (see declension of adjectives), which gives reason to many researchers to combine them into one group of relative adjectives, which, with sequential grammatical selection of parts of speech, also includes ordinal numerals and pronominal adjectives.
Declension of adjectives
Adjectives of all ranks have non-permanent signs kind(singular) numbers and case in which they agree with the noun. Adjectives also agree with the noun in animation if the noun is in the form of V. p. plural, and for the masculine gender - and singular(cf.: I see beautiful shoes and I see beautiful girls) - see the animation of the noun.
Changing an adjective by gender, number and case is called adjective declension.
quality and relative adjectives decline the same way. This type of declension is called adjective.
In Russian, there are indeclinable adjectives that mean:
1) colors: beige, khaki, marengo, electric;
2) nationalities and languages: Khanty, Mansi, Urdu;
3) clothing styles: pleated, corrugated, flared, mini.
Invariable adjectives are also words (weight) gross, net, (hour) peak.
Degrees of comparison adjectives
Qualitative adjectives have a non-constant morphological sign of degrees of comparison.
School grammar indicates that there are two degrees of comparison - comparative and superlative. It is more correct to single out three degrees of comparison - positive, comparative and excellent. The positive degree of comparison is the original form of the adjective, in relation to which we are aware of other forms as expressing a greater / lesser or greater / lesser degree of attribute.
comparative adjective indicates that the feature is manifested to a greater / lesser extent in this subject compared to another subject ( Petya is taller than Vasya; This river is deeper than the other) or the same item in other circumstances ( Petya is taller than he was last year; The river is deeper here than there.).
The comparative degree can be simple and compound.
Simple comparative degree denotes a greater degree of manifestation of the trait and is formed as follows:
base of positive degree + formative suffixes -her(s), -e, -she/-same (quicker, higher, earlier, deeper).
If there is an element at the end of the base of a positive degree to /OK, this segment is often truncated: deep - deep.
Some adjectives have suppletive, i.e., formed from another stem, forms: bad - worse, good - better.
When forming a simple comparative degree, a prefix can be attached on- (newer). Simple comparative degree with a prefix on- is used if the adjective occupies the position of an inconsistent definition ( Give me a new newspaper) and does not require the introduction into the sentence of what the given feature is compared with. If there is in the sentence both what is being compared and what is being compared, the prefix on- introduces a colloquial tone ( These shoes are newer than those).
Morphological features of a simple comparative degree are uncharacteristic of an adjective. This is
1) immutability,
2) the ability to control a noun,
3) use mainly in the function of the predicate ( He is taller than his father). A simple comparative degree can occupy the position of definition only in a separate position ( Much taller than the other students, he seemed almost an adult) or in a non-isolated position with a prefix on- in position after a noun ( Buy me fresher newspapers).
Composite comparative degree denotes both a greater and a lesser degree of manifestation of a trait and is formed as follows:
element more / less + positive degree ( more / less high).
The difference between a composite comparative degree and a simple one is as follows:
1) the composite comparative degree is wider in meaning, since it denotes not only a greater, but also a lesser degree of manifestation of a feature;
2) the composite comparative degree changes in the same way as the positive degree of comparison (initial form), i.e. by gender, number and case, and can also be in short form ( more handsome);
3) a composite comparative degree can be both a predicate and a non-isolated and isolated definition ( A less interesting article was presented in this journal. This article is less interesting than the previous one..)
Superlatives comparison indicates the largest / smallest degree of manifestation of the trait ( highest mountain) or to a very large / small degree of manifestation of the trait ( kindest person).
The superlative degree of comparison, like the comparative one, can be simple and compound.
simple superlatives Comparison adjective denotes the highest degree of manifestation of the attribute and is formed as follows:
basis of positive degree + formative suffixes -aysh- / -aysh-(after k, g, x, causing alternation): good-eysh-th, Supreme
When forming a simple superlative degree of comparison, the prefix can be used nai-: kindest.
The morphological features of a simple superlative degree of comparison of adjectives are the same as those of a positive degree, i.e., variability in gender, number, cases, the use of a definition and a predicate in the syntactic function. Unlike the positive degree, the simple superlative adjective does not have a short form.
