The geographical position of the plains. East European (Russian) Plain: geographical location

Geographical position of the East European Plain

The physical and geographical name of the Russian Plain is East European. The plain occupies about $4 million sq. km. and is the second largest in the world after the Amazonian lowland. Within Russia, the plain stretches from the coast of the Baltic Sea in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east. In the north, its border starts from the shores of the Barents and White Seas to the shores of the Azov and Caspian Seas in the south. From the northwest, the Russian Plain is bordered by the Scandinavian Mountains, in the west and southwest by the mountains of Central Europe and the Carpathians, in the south by the Caucasus Mountains and in the east by the Ural Mountains. Within Crimea, the border of the Russian Plain runs along the northern foot of the Crimean Mountains.

The following features defined the plain as a physiographic country:

1. The location of a slightly elevated plain on the slab of the ancient East European Platform;
2. Moderate and insufficiently humid climate, which is largely formed under the influence of the Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean;
3. The flatness of the relief had an impact on a clearly defined natural zonality.

Within the plain, two unequal parts stand out:

1. Socle-denudation plain on the Baltic crystalline shield;
2. The East European Plain proper with layered erosion-denudation and accumulative relief on the Russian and Scythian plates.

Relief crystal shield is the result of prolonged continental denudation. Tectonic movements of recent times have already had a direct impact on the relief. In the Quaternary period, the territory occupied by the Baltic crystalline shield was the center of glaciation, therefore, fresh forms of glacial relief are common here.

A powerful cover of platform deposits within actually East European Plain, lies almost horizontally. As a result, accumulative and layer-denudation lowlands and uplands were formed. The folded foundation protruding to the surface in some places formed socle-denudation hills and ridges - the Timan ridge, the Donetsk ridge, etc.

The East European Plain has an average height of about $170$ m above sea level. On the coast of the Caspian Sea, the heights will be the smallest, because the level of the Caspian Sea itself is $ 27.6 $ m below the level of the World Ocean. Elevations rise to $ 300-$ 350 m above sea level, for example, the Podolsk Upland, whose height is $ 471 $ m.

Settlement of the East European Plain

The Eastern Slavs, according to a number of opinions, were the first to settle Eastern Europe, but this opinion, others believe, is erroneous. On this territory for the first time in the $ 30 millennium BC. Cro-Magnons appeared. To some extent, they were similar to modern representatives of the Caucasian race, and over time, their appearance became closer to the characteristic features of a person. These events took place in a harsh winter. By the $X$ millennium, the climate in Eastern Europe was no longer so severe, and the first Indo-Europeans gradually began to appear on the territory of South-Eastern Europe. No one can say exactly where they were until that moment, but it is known that in the east of Europe they firmly settled in the $VI$-th millennium BC. e. and occupied a significant part of it.

Remark 1

The settlement by the Slavs of Eastern Europe occurred much later than the appearance of ancient people on it.

The peak of the settlement of the Slavs in Europe is considered $ V$-$VI$ centuries. new era and under the pressure of migration in the same period, they are divided into eastern, southern and western.

South Slavs settled in the Balkans and nearby territories. The tribal community ceases to exist, and the first similarities of states appear.

Simultaneously, settlement Western Slavs, which had a northwestern direction from the Vistula to the Elbe. Some of them, according to archaeological data, ended up in the Baltics. On the territory of modern Czech Republic in the $VII$ c. the first state appeared.

AT Eastern Europe the resettlement of the Slavs took place without major problems. In ancient times, they had a primitive communal system, and later a tribal one. Due to the small population, there was enough land for everyone. Within Eastern Europe, the Slavs assimilated with the Finno-Ugric tribes and began to form tribal unions. These were the first state formations. In connection with climate warming, agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting and fishing are developing. Towards the Slavs was nature itself. East Slavs gradually became the most numerous group of Slavic peoples - these are Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians. The East European Plain began to be settled by the Slavs in the early Middle Ages, and by the $VIII$ c. they already dominated it. On the plain, the Eastern Slavs settled in the neighborhood with other peoples, which had both positive and negative features. The colonization of the East European Plain by the Slavs took place over half a millennium and proceeded very unevenly. At the initial stage, land development took place along the path, which is called " from Varangians to Greeks". In a later period, the Slavs advanced to the east, west and southwest.

