On the territory of which regions was Novgorod land. Characteristic features and features of the Novgorod land

Novgorod principality is one of three major principalities, along with Galicia-Volyn and Vladimir-Suzdal, which existed in the days of Ancient Russia. His mention in the annals is almost minimal, but his participation in history is incommensurable.

The capital of the principality is Veliky Novgorod, famous for its artisans and merchants. As one of the main centers of education and the largest shopping mall Europe, for many centuries it retained the status of a stronghold of the northern and southern borders.

The main cities of the Novgorod Principality: Vologda, Torzhok, Staraya Ladoga, Polotsk, Beloozero, Rostov, Izborsk.

Geographical position

The natural and geographical conditions of the Novgorod Principality were determined by its territorial location. Stretching for many kilometers, it occupied vast expanses of the northern part European Russia. The main part of the land was located between Ilmenskoye and Chudskoye lakes.

Most of it was covered by dense taiga forests, but along with them - endless tundra. The territory where the principality was located was full of an abundance of forests, lakes and swamps, which, coupled with harsh climatic conditions, made the soil poor and infertile. However, this was offset by large reserves of timber and building stone, and the marsh soil was a real storehouse of iron ores and salts.

The Novgorod principality had access to many major river routes and seas, and lay nearby. All this provided excellent ground for the development of trade.

The political structure of the principality

The Novgorod principality differed from and in its unique political system. The republican form of government originated in the principality at the very beginning of the 12th century and persisted for several centuries, which made it one of the most developed principalities. The absence of a ruling princely dynasty made it possible to maintain unity and avoid fragmentation. This historical period is called Republican.

But democracy in the Novgorod principality was elitist. Power was concentrated in the hands of several influential boyar families.

An important role in the public role of Veliky Novgorod was played by the people's assembly - the veche, which was formed after the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod. It had very broad powers: it declared war, concluded peace, and resolved completely different issues.

During the period of state fragmentation of Russia, completely the city of Novgorod passed a special way. While in the main area former country at that time, the foundations of state power were being laid, tendencies towards democracy were spreading in Novgorod. A different political culture prevailing there, as well as other value orientations residents were very different from the collective values ​​and traditions central government Moscow Russia.

Novgorod, located in the northwest, was relatively protected from the attacks of the Tatar-Mongols in the thirteenth - fourteenth centuries. It is this, according to researchers, that allowed the city to form a special version of the development of Russian civilization.

Territory of the Novgorod Principality

Novgorod land in terms of its scale (13th-15th centuries), it was a huge state that could compete in territory with any European kingdoms. In addition to Novgorod itself, the Novgorod principality included the Pskov lands, Ladoga, Yuryev, Torzhok and many other territories. Through Novgorod, access was provided along the Neva to the Baltic Sea and along the Northern Dvina to the White. In the south, the lands extended to Torzhok, Velikiye Luki and Volokolamsk. In the northeast, the Novgorod principality included the Urals. In these territories, cities such as Vyatka, Vologda, Pskov, and others arose. Novgorod differed from other principalities (central and southern) in that it was turned to face Europe, protecting Russian borders from the aggression of Swedish and German feudal lords.

In the thirteenth century, the city of Novgorod already had its own rich legal and political culture. At the beginning of the ninth century, Yaroslav the Wise, refusing to pay tribute to Kyiv, laid the foundation for the independence and isolation of Novgorod.

In 1136 Novgorod experienced a popular uprising., the purpose of which was the removal of the prince with the restriction of his rights, as well as the consolidation of power for the posadnik, who was to be elected at the veche. In addition, the people of Novgorod demanded the right to remove and appoint princes at their own will. By a special agreement, the prince was forbidden to give out volosts, judge the people of Novgorod, trade with European countries (in addition to the Novgorodians themselves), distribute immunities (special privileges), and even hunt outside a certain urban area. The income of the princes was also limited. And finally, as happened before in Europe, the entire princely court was evicted from the city to the “Rurik's settlement”. This was done in order to limit the possibility of seizing city power by military means. The independence of the Novgorod principality came to an end in 1478, when it finally became part of the Muscovite state.