Compound Superlative comparison of adjectives denotes both the greatest and the least degree of manifestation of a feature and is formed in three ways:
1) element the most + positive degree ( the smartest);
2) element most / least+ positive degree ( most/least smart);
3) simple comparative degree + element total / all (He was smarter than everyone).
The forms of the compound superlative degree, formed by the first and second methods, have morphological features characteristic of a positive degree, i.e. they change according to gender, numbers and cases, they can have a short form ( most convenient), act both as a definition and as a nominal part of the predicate. Compound superlative forms formed in the third way are invariable and act mainly as a nominal part of the predicate.
Not all qualitative adjectives have forms of degrees of comparison, and the absence simple forms degrees of comparison is observed more often than the absence of compound forms.
The absence of a simple comparative and superlative degree may be due to
1) with the formal structure of the adjective: if the adjective has a suffix that matches the suffixes of relative adjectives, it may not have a simple comparative degree ( emaciated - * thinner, * thinner, advanced - * more advanced);
2) with the lexical meaning of the adjective: the meaning of the degree of manifestation of the attribute can already be expressed in the basis of the adjective - in its root ( barefoot - *barefoot) or in suffix ( fat-enn-th - * thicker, evil-shinning - * furious, white-oval - * whitish, blue-enk-th - * bluer).
Compound forms of degrees of comparison are not formed only for words with a semantic restriction, that is, in the second case. Yes, no forms. *more feisty, *less whitish, but there are forms less emaciated, more advanced.
Completeness / brevity of adjectives
Qualitative adjectives have a full and a short form
The short form is formed by adding a positive degree of endings to the stem: for the masculine gender, - a for women - o/-e for the average, - s / -i for plural ( deep-, deep-a, deep-o, deep-and).
A short form is not formed from quality adjectives that
1) have suffixes characteristic of relative adjectives - sk-, -ov- / -ev-, -n-: brown, coffee, fraternal;
2) denote the colors of animals: brown, black;
3) have suffixes of subjective assessment: tall, blue.
The short form has grammatical differences from the full form: it does not change by case, in the sentence it appears mainly as a nominal part of the predicate (cases like red girl, white combustible stone are phraseologized archaic); the short form acts as a definition only in a separate syntactic position ( Angry at the whole world, he almost stopped leaving the house).
In the position of the predicate, the meaning of the full and short forms usually coincides, but some adjectives may have the following semantic differences between them:
1) the short form denotes an excessive manifestation of a sign with a negative assessment, cf.: skirt short - skirt short;
2) the short form denotes a temporary sign, the full one - permanent, cf.: the child is sick - the child is sick.
There are such qualitative adjectives that have only a short form: glad, much, must.
Transition of adjectives from category to category
It is possible for an adjective to have several meanings related to different categories. In school grammar, this is called "the transition of an adjective from category to category." So, a relative adjective can develop a meaning characteristic of qualitative ones (for example: iron detail(relative) - iron will(kach.) - metaphorical transfer). Possessives may have meanings characteristic of relative and qualitative ones (for example: Foxy burrow(possessive) - fox hat(relative) - foxiness(kach.). Qualitative adjectives, used terminologically, function as relative ones ( voiceless consonants). At the same time, the adjective retains the type of its declension, but often changes morphological features: qualitative ones lose their degrees of comparison and short form (for example, one cannot say * This consonant is deaf), while relative ones, on the contrary, can acquire these features ( With every word, his voice became more and more honey, and his habits became more and more fox-like.).
Morphological analysis of the adjective
Morphological analysis of the adjective is carried out according to the following scheme:
1. Adjective. Initial form.
2. Morphological features:
a) permanent:
Rank by value,
The degree of comparison (for qualitative, in which this feature is constant),
Full / short form (for quality, in which this feature is permanent);
b) unstable:
Degree of comparison (for qualitative, in which this feature is not constant),
Full / short form (for quality, in which this feature is unstable),
Genus (in singular),
Case (for full).
Pronoun as a part of speech
A pronoun is an independent non-significant part of speech that indicates objects, signs or quantities, but does not name them.
The grammatical features of pronouns are different and depend on which part of speech the pronoun acts as a substitute in the text.
Pronouns are classified by meaning and by grammatical features.