The colonization of the East European Plain by the Slavs had its own characteristics:

1. The process was slow due to the severity of the climate;
2. Different population densities in the colonized territories. The reason is the same - natural and climatic conditions, soil fertility. Naturally, there were few people in the north of the plain, and in the south of the plain, where conditions are favorable, there were much more settlers;
3. Since there was a lot of land, there were no confrontations with other peoples during the settlement;
4. Slavs imposed tribute on neighboring tribes;
5. Small peoples "merged" with the Slavs, adopting their culture, language, customs, customs, way of life.

Remark 2

In the life of the Slavic people, who settled on the territory of the East European Plain, a new stage began, associated with the rapid development of the economy, a change in the life order and way of life, the emergence of prerequisites for the formation of statehood.

Modern exploration of the East European Plain

After the settlement and settlement of the East European Plain by the Eastern Slavs, with the beginning of the development of the economy, the question of its study arose. Outstanding scientists of the country took part in the study of the plain, among which the name of the mineralogist V. M. Severgin can be mentioned.

studying the Baltics spring $1803$ V.M. Severgin drew attention to the fact that to the south-west of Lake Peipus, the character of the terrain becomes very hilly. To test his thoughts, he walked along the $24$ meridian from the mouth of the Gauja River to the Neman River and reached the Bug River, again noting many hills and sandy elevated fields. Similar "fields" were found in the upper reaches of the Ptich and Svisloch rivers. As a result of these works, in the west of the East European Plain, for the first time, an alternation of low-lying spaces and elevated "fields" was noted with the correct indication of their directions - from the southwest to the northeast.

Detailed study Polissya was caused by the reduction of meadow spaces due to plowing of land on the right bank of the Dnieper. For this purpose, in $1873$, the Western Expedition was created to drain the swamps. At the head of this expedition was the military topographer I. I. Zhilinsky. Researchers for $25$ summer period covered about $100$ thousand sq. km. territory of Polissya, $600$ of height measurements were made, a map of the region was compiled. Based on the materials collected by I.I. Zhilinsky, the work was continued by A.A. Tillo. The hypsometric map he created showed that Polissya was a vast plain with raised edges. The results of the expedition were $300$ lakes and $500$ rivers of Polesye mapped with a total length of $9$ thousand km. A great contribution to the study of Polissya was made by the geographer G.I. Tanfiliev, who concluded that the drainage of the Polissya swamps would not lead to the shallowing of the Dnieper and P.A. Tutkovsky. He identified and mapped $5$ of uplands in the swampy areas of Polissya, including the Ovruch Ridge, from which the right tributaries of the lower Pripyat originate.

By studying Donetsk Ridge the young engineer of the Lugansk foundry, E.P. Kovalevsky, who found out that this ridge is geologically a huge basin. Kovalevsky became the discoverer of the Donbass and its first explorer, who compiled a geological map of this basin. It was he who recommended to engage in the search and exploration of ore deposits here.

In $1840$, a master of field geology R. Murchison was invited to Russia to study the natural resources of the country. Together with Russian scientists, a site was surveyed southern coast of the White Sea. In the course of the work carried out, rivers and uplands in the central part of the East European Plain were explored, hypsometric and geological maps of the area were compiled, on which the structural features of the Russian platform were clearly visible.

On the south of the East European Plain the founder of scientific soil science V.V. Dokuchaev. In $1883$, while studying chernozem, he came to the conclusion that there is a special chernozem-steppe zone in Eastern Europe. On the map compiled in $1900 by V.V. Dokuchaev allocates $5$ of the main natural zones on the territory of the plain.

In subsequent years, numerous scientific studies were carried out on the territory of the East European Plain, new scientific discoveries were made, and new maps were compiled.

When I imagine in my mind a map of Russia and its European part, for some reason I imagine our territories that are directly adjacent to the western border. In fact, the European part extends right up to the borders of the Eastern Urals and includes several large federal districts. About 80% of the total population of our country lives on the European territory of Russia.