The territory of the Novgorod land took shape gradually. Its center was the ancient region of the settlement of the Slavs, located in the basin of Lake Ilmen and the rivers - Volkhov, Lovat, Meta and Mologa. The extreme northern point was the city of Ladoga - a strong fortress at the mouth of the Volkhov. In the future, this ancient region was overgrown with new territories, some of which organically merged with the original core of the Novgorod land, others constituted a kind of colony of Novgorod.

In the XII - XIII centuries. Novgorod owned lands in the north along Lake Onega, the basin of Lake Ladoga and the northern shores Gulf of Finland. In the west, Novgorod fortified itself in the Peipsi land, where the city of Yuryev (Tartu), founded by Yaroslav the Wise, became its stronghold. But the growth of Novgorod's possessions was especially rapid in the northeast direction, where Novgorod owned a strip of land stretching to the Urals and beyond the Urals.

The Novgorod lands proper were divided into five large areas of pyatins, corresponding to the five ends (districts) of Novgorod. To the north-west of Novgorod, towards the Gulf of Finland, there was the Vodskaya Pyatina, it covered the lands of the Finnish tribe of Vod; to the south-west, on both sides of the Shelon River - the Shelon Pyatina; to the southeast, between the rivers Dostoyu and Lovatio - Derevskaya pyatina; to the northeast (From the White Sea but both sides of Lake Onega - Onega Pyatina; behind Derevskop and Onega Pyatina, to the southeast, lay the Bezhetskaya Pyatina.

In addition to the pyatins, a huge space was occupied by Novgorod volosts - Zavolochye, or Dvina land - in the area of ​​​​the Northern Dvina. Perm land - along the Vychegda and its tributaries, on both sides of the Pechora - the Pechora region, to the east of the Northern Urals - Yugra, to the north, within the Onega and Ladoga lakes - Korela, finally, on the Kola Peninsula - the so-called Tersky coast.

The population of the Novgorod land was mainly engaged in agriculture, primarily agriculture, which formed the basis of the Novgorod economy. The Novgorod boyars and the clergy had extensive estates. Merchant land ownership was also developed here.

In the agriculture of the Novgorod spots, the plow system prevailed, the undercut was preserved only in the extreme northern regions. Due to unfavorable soil and climatic conditions, the yields were not high, therefore, despite the widespread use of agriculture, it still did not cover the needs of the Novgorod population in bread. Part of the grain had to be imported from other Russian lands, mainly from Rostov-Suzdal and Ryazan. In lean years, which were not uncommon in the life of the Novgorod land, the import of grain acquired decisive importance.

Along with agriculture and cattle breeding, the population of the Novgorod land was engaged in various crafts: hunting for fur and sea animals, fishing, beekeeping, the development of salt in Staraya Russa and Vychegda, the extraction of iron ore in Votskaya Pyatina. Craft and trade flourished in the center of the Novgorod land - Novgorod and its suburbs - Pskov. Novgorod has long been famous for its artisans, carpenters, potters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, in addition, shoemakers, leather workers, felt workers, bridge workers and many other artisans of various specialties lived in it. Novgorod carpenters were discharged to work in Kyiv and became so famous for their art that the term "Novgorod" often meant - "carpenter".

Domestic and foreign trade was of great importance in the economy of Novgorod. The most important trade routes of that time passed through Novgorod from Northern Europe to the Black Sea basin and from Western countries to the countries of of Eastern Europe. This has long contributed to the development of crafts and trade in it.

Entrepreneurial Novgorod merchants already in the 10th century. sailed in their fragile boats on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks", reaching the shores of Byzantium. A wide exchange existed between Novgorod and the European states. At first, Novgorod was connected with the island of Gotland, a major trading center in North-Western Europe. In Novgorod itself, there was a Gothic court - a trading colony, surrounded by a high wall, with barns and houses for living foreign merchants. In the second half of the XII century. close trade ties were established between Novgorod and the union of North German cities (Hanse). A new German trading yard was built in Novgorod, and a new trading colony grew up. On the territory of these trading colonies, foreign merchants were inviolable. A special charter "Skra" regulated the life of the trading colony.