Pronoun ranks by meaning
There are 9 categories of pronouns by meaning:
1. Personal: . Personal pronouns indicate the participants in the dialogue ( I, you, we, you), persons not participating in the conversation, and objects ( he, she, it, they).
2. returnable: myself. This pronoun indicates the identity of the person or thing named by the subject, the person or thing named by the word myself (He won't hurt himself. Hopes did not justify themselves).
3. Possessive: mine, yours, yours, ours, his, hers, theirs. Possessive pronouns indicate that an object belongs to a person or another object ( This is my portfolio. Its size is very convenient).
4. pointing: this, that, such, such, so much, this(outdated), this(outdated). These pronouns indicate a sign or quantity of objects.
5. Determinants: himself, most, all, everyone, each, any, other, different, everyone(outdated), all kinds(outdated). Definitive pronouns indicate the attribute of an object.
6. Interrogative: who, what, which, which, whose, how much. Interrogative pronouns serve as special interrogative words and indicate persons, objects, attributes, and quantity.
7. relative: the same as interrogative ones, in the function of connecting parts of a complex sentence (union words).
8. Negative: nobody, nothing, no one, nothing, none, no one. Negative pronouns express the absence of an object or feature.
9. indefinite: someone, something, some, some, several, as well as all pronouns formed from interrogative pronouns by the prefix something- or suffixes - then, -or, -someday.
Ranks of pronouns by grammatical features
According to their grammatical features, pronouns correlate with nouns, adjectives and numerals. Pronominal nouns indicate a person or an object, pronominal adjectives indicate an attribute of an object, pronominal numbers indicate a quantity.
To noun pronouns include: all personal pronouns, reflexive myself who and whatnobody, nothing, no one, nothing, someone, something, someone and etc.).
To adjective pronouns include all possessive, all attributive, demonstrative this, that, such, such, this, this, interrogative-relative which, which, whose and the negative and indefinite ones formed from them ( none, nobody, some, some, some and etc.).
To pronouns-numerals include pronouns so many, how many and formed from them a few, some and etc.).
Pronouns also include pronouns-adverbs, i.e. words that indicate a sign of action ( where, when, there, for some reason and etc.). These pronouns complement the categories of definitives ( everywhere, always), index ( So, there), interrogative, relative ( where, why), undefined ( somewhere, ever) and negative ( nowhere, never) pronouns.
On the one hand, there is a basis for such a combination of all pronominal words: indeed, the pronoun as a part of speech does not have grammatical unity and is distinguished on the basis of its referential function: pronominal words do not name objects, signs, quantities, circumstances, but point to them, referring us or to extralinguistic reality, speech situation (pronoun I names the person who is currently speaking, phrase Give methat book can be understood by pointing the hand at a certain book), or to the preceding or following text ( Here is the table.He (= table) wooden. Man,which (=man) I need, didn't come- reference to the previous context . I want to talk aboutvolume that I won't come- reference to the following context).
On the other hand, there is an established linguistic tradition to refer to the pronoun as a part of speech only those pronominal words that are used "instead of a name", that is, instead of a noun, adjective or numeral. It is this tradition that we adhere to in our description. Pronominal adverbs are described by us as an insignificant category of adverbs (see adverb).
Grammatical features of pronouns-nouns
Pronominal nouns include the following pronouns: personal I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they, return myself, interrogative-relative who and what and the negative and indefinite ones formed from them ( no one, nothing, nobody, nothing, someone, something, someone, something, anything and etc.).
These pronouns have grammatical features similar to the grammatical features of nouns, but they also have certain differences from significant nouns. You can ask them questions who? or what?, in the sentence these words act mainly as subjects or objects.
Consider the morphological features of pronouns-nouns.
Personal pronouns have a morphological character faces:
1 person: me, we;
2 person: you you;
3rd person: he, she, it, they.
The morphological feature of the person of pronouns is expressed out of word - personal endings of the verb in the present or future tense of the indicative mood and forms of the imperative mood of the verb, i.e. those verbal forms that have a morphological feature of the person:
1 person: I'm going, we're going;
2 person: you go-eat, go-and-, you go, go, go;
3rd person: he, she, it goes, let it go, they go, let it go.