Features of the geographical location of the European part of the Russian Federation

It occupies its place almost entirely on the East European Plain. It consists of four federal districts:

• Central.
• Southern.
• Northwestern.
• Privolzhsky.

The climate of this Russian part is very heterogeneous: in the northern territories (Murmansk) in winter the temperature can reach -35 degrees Celsius, and in the southern - +6 (Krasnodar). And vice versa: in summer in the south the average temperature is +25, and in the north - +7. The northern regions of this part are washed by the waters of the Baltic and the Arctic Ocean. The developed river network contributed to the development of navigation, and the temperate climate of the middle zone of this part contributed to the good growth of forests there. Mountain systems are poorly represented: in the south it is part of the Caucasus Mountains, and in the east - the Urals. The White Sea Canal is an economic attraction, it was built in 1933 and connects the waters of Lake Onega and the White Sea.

In addition to both capitals, large cities are located in this area:

• Volgograd.
• Permian.

In general, the geographical position can be assessed as favorable, due to the available access to the sea, as well as a fairly favorable climate in the center of the territory.

Main economic objects

The exit of the European part to the sea from the north and from the south, the presence of an extensive river system, involves the construction of such important economic facilities as reservoirs. The largest of them in terms of volume will be:

• Kuibyshevskoye (Samara region) - 58,000 million cubic meters m.
• Volgograd (Volgograd region) - 31,450 million cubic meters m.
• Rybinsk (Yaroslavl region) - 25,420 million cubic meters m.

All of these reservoirs, one way or another, are connected with the Volga River.

Geographical position of the East European Plain

The physical and geographical name of the Russian Plain is East European. The plain occupies about $4 million sq. km. and is the second largest in the world after the Amazonian lowland. Within Russia, the plain stretches from the coast of the Baltic Sea in the west to the Ural Mountains in the east. In the north, its border starts from the shores of the Barents and White Seas to the shores of the Azov and Caspian Seas in the south. From the northwest, the Russian Plain is bordered by the Scandinavian Mountains, in the west and southwest by the mountains of Central Europe and the Carpathians, in the south by the Caucasus Mountains and in the east by the Ural Mountains. Within Crimea, the border of the Russian Plain runs along the northern foot of the Crimean Mountains.

The following features defined the plain as a physiographic country:

1. The location of a slightly elevated plain on the slab of the ancient East European Platform;
2. Moderate and insufficiently humid climate, which is largely formed under the influence of the Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean;
3. The flatness of the relief had an impact on a clearly defined natural zonality.

Within the plain, two unequal parts stand out:

1. Socle-denudation plain on the Baltic crystalline shield;
2. The East European Plain proper with layered erosion-denudation and accumulative relief on the Russian and Scythian plates.

Relief crystal shield is the result of prolonged continental denudation. Tectonic movements of recent times have already had a direct impact on the relief. In the Quaternary period, the territory occupied by the Baltic crystalline shield was the center of glaciation, therefore, fresh forms of glacial relief are common here.

A powerful cover of platform deposits within actually East European Plain, lies almost horizontally. As a result, accumulative and layer-denudation lowlands and uplands were formed. The folded foundation protruding to the surface in some places formed socle-denudation hills and ridges - the Timan ridge, the Donetsk ridge, etc.

The East European Plain has an average height of about $170$ m above sea level. On the coast of the Caspian Sea, the heights will be the smallest, because the level of the Caspian Sea itself is $ 27.6 $ m below the level of the World Ocean. Elevations rise to $ 300-$ 350 m above sea level, for example, the Podolsk Upland, whose height is $ 471 $ m.

Settlement of the East European Plain

The Eastern Slavs, according to a number of opinions, were the first to settle Eastern Europe, but this opinion, others believe, is erroneous. On this territory for the first time in the $ 30 millennium BC. Cro-Magnons appeared. To some extent, they were similar to modern representatives of the Caucasian race, and over time, their appearance became closer to the characteristic features of a person. These events took place in a harsh winter. By the $X$ millennium, the climate in Eastern Europe was no longer so severe, and the first Indo-Europeans gradually began to appear on the territory of South-Eastern Europe. No one can say exactly where they were until that moment, but it is known that in the east of Europe they firmly settled in the $VI$-th millennium BC. e. and occupied a significant part of it.