Cloth, metals, weapons and other goods were sent to Novgorod from abroad. From Novgorod to different countries they carried linen, hemp, flax, lard, wax, etc. The role of Novgorod as an intermediary in the exchange between the West and the East was significant. Eastern goods for Europe went along the Volga to Novgorod, and then to Western countries. Only the Tatar-Mongol yoke and the rule of the Golden Horde undermined this intermediary significance of Novgorod.

Not less than important role for Novgorod, trade played within the Novgorod Republic itself and with North-Eastern Russia, from where he received the bread he needed. The need for bread always made Novgorod cherish its relations with the Vladimir-Suzdal princes.

Numerous and strong Novgorod merchants had their own organizations similar to Western European merchant guilds. The most powerful of them was the so-called "Ivanovo Sto" which had great privileges. It elected five elders from its midst, who, together with the thousandth, were in charge of all commercial affairs and the merchant court in Novgorod, established weights, measures of length and observed the correctness of the trade itself.

The structure of the Novgorodian economy determined its social and political system. The ruling class in Novgorod were secular and spiritual feudal lords, landowners and wealthy Novgorod merchants. In the hands of the Novgorod boyars and the church were extensive land holdings. One of the foreign travelers - Lalua - testifies that in Novgorod there were such seigneurs who owned lands for hundreds of miles. An example is the boyar surname Boretsky, who owned vast territories along the White Sea and the Northern Dvina.

In addition to the boyars and the church, there were also large landowners in Novgorod who were engaged in various trades. These are the so-called "living people".

The owners of estates exploited the labor of feudal dependent people - "ladles", "guarantors", "old people". The main form of exploitation of the feudal-dependent population in the Novgorod land was the collection of dues.

Large feudal lords were masters of the situation not only in their estates, but also in the city. Together with the merchant elite, they formed an urban patriciate, in whose hands was the economic and political life of Novgorod.

The features of the socio-economic development of Novgorod led to the establishment in it of a special political system, different from other Russian lands. Initially, the governor-princes sent by the great Kievan princes sat in Novgorod. They appointed posadniks and thousands. But the strong Novgorod boyars and wealthy townspeople were more and more reluctant to obey the assistants. Kyiv prince. In 1136, the Novgorodians rebelled against Prince Vsevolod and, says the chronicler, “setting Prince Vsevolod in the episcopal court with his wife and children with his mother-in-law and guards Strezhakh day and night. 30 husband for a day with weapons. Then Vsevolod was sent to Pskov. Since that time, a new political order has been established in Novgorod.

Veche, the people's assembly, became the supreme body in Novgorod. The veche was usually convened by a posadnik or a thousand. It was convened on the trading side of the Yaroslavl courtyard by the ringing of the veche bell. Biryuchi and Podvoi people were sent to the ends to call the people to the veche meeting. All free people, men, could participate in the veche. Veche had great powers. It elected the posadnik, the tysyatsky, who had previously been appointed prince, the bishop of Novgorod, declared war, made peace, discussed and approved legislative acts, tried the posadniks, tysyatsky, sotsky, for the crimes, concluded agreements with foreign powers. The veche, finally, invited the prince, and sometimes expelled him (“showed him the way”), replacing him with a new one.

Executive power in Novgorod was concentrated in the hands of the posadnik and the thousand. The posadnik was elected for an indefinite period, he controlled the prince, monitored the activities of the Novgorod authorities, in his hands was the supreme court of the republic, the right to dismiss and appoint officials. In case of military danger, the posadnik went on a campaign as an assistant to the prince. By order of the posadnik, the veche, which he headed, gathered by ringing the bell. The posadnik received foreign ambassadors and, in the absence of the prince, commanded the Novgorod army. Tysyatsky was the first assistant to the mayor, he commanded separate detachments during the war, and in peacetime he was in charge of commercial affairs, a merchant court.

In favor of the posadnik and the thousandth there was the so-called poralie, i.e. known income from the plow; this income served the posadnik and the thousandth as a certain salary.