For other pronouns-nouns, as well as for all significant nouns, it is not customary to determine the person.
Personal pronouns have a morphological feature numbers. Personal pronouns are singular ( I, you, he, she, it) and plural ( we you they) numbers. When listing personal pronouns, all three complexes cite these eight words, from which we can conclude that each of the eight personal pronouns is an independent word. However, there are disagreements regarding the interpretation of the sign of number in the complexes. In complex 1, nothing is said about the change of personal pronouns according to numbers, however, in terms of the morphological analysis of the pronoun, the number is placed in non-permanent features. Complex 2 says that personal pronouns “are singular. and many others. numbers." In complex 3 it is indicated that the pronouns 1 and 2 of the person do not change in numbers (i.e. I and we- different words), and 3rd person pronouns - change (i.e. is he and they are forms of the same word.
In linguistics, it is usually believed that the number is a constant feature of noun pronouns, i.e. pronouns I and we, you and you, is he, she is, it and they- different words. This is due to the fact that between the words I and we, you and you there is no normal for a change in number ratio “one object - a lot of objects, each of which is called a singular form”, i.e. it cannot be said that we- it's a lot I, insofar as we- This I(speaking) and someone else.
Thus, we will describe personal pronouns as words with a permanent feature of the singular or plural.
Noun pronouns have a constant feature kind. This question, like the question of number, is poorly covered in school textbooks. On the one hand, as already mentioned, the list of personal pronouns contains 8 words, i.e. the words is he, she is and it considered different words. On the other hand, 3rd person pronouns change by gender. The gender of other personal pronouns is not mentioned.
We will proceed from the following provisions. All personal pronouns have a constant gender sign, which, like significant nouns, is expressed out of word.
Pronouns I and you general kind: i, you came- - I, you came.
Pronoun is he male: he came-.
Pronoun she is female: she came.
Pronoun it neuter: it came.
Plural Pronouns we, you, they not characterized by genus.
We can talk about the animation of personal pronouns, since their V. p. coincides with R. p. ( no you - I see you).
All personal pronouns change according to cases, i.e. bow down. Personal pronouns are inclined in a special way, and the forms of their indirect cases are formed from a different basis (the so-called suppletivism):
|
I.p. I | ||||||||
|
me |
you | |||||||
|
you | ||||||||
|
me |
you | |||||||
|
me/me |
you / you |
us |
you | |||||
|
(about me |
(about you |
(about him |
(about him |
(about her |
(o) us |
(about you |
(about them |
AT indirect cases with a preposition, 3rd person pronouns are added n: from him, to them, from her. Addition does not occur with derivative prepositions during, thanks to, according to, in spite of and etc.: thanks to her, according to him.
returnable pronoun-noun myself has no gender or number. It declines like a personal pronoun you, except that the pronoun myself has no form I. p.
Interrogative-relative pronouns who and what in school textbooks are not characterized in terms of gender and number, however, it can be noted that the pronoun who masculine singular ( who's come- but not * who came or * who came and), and the pronoun what- neuter singular ( what happened).
Formed from pronouns who and what negative and uncertain pronouns have the same characteristics as pronouns who and what. Feature of indefinite pronouns someone and something is that someone has the form only I. p., and something- I. p. and V. p. A negative pronouns no one and nothing, on the contrary, do not have the form I. p.
An adjective is an independent part of speech that combines words that denote non-procedural features of an object and answer the questions, which one? whose? This meaning is expressed in non-independent inflectional categories of gender, number and case (perform the grammatical function of agreement). In a sentence, adjectives act as a definition or nominal part of a compound nominal predicate.
Types and categories of adjectives (qualitative, relative,possessive adjectives)
Ways of forming adjectives
1. Full adjectives are formed by adding to the noun, any part of the word: prefix, suffix or prefix and suffix together. They can also be formed by adding two bases. For example, a swamp is a swamp "ny (suffixal), small (attached), underwater (attached-suffixal),
cleansing (complex suffixal), Adjectives can also be formed by compounding: pale pink, three years old.