Remark 1

The settlement by the Slavs of Eastern Europe occurred much later than the appearance of ancient people on it.

The peak of the settlement of the Slavs in Europe is considered $ V$-$VI$ centuries. new era and under the pressure of migration in the same period, they are divided into eastern, southern and western.

South Slavs settled in the Balkans and nearby territories. The tribal community ceases to exist, and the first similarities of states appear.

Simultaneously, settlement Western Slavs, which had a northwestern direction from the Vistula to the Elbe. Some of them, according to archaeological data, ended up in the Baltics. On the territory of modern Czech Republic in the $VII$ c. the first state appeared.

AT Eastern Europe the resettlement of the Slavs took place without major problems. In ancient times, they had a primitive communal system, and later a tribal one. Due to the small population, there was enough land for everyone. Within Eastern Europe, the Slavs assimilated with the Finno-Ugric tribes and began to form tribal unions. These were the first state formations. In connection with climate warming, agriculture, cattle breeding, hunting and fishing are developing. Towards the Slavs was nature itself. East Slavs gradually became the most numerous group of Slavic peoples - these are Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians. The East European Plain began to be settled by the Slavs in the early Middle Ages, and by the $VIII$ c. they already dominated it. On the plain, the Eastern Slavs settled in the neighborhood with other peoples, which had both positive and negative features. The colonization of the East European Plain by the Slavs took place over half a millennium and proceeded very unevenly. At the initial stage, land development took place along the path, which is called " from Varangians to Greeks". In a later period, the Slavs advanced to the east, west and southwest.

The colonization of the East European Plain by the Slavs had its own characteristics:

1. The process was slow due to the severity of the climate;
2. Different population densities in the colonized territories. The reason is the same - natural and climatic conditions, soil fertility. Naturally, there were few people in the north of the plain, and in the south of the plain, where conditions are favorable, there were much more settlers;
3. Since there was a lot of land, there were no confrontations with other peoples during the settlement;
4. Slavs imposed tribute on neighboring tribes;
5. Small peoples "merged" with the Slavs, adopting their culture, language, customs, customs, way of life.

Remark 2

In the life of the Slavic people, who settled on the territory of the East European Plain, a new stage began, associated with the rapid development of the economy, a change in the life order and way of life, the emergence of prerequisites for the formation of statehood.

Modern exploration of the East European Plain

After the settlement and settlement of the East European Plain by the Eastern Slavs, with the beginning of the development of the economy, the question of its study arose. Outstanding scientists of the country took part in the study of the plain, among which the name of the mineralogist V. M. Severgin can be mentioned.

studying the Baltics spring $1803$ V.M. Severgin drew attention to the fact that to the south-west of Lake Peipus, the character of the terrain becomes very hilly. To test his thoughts, he walked along the $24$ meridian from the mouth of the Gauja River to the Neman River and reached the Bug River, again noting many hills and sandy elevated fields. Similar "fields" were found in the upper reaches of the Ptich and Svisloch rivers. As a result of these works, in the west of the East European Plain, for the first time, an alternation of low-lying spaces and elevated "fields" was noted with the correct indication of their directions - from the southwest to the northeast.

Detailed study Polissya was caused by the reduction of meadow spaces due to plowing of land on the right bank of the Dnieper. For this purpose, in $1873$, the Western Expedition was created to drain the swamps. At the head of this expedition was the military topographer I. I. Zhilinsky. Researchers for $25$ summer period covered about $100$ thousand sq. km. territory of Polissya, $600$ of height measurements were made, a map of the region was compiled. Based on the materials collected by I.I. Zhilinsky, the work was continued by A.A. Tillo. The hypsometric map he created showed that Polissya was a vast plain with raised edges. The results of the expedition were $300$ lakes and $500$ rivers of Polesye mapped with a total length of $9$ thousand km. A great contribution to the study of Polissya was made by the geographer G.I. Tanfiliev, who concluded that the drainage of the Polissya swamps would not lead to the shallowing of the Dnieper and P.A. Tutkovsky. He identified and mapped $5$ of uplands in the swampy areas of Polissya, including the Ovruch Ridge, from which the right tributaries of the lower Pripyat originate.