The Novgorod bishop had a great influence on the political life of Novgorod, and since 1165 - the archbishop. In his hands was the church court, he was in charge of relations between Novgorod and foreign states, and most importantly - he was the largest of the Novgorod feudal lords.

With the expulsion of Prince Vsevolod from Novgorod in 1136, the Novgorodians did not completely eliminate the prince, but the significance and role of the prince in Novgorod changed dramatically. Now the Novgorodians themselves elected (invited) this or that prince at a veche, concluding a “row” agreement with him, which extremely limited the rights and scope of the prince’s activities. The prince could not declare war or make peace without an agreement with the veche. He did not have the right to acquire land in Novgorod possessions. He could collect tribute, but only in certain volosts assigned to him. In all his activities, the prince was controlled by the posadnik. In short, the Novgorod prince was a "fed" prince. He was only a military specialist who was supposed to be at the head of the Novgorod army during a military danger. Judicial and administrative functions were taken away from him and transferred to the initial people - townsmen and thousands.

The Novgorod princes, as a rule, were the Vladimir-Suzdal princes, the most powerful of the Russian princes. They persistently sought to subjugate Veliky Novgorod to their power, but the latter resolutely fought for its liberties.

The defeat of the Suzdal troops in 1216 on the Lipitsa River ended this struggle. Novgorod finally turned into a feudal boyar republic.

Formed in Novgorod and separated from it in the XIV century. The Pskov veche system lasted until they were annexed to Moscow.

It should be noted that the veche system in Novgorod was by no means a rule of the people. In fact, all power was in the hands of the Novgorod elite. Next to the veche, the Novgorod leaders created their own aristocratic body - the council of gentlemen. It included sedate (i.e. acting) posadnik and thousand, former posadniks and thousand, elders of the Novgorod ends. The archbishop of Novgorod was the chairman of the council of gentlemen. The council of gentlemen met in the chambers of the archbishop and preliminarily decided all the cases that were submitted to the veche meeting. Gradually, the council of masters began to replace the decisions of the veche with their decisions.

The people protested against the violence of the masters. Veche life of Novgorod knows more than one example of a clash between the feudal nobility and the general population.

Novgorod land is one of the main centers of education ancient Russia like states. This was facilitated by the geographical position of the Novgorod lands. The modern Novgorod region is located in the European part Russian Federation, in its northwestern part. It borders on Leningrad region- in the north, with Vologda and Tver - in the south and Pskov region - in the west. The geographical position of the Novgorod land favored the rapid formation of the Novgorod Republic as an independent and independent military-political territory. The city of Novgorod was located on the water trade route, called by historians "from the Varangians to the Greeks." Trade was intensively carried out along the mentioned trade route between feudal states Northwest Europe and Byzantium. The modern Novgorod region is located on the Priilmenskaya lowland, the Valdai Upland and the Tikhvin ridge. Rivers flow through its territory: Volkhov, Msta, Polist, Shelon and Lovat. During the Middle Ages, these rivers served as the main transport infrastructure of the Novgorod Republic. At present, the importance of the rivers of the Novgorod region for the economic activity of the region is insignificant. Of the lakes of the Novgorod region, three of the largest can be noted: Ilmen, Lake Valdai and Lake Velye.