2. Short adjectives are formed from full qualitative adjectives and correlate with them semantically. Short adjectives are those that masculine singular have zero endings(black, beautiful), in the feminine singular - endings -a, -ya (black, beautiful), in the singular of the neuter gender - endings -o, -e (black, beautiful), and in the plural of all genders - endings -i, -s (black, beautiful). Short adjectives in a sentence act as a predicate. ("How good, how fresh were the roses...")
Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives
1. Qualitative adjectives - denote a sign of an object directly, that is, without relation to other objects (red, beautiful, kind), have comparison forms and short forms; .
2. Relative adjectives - indicate a sign through relation to another object, they are derived from nominal bases (laboratory, wooden);
3. Possessive adjectives - denote belonging to a person or animal, that is, they contain an indication of the owner (foxes, fathers).
Most Russian surnames were also formed from possessive adjectives with the help of suffixes - in the Zimin ov type - Popov, Ivanov, etc. e. All masculine surnames are inclined, except for those that end in o or even have a foreign language origin. The female surnames are not declined.
Features of quality adjectives
Qualitative adjectives name signs of objects that are usually perceived by the senses. For example: (sweet, bitter; white, black, blue; sonorous, quiet; soft, smooth; wide, narrow, high, etc.); designate character traits and features of a psychological warehouse (wise, kind, insidious, cunning, etc.); express an assessment (excellent, wonderful, bad, disgusting, etc.). These symptoms may appear in varying degrees. Compare: very bitter, more bitter, the most bitter, the bitterest, etc.
Only a few short adjectives express the absolute sign of an object that is unchanging, constant: deaf, lame, married, on foot, brown, black, etc.
Usually short adjectives have both full and short forms. For example: beautiful - beautiful, beautiful, beautiful, beautiful. However, some groups of adjectives. they do not form short forms: words with suffixes - sk -, -oe- friendly, ordinary, advanced, etc.
Such are also some verbal formations with suffixes - l - (burnt, faded, etc., but: stunted - stunted, hoarse - hoarse, etc.); Short adjectives with suffixes - usch-(-yusch-), -enn- and the prefix times-, denoting a high degree of manifestation of the trait (cunning, amiable, etc.). Short adjectives on - sh (s), ascending to the forms of the comparative degree and having lost their former meaning (greater, younger, etc.); quality adjectives. colors derived from nouns (chocolate, lilac, etc.); adjectives denoting the colors of animals (bulan, black, etc.), etc.
In its bulk, Qualitative adjectives change in degrees of comparison. For example: beautiful - more beautiful, more (less) beautiful, most beautiful, most beautiful, but qualitative adjectives do not form a comparative degree. with suffixes -sk-, -oe-, -l. Some adjectives do not have short forms. For example: friendly emaciated, etc. This can also include some adjectives such as fusible, heavy (with the suffix - to -), as well as all words denoting animal colors (brown, savrasy, etc.), separate non-derivative words (flat, dilapidated, etc.).
Qualitative adjectives are combined with adverbs of degree (very neat, well-mannered, etc.).
Qualitative adjectives are characterized by the following derivational features: adjectives can be non-derivative (gray, black, etc.); most of quality adjectives. forms adverbs on - o, - e, - and it is light, it seems, fatherly. The vast majority of such adjectives also form abstract nouns, that is, quality names, for example: courage, beauty, blue.
Many qualitative adjectives form evaluation forms (white, white, whitish, white-white, cheerful, kind). They easily enter into antonymic pairs (stingy - generous, cheerful - sad, tall - short), but at the same time, they realize these properties in different ways. For example: quality adjectives. poor, rich have all the listed features, and adjectives like bay have only one feature - non-production.
Degrees of comparison of adjectives
The degrees of comparison of adjectives are grammatical category adjectives, which expresses the relative difference or superiority in the quality inherent in objects. In Russian, three forms are opposed:
Positive
Comparative
Excellent.
1. A positive degree names a feature without any opposition to another feature.
2. The comparative degree indicates a feature that a given subject has to a greater or lesser extent. The superlative indicates the highest degree
3.manifestations given quality compared with other subjects (cf .: kind - kinder - kindest).
Formation of forms of comparison
1.Simple shape
2.Complex shape
1. Comparative degree
The basis is laid. step. + suffix - her (faster, kinder)
The basis is laid. step. + suffix - e (harder)
the basis is laid. step. + suffix - she (before)
Form posit. step.