By studying Donetsk Ridge the young engineer of the Lugansk foundry, E.P. Kovalevsky, who found out that this ridge is geologically a huge basin. Kovalevsky became the discoverer of the Donbass and its first explorer, who compiled a geological map of this basin. It was he who recommended to engage in the search and exploration of ore deposits here.

In $1840$, a master of field geology R. Murchison was invited to Russia to study the natural resources of the country. Together with Russian scientists, a site was surveyed southern coast of the White Sea. In the course of the work carried out, rivers and uplands in the central part of the East European Plain were explored, hypsometric and geological maps of the area were compiled, on which the structural features of the Russian platform were clearly visible.

On the south of the East European Plain the founder of scientific soil science V.V. Dokuchaev. In $1883$, while studying chernozem, he came to the conclusion that there is a special chernozem-steppe zone in Eastern Europe. On the map compiled in $1900 by V.V. Dokuchaev allocates $5$ of the main natural zones on the territory of the plain.

In subsequent years, numerous scientific studies were carried out on the territory of the East European Plain, new scientific discoveries were made, and new maps were compiled.

The Russian Plain is otherwise called the East European Plain. This is its physical and geographical name. The total area of ​​this land area is 4 million km2. Larger is only the Amazonian lowland.

The East European Plain occupies a significant part of the territory of Russia. It starts off the coast of the Baltic Sea and ends near the Ural Mountains. From the north and from the south, the plain is immediately limited by 2 seas. In the first case, these are the Barents and White Seas, in the second, the Caspian and Azov. From different sides the plain is limited by mountain ranges. The situation is this:

• Northwestern border - Scandinavian mountains;
• Western and southwestern borders - the mountains of Central Europe and the Carpathians;
• Southern border - the Caucasus Mountains;
• The eastern border is the Ural Mountains.

In addition, Crimea is located on the territory of the Russian Plain. In this case, the northern one from the foothills of the Crimean Mountains acts as a border.

Scientists attributed the East European Plain to the rank of physiographic countries due to the fact that it is characterized by the following features:

1. Placement on one of the plates of the platform of the same name, which, unlike the others, is slightly elevated;
2. Being in a temperate climate zone, as well as a small amount of precipitation. This is a consequence of the influence of two oceans, the first of which is the Atlantic, the second is the Arctic;
3. The presence of a clear natural zonality, which is explained by the flatness of the relief.

The described plain is divided into two other plains, namely:

1. Socle-denudation, occupying the Baltic crystalline shield;
2. East European, located on two plates at once: Scythian and Russian.

The crystalline shield has a unique relief. It was formed during a continental denudation that lasted more than one thousand years. Certain features were obtained by relief as a result of tectonic movements that occurred in recent times. As for the past, in the Quaternary period, the center of the glacier was located on the site of the modern Baltic crystalline shield. It is for this reason that the local relief is glacial.

Platform deposits, which are part of the Russian Plain, are a kind of cover that is in a horizontal position. Thanks to them, the formation of two types of uplands and lowlands occurred. The first of them are reservoir-denudation, and the second are accumulative. In some areas of the plain there are ledges of a folded basement. They are represented by socle-denudation hills and ridges: Donetsk, Timan, etc.

If we take into account the average indicator, then the height of the East European Plain above sea level is 170 meters. This indicator is the lowest on the coast of the Caspian Sea, and the highest - on the hills. For example, the Podolsk Upland is located 417 meters above sea level.

Settlement of the East European Plain

Some scientists are of the opinion that Eastern Europe was inhabited by Slavs, but some researchers are convinced of the opposite. It is known for certain that about 30 thousand years BC Cro-Magnons settled on the Russian Plain. Outwardly, they slightly resembled Caucasians, and over time they became similar to modern people. The process of adaptation of the Cro-Magnons proceeded in the conditions of the glacier. In the 10th millennium BC, the climate became milder, so the descendants of the Cro-Magnons, called Indo-Europeans, began to explore the territories located in the southeast of modern Europe. Where they were before is unknown, but there is reliable evidence that the settlement of this territory by the Indo-Europeans occurred 6 thousand years before our era.