The geographical position of the Novgorod land determines its climate as temperate continental. Precipitation on its territory falls annually up to 850 mm. The average temperature background in July is +15-18 degrees, and in January -7-10 degrees. In the period of its highest prosperity, the Novgorod Republic owned vast territories from Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains and from White Sea to the Volga. This was the result of its aggressive colonial policy and ensuring its own food security. The whole point is that geographical location of the Novgorod land not conducive to effective development Agriculture. The non-chernozem swampy soils of the Novgorod Republic limited the possibilities of cultivated agriculture, and the Novgorodians had to colonize the southwestern adjacent territories with a more favorable climate for this. Veliky Novgorod in the days of the Novgorod Republic was a completely European city and appearance, both in terms of the number of inhabitants and in terms of lifestyle. The fact that there were no climatic conditions for cultural agriculture forced the Novgorodians to develop various industries and crafts on the territory of the Novgorod Republic. The manufactured products were intensively traded with neighboring states and lands, which made it possible to form a fairly rich merchant class. Trade also contributed to interstate cultural exchange and foreign policy contacts.
The special geographical position of the Novgorod land in the north-west of the ancient land gave it considerable weight among the Russian feudal principalities. Novgorod controlled trade routes from North to South and from East to North-West. This made it possible for the Novgorod feudal republic to receive significant income from customs duties, develop its own trade and conduct an effective exchange of production technologies with other peoples. Aggressive neighbors in the northwest (the Swedes and the "crusaders") forced Novgorod to wage constant wars to preserve its borders. This circumstance forced an agreement with the Tatar-Mongolian Golden Horde, which allowed Novgorod to focus its efforts on repelling the invasion of the Swedes and the Livonian and Teutonic Orders in the first half of the 13th century. Historians argue that one of the factors that influenced Golden Horde to conclude a non-aggression pact with Novgorod, is the geographical position of the Novgorod lands. The Novgorod Republic, covered with impenetrable forests, and the excessive swampiness of its territory would impede the movement of mounted Tatar-Mongolian troops and convoys. Perhaps it is thanks to geographic location Novgorod remained one of the few Russian cities that were not plundered and wiped off the face of the earth during the Tatar-Mongol invasion. This allowed the Novgorodians to defeat the Swedes and the "crusaders" who were pressing from the north, thereby saving medieval Russia from the final enslavement by their neighbors from the northeast. After the annexation of Novgorod to the Muscovite state at the end of the 15th century, the Novgorod Republic ceased its independent existence. The policy vector of the Russian tsars gradually changed its direction to other territories, and Veliky Novgorod turned into an ordinary provincial territorial center.

The most extensive Russian possession in the specific era was Novgorod land, which included the suburbs of Novgorod - Pskov, Staraya Russa, Velikiye Luki, Torzhok, Ladoga, vast northern and eastern territories, where mainly Finno-Ugric tribes lived. By the end of the XII century. Novgorod belongs to Perm, Pechora, Ugra (a region on both slopes of the Northern Urals). In the Novgorod land there was a hierarchy of cities. Novgorod dominated. The remaining cities had the status of suburbs.

Novgorod dominated the most important trade routes. Merchant caravans from the Dnieper went along the Lovat across Lake Ilmen along the Volkhov to Ladoga: here the path forked along the Neva to the Baltic, to Sweden, Denmark, to the Hansa - the trade union of North German cities; along the Svir and Sheken - to the Volga to the northeastern principalities, to Bulgaria and further to the east. In the city there were foreign trading yards - "German" and "Gothic". In turn, Novgorod merchants had courts in many principalities and countries - in Kyiv, Lubeck, on about. Gotland. Inexhaustible and diverse forest resources made Novgorod merchants attractive partners. Particularly strong trade relations existed with the Hansa.

The harsh climate and poor soils did not contribute to the development of agriculture in the Novgorod land. In lean years, it turned out to be dependent on neighboring principalities - suppliers of bread. However, it does not follow from this that the rural population was not engaged in arable farming. Hundreds of smerds, engaged in rural labor, lived in the vast possessions of the Novgorod boyars. Cattle breeding, horticulture and horticulture were relatively developed. Nature itself, with its numerous rivers and vast forests, encouraged Novgorodians to engage in crafts. For fur, "fish tooth" (walrus bone), wax and other natural resources, they went to the forest thickets and the polar tundra. The Novgorodians forced the native tribes of Izhora, Karel, Vod, Pechera, Yugra, and Em to pay tribute. The tributary relations were hardly overly burdensome, as a rule, they were of a peaceful nature and trade exchange began with the payment of tribute.

Archaeological excavations have revealed a multi-meter cultural layer in the center of the city. By the XIII century. it was a large, well organized and fortified city. Its population consisted of artisans of various specialties. The craft character of the city is reflected in its place names, hence the names of the streets Shchitnaya, Goncharnaya, Kuznetskaya, etc.