(more beautiful, less interesting)
2. Superlatives
base position step. + suffix -eysh -, -aysh - (after g, k, x): fastest, closest
most + form gender. step. (fastest, closest)
Declension of adjectives and their types
Adjectives are declined, i.e. change in gender, case and number, but their form depends on the form of the word on which they depend.
The gender, case and number of an adjective depend on the respective characteristics of the noun with which it agrees. Indeclinable adjectives are usually in postposition in relation to the noun, their gender, number, and case are determined syntactically by the characteristics of the corresponding noun: red jacket, beige jackets.
There are three types of adjective declension depending on the basis:
1. Solid: red, red, red
2. Soft: blue, blue, blue
3.mixed: big, big, big.
According to the solid type, adjectives with a base on a solid consonant are inclined, except for G, K, X, C and hissing ones: thin, white, straight, native, boring, stupid, gray, bald, cool, well-fed.
The declension of adjectives includes a change in numbers, and in the singular - in cases and genders.
The form of the adjective depends on the noun to which the adjective refers and with which it agrees in gender, number and case.
Short adjectives change only by gender and number.
The masculine and neuter forms differ in the nominative and accusative cases, while in other forms they are the same.
There are different forms of the accusative case of adjectives in the singular masculine and in the plural, referring to animate and inanimate nouns:
V.p. = I.p. with inanimate nouns:
“Their villages and fields for a violent raid he doomed to swords and fires” (A. Pushkin);
“The bandura players quietly sing glorious songs about you” (D. Kedrin);
V.p. = R.p. with animate nouns:
“Masha did not pay attention to the young Frenchman” (A. Pushkin);
And the whole earth must praise forever ordinary people, to whom for victories I would have poured stars into orders ”(V. Sysoev).
Masculine adjectives are declined on -oy in the same way as on -y, but always have a stressed ending: gray, young - gray, young - gray, young - about gray, about young.
The literal designation of the endings of adjectives in some cases sharply diverges from the sound composition: white - white [th], summer-his - summer [th].
Syntactic function of the adjective
In a sentence, an adjective is basically a definition, or a nominal part of a compound nominal predicate.
Transition to other parts of speech
Most often, participles pass into the category of adjectives. Pronouns can also act as adjectives (there is no artist from him).
Adjectives, in turn, can be substantivized, that is, pass into the category of nouns: Russian, military.
Morphological analysis of the adjective
Part of speech - an independent part of speech (indicates a sign of an object)
Initial form. The initial form of the name of the adjective is the form of Unit. h., m.r., Im. n. (blue).
Permanent signs: rank (qualitative adjective).
Non-permanent features: used in short/full (only in quality); degree of comparison (only for quality); number, gender, case (blue - pr. in full f., singular h, m. p., Im. p.).
syntactic role in a sentence.
Case endings for adjectives
Adjectives have endings similar to the endings of the interrogative word what: with a good (kak and m?) mood, about an interesting (kak o th?) book, etc.
Possessive adjectives na - y, -ya, - ye, -i (fox, fox, fox, fox) in all cases, except for the nominative and similar accusative case of the masculine singular, are written with ь: fisherman, fisherman, fisherman, fisherman, fisherman, about fisherman; fishermen, fishermen, fishermen, fishermen, fishermen, about fishermen.
Note 1. Possessive adjectives are formed from nouns using the suffix -j- (yot), whose indicator in indirect forms serves as a separator b.
Note 2. Possessive adjectives in -y should be distinguished from adjectives in -chy of the recumbent, combustible type, in which ь is not written in oblique cases, since they do not have the suffix -j-; cf .: recumbent, recumbent, recumbent, recumbent, etc.
Adjectives suburban, intercity, suburban change according to the solid variety of declension and are written with the endings -th, -th, -th, -th, etc .; adjectives boundless, out-of-town change according to a soft variety of declension and are written with the endings -y, -ya, -ee, -ye, etc. The forms long-distance and out-of-town, boundless are obsolete and are not currently recommended for use.
Adjectives ending in na - yny have a short form na - en in the nominative case of the masculine singular: sultry - sultry, calm - calm, slender - slender.