The first Slavs appeared on European territory much later than the Indo-Europeans. Historians claim that their active resettlement falls on the 5th-6th centuries AD. For example, the Balkan Peninsula and the territories adjacent to it were occupied by the southern Slavs. Western Slavs moved in a direction from north to west. Many of them became the ancestors of modern Germans and Poles. Some settled on the coast of the Baltic Sea, while others settled in the Czech Republic. At the same time, serious changes took place in primitive society. In particular, the community became obsolete, the tribal hierarchy faded into the background, and associations began to replace them, which became the first states.

The Slavs, without apparent difficulties, settled the eastern lands of a large territory called Europe. At first, their relations with each other were based on the primitive communal system, and then on the tribal system. The number of settlers was small, so their tribes did not lack free lands.

In the process of settlement, the assimilation of the Slavs with representatives of the Finno-Ugric tribes took place. Their tribal unions are considered the first similarities of states. In parallel with this, the climate of Europe became warmer. This led to the development of agriculture and cattle breeding, but at the same time, fishing and hunting continued to play an important role in the economic activities of primitive people.

A favorable combination of circumstances for the colonists explains that the Eastern Slavs became the largest group of peoples, including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. If in the early Middle Ages the settlement of the Slavs only originates, but in the VIII century its "flourishing" falls. Simply put, it was at this time that the Slavic tribes were able to take a dominant position. Their neighbors were representatives of other nations. This has its pros and cons.

Speaking about the settlement of the Slavs, it should be noted that the main feature of this historical process is unevenness. First, the territories that were located near the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” were mastered, and only then the eastern, western and southwestern lands were colonized.

The settlement of the Slavs on the territory of the Russian Plain has a number of features. Among them it is necessary to highlight:

1. Significant influence of climate on the duration of colonization;
2. Dependence of population density on natural and climatic conditions. This means that the southern territories were more densely populated than the northern ones;
3. Absence of military conflicts caused by lack of land;
4. Imposing tribute on other peoples;
5. Complete assimilation of representatives of small tribes.

After the Slavic tribes occupied the East European Plain, they began to develop new types of economic activity, made adjustments to the existing social system and created the prerequisites for the creation of the first states.

Modern exploration of the East European Plain

Many well-known scientists were engaged in the study of the East European Plain. In particular, a huge contribution to the development of science was made by the mineralogist V.M. Severgin.

In the early spring of 1803, Severgin was studying the Baltic. While conducting research, he noticed that in the south-western direction from Lake Peipus, the relief becomes more hilly. Subsequently, Vasily Mikhailovich made a multi-stage transition. First, he went from the Gauja River to the Neman, and then to the Bug. This allowed him to establish that the area is either hilly or elevated. Realizing that such an alternation is a regularity, Severgin accurately determined its direction, going from the southwest to the northeast.

The territory of Polissya was studied by scientists no less closely. In particular, numerous studies began after the lands on the right bank of the Dnieper “opened up”, which led to a decrease in the number of meadows. So, in 1873 the Western Expedition was organized. A group of scientists led by topographer I.I. Zhilinsky planned to study the features of local swamps and determine the best ways to drain them. Over time, the expedition members were able to map Polissya, studied the land with a total area of ​​more than 100 thousand km2 and measured about 600 heights. The information received by Zhilinsky allowed A.A. Tillo to continue the undertakings of a colleague. This led to the appearance of the hypsometric map. It served as a clear proof that Polissya is a plain with raised borders. In addition, it was found that the region is rich in rivers and lakes. There are about 500 of the first here, and 300 of the second. The total length of both of them exceeds 9 thousand kilometers.

Later, G.I. Tanfiliev. He established that the destruction of the swamps would not cause the shallowing of the Dnieper. P.A. also came to the same conclusion. Tutkovsky. The same scientist finalized the map created by Tillo by adding several hills to it, among which the Ovruch ridge should be highlighted.