Researchers have not come to a consensus on whether Novgorod artisans had workshops similar to those in Western Europe. There is no doubt, however, that some rudiments of associations along professional lines existed. This made it easier to engage in crafts and made it possible to defend corporate interests.

Trade and craft inhabitants were most population of Novgorod. Their strength was in their numbers and unity. The voice of the lower classes was well heard at the city assembly, and the ruling elite could not ignore this. Nevertheless, Novgorod merchants and artisans did not have real power. Leading positions in political life the city was occupied by the boyars.

Historically, the Novgorod boyars managed to maintain their isolation and relative independence. Thus, the study of birch bark letters allowed historians to assume that the tribute in the Novgorod land was administered not by the princes, but by the boyars.

Quite quickly, a large landownership developed in the North-West of Russia. Moreover, we are talking about boyar land ownership, since with the acquisition of independence, the Novgorodians did not allow the emergence of princely land ownership. Other boyar possessions were so extensive that they surpassed the principalities. The boyars themselves preferred to live in the city. Thus, the interests of the city and the Novgorod boyars were closely intertwined. Feudal exploitation and profits from participation in trade operations became the main sources of the boyars' well-being.

Another feature of the Novgorod boyars is their corporatism. Unlike other lands, in independent Novgorod the boyar title was hereditary. The princes, having lost the opportunity to form the local elite and endow it with land holdings, lost an effective lever of influence on the ruling class. The isolation of the Novgorod boyars made him little dependent on the prince; 30-40 boyar clans occupied leading positions in the life of the city, monopolizing the highest public office. The growing role of the boyars was so great that many researchers define the Novgorod Republic as boyar.

The feudal lords of non-Yar origin in Novgorod included the so-called live people. This rather heterogeneous grouping included large and small landowners. Somewhat hurt in their legal status- far from all positions were available to them - people did not play an independent role and usually joined the boyar groups.

The boyars, living people, merchants, trade and craft people, communal farmers made up the free population of the Novgorod land. Slaves and serfs were dependent.

Unlike North-Eastern Russia, where the monarchical beginning took over, Novgorod history is marked by the further development of veche institutions, which proved their viability.

Novgorod has become characteristic vocation prince to reign. Relations with the prince were formalized by an agreement, the violation of which entailed his exile. The prince had no right to own estates and even more so to grant villages and villages to his entourage. Even the residence of the prince was moved outside the citadel, to Gorodische. This extraterritoriality is a kind of confirmation of the foreignness of princely power in relation to Novgorod institutions.

At the same time, the Novgorodians could not completely do without the prince. In the view of the people of that time, the prince was a military leader, a defender of the frontiers. A professional warrior, he appeared in Novgorod with his squad, for which war was a common thing. In the words of V. O. Klyuchevsky, the prince was necessary as a "hired watchman." In addition, the prince was the addressee of the tribute that Novgorod received from the conquered lands. He also resolved many lawsuits, was the highest court. AT real life the prince acted as a symbol of the unity of the republic, equalized it in communication with the surrounding principalities, where their Ruriks were sitting.

From the 14th century Novgorod veche preferred to choose the owner of the grand prince's label as their prince. Since most often these were Tver princes, and then Moscow princes, they sent their governors to the city. At the same time, all traditions were respected - the princes pledged to keep "Novgorod in the old days, without offense", Novgorodians - to accept and obey the princely governors. In practice, the princes, called upon to protect the integrity of the republic, did not miss the opportunity to tear away one or another volost. The initiative was made by Ivan Kalita, who tried to annex the Dvina land to the Moscow principality. A sharp struggle went on for the cities of Volok, Torzhok, Vologda.

Princes usually did not linger on Gorodische. For 200 years, from 1095 to 1304, the change of princely power occurred 58 times!

The Novgorod political system is a kind of federation of self-governing communities and corporations - Novgorod sides and streets, the supreme body for which was veche - people's assembly. Veche called and expelled princes, I affirm decisions that had a vital importance for the city.

The Volkhov River divided Novgorod into two sides - the left-bank Sofia and the right-bank Trade. The sides, in turn, were divided into ends. Novgorod ends - administrative and political units of the city (Slavensky, Nerevsky, Lyudin, Zagorodsky, Carpenter) had the right to collect konchanskoe veche; Konchansky elders filed claims against the executive branch and determined how to fight for their interests. At the city veche, the ends acted as a kind of "parties". Veche democracy assumed the adoption of a decision according to the old expression "everyone will agree on one speech." Novgorod letters gained strength when they were sealed with the seals of the ends. The Novgorod militia consisted of military detachments that arose on the basis of the ends. The ends, in turn, were divided into streets with their elected street elders.

At the city assembly, the highest officials of the republic were elected - posadnik, thousand, lord (archbishop). The institution of posadniks occupied a central place in the executive branch. In the Novgorod Republic, this position was elective. The posadniks controlled the activities of the prince, in their hands the internal and foreign policy. Posadnikov were chosen from boyar families.

The position of the mayor was temporary. Two acting posadniks were called sedate posadniks. At the end of the term, they gave up their seats. Over time, the number of posadniks increased - this reflected the acute internal struggle in the city, the desire of each of the boyar groups and the districts of the city that stood behind them to influence the affairs of the republic.

The functions of the thousandth included control over the collection of taxes, participation in the commercial court, leadership of the militia of the city and the district. The Archbishop of Novgorod possessed not only ecclesiastical, but also secular power. Under his chairmanship, a meeting of posadniks was held.

Veche republican order permeated the entire structure of Novgorod. However, veche democracy should not be exaggerated. It was limited primarily by the boyars, who concentrated executive power in their hands and led the veche.

Novgorod was not alone. Freed from its dependence, Pskov created its own sovereign Pskov feudal republic. Veche orders were strong in Vyatka, which indicated that in national history not only autocratic development prospects were present. However, when the time came for the gathering of lands, Novgorod and Pskov, torn apart by internal contradictions, could not resist the strong monarchical power.

The political history of Novgorod is different from the political history of North-Eastern or Southern Russia. The successful functioning of the Novgorod Republic depended on the consent of its constituent parts. Even after major social upheavals, Novgorodians found ways to gain stability. Along with the boyar groups and clans, ordinary Novgorodians, "black people", took part in political processes, and the voice of the latter was much more significant in comparison with other regions of specific Russia.

Internal clashes in Novgorod were caused by various reasons. Most often, the struggle was around the institute of posadnichestvo. Each of the warring parties pursued the goal of keeping an influential position for their protege. The consequence was a frequent change of princes associated with one or another posadnik, and the posadniks themselves. This brought destabilization to the inner life of the city. Gradually, a tradition began to form in Novgorod when the veche "parties" avoided entering into an agreement with the princes.

The Novgorod veche, as the supreme body of democracy, was able to control the activities of the posadniks. In 1209, the veche came together against the abuses of members of the elected community administration, headed by the posadnik Dmitry Miroshkinich. The latter was not supported even by the Nerevsky end, of which he was a protege.

From the second half of the XIII century. oligarchic tendencies grew noticeably in the political life of Novgorod. This, in particular, found expression in the appearance of a boyar territorial-representative council under the posadnik, from which the posadnik was elected for a year. Such a system restrained political rivalry between Konchan representatives and strengthened the position of the Novgorod boyars.

The politics of the upper classes more than once caused the "black people" to act. The uprising of 1418 went beyond dissatisfaction with one unpopular boyar. Under the blows of the veche bell, the rebels rushed to Prusskaya Street, where the Novgorod aristocracy settled. Boyars with serfs met the inhabitants of the Trade side with weapons. Then the common people of the Sofia side joined the latter. Only the intervention of the Novgorod ruler stopped the bloodshed. The dispute was transferred to the mainstream of the trial, in which the clergy acted as an arbitrator.

The Novgorod Republic, especially in its heyday, played huge role in national history. The city became one of the largest and most beautiful cities of medieval Europe. Severe and majestic Novgorod architecture amazed contemporaries. But Novgorod was not only majestic. Its political and military strength was such that, as an outpost of the Russian land on its western borders, it repelled the aggression of the German knights, which threatened to lose national identity.