E.P. Kovalevsky, being an engineer at one of the factories in Luhansk, devoted himself to the study of the Donetsk Ridge. He conducted a lot of research and determined that the ridge is a pool of enormous size. Later, Kovalevsky was recognized as the discoverer of Donbass, because. it was he who created his first geological map and suggested that the region is rich in minerals.

In 1840, the famous geologist R. Murchison came to Russia. Together with domestic scientists, he explored the coast of the White Sea. As a result of the work carried out, many rivers and hills were studied, which were then mapped.

The study of the southern part of the Russian Plain was carried out by V.V. Dokuchaev, who was later recognized as the "father" of domestic soil science. This scientist found that a part of Eastern Europe is occupied by a unique zone, which is a mixture of black soil and steppe. In addition, in 1900, Dokuchaev compiled a map on which he divided the plain into 5 natural zones.

Over time, the interest of scientists in the East European Plain has not weakened. This led to the organization of many expeditions and various studies. Both those and others made it possible to make many scientific discoveries, as well as create new maps.

The East European (Russian) Plain is one of the largest plains in the world in terms of area.; It stretches from the coast of the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains, from the Barents and White Seas to the Azov and Caspian.

The East European Plain has the highest rural population density, large cities and many small towns and urban-type settlements, and a variety of natural resources. The plain has long been mastered by man.

Relief and geological structure

The East European Uplifted Plain consists of uplands with heights of 200-300 m above sea level and lowlands along which large rivers flow. The average height of the plain is 170 m, and the highest - 479 m - on the Bugulma-Belebeevskaya Upland in the Ural part. The maximum mark of the Timan Ridge is somewhat less (471 m).

According to the features of the orographic pattern within the East European Plain, three bands are clearly distinguished: central, northern and southern. A strip of alternating large uplands and lowlands passes through the central part of the plain: the Central Russian, Volga, Bugulma-Belebeevskaya uplands and the Common Syrt are separated by the Oka-Don lowland and the Low Trans-Volga region, along which the Don and Volga rivers flow, carrying their waters to the south.

To the north of this strip, low plains predominate, on the surface of which smaller hills are scattered here and there in garlands and singly. From the west to the east-northeast, the Smolensk-Moscow, Valdai uplands and Northern Uvaly stretch, replacing each other. The watersheds between the Arctic, Atlantic and internal (endorheic Aral-Caspian) basins mainly pass through them. From Severnye Uvaly the territory goes down to the White and Barents Seas. This part of the Russian Plain A.A. Borzov called the northern slope. Large rivers flow along it - Onega, Northern Dvina, Pechora with numerous high-water tributaries.

The southern part of the East European Plain is occupied by lowlands, of which only the Caspian is located on the territory of Russia.

The East European Plain has a typical platform relief, which is predetermined by the tectonic features of the platform: the heterogeneity of its structure (the presence of deep faults, ring structures, aulacogens, anteclises, syneclises, and other smaller structures) with unequal manifestations of recent tectonic movements.

Almost all large uplands and lowlands are plains of tectonic origin, while a significant part is inherited from the structure of the crystalline basement. In the process of a long and complex path of development, they were formed as unified in the morphostructural, orographic and genetic terms of the territory.

At the base of the East European Plain lie the Russian plate with a Precambrian crystalline basement and in the south the northern edge of the Scythian plate with a Paleozoic folded basement. These include syneclises - areas of deep occurrence of the foundation (Moscow, Pechora, Caspian, Glazov), anteclises - areas of shallow occurrence of the foundation (Voronezh, Volga-Ural), aulacogens - deep tectonic ditches, on the site of which syneclises subsequently arose (Kresttsovsky, Soligalichsky, Moskovsky and others), ledges of the Baikal basement - Timan.

The Moscow syneclise is one of the oldest and most complex internal structures of the Russian plate with a deep crystalline basement. It is based on the Central Russian and Moscow aulacogenes filled with thick Riphean strata and is expressed in relief by rather large uplands - the Valdai, Smolensk-Moscow and lowlands - the Upper Volga, North Dvina.

The Pechora syneclise is located wedge-shaped in the northeast of the Russian Plate, between the Timan Ridge and the Urals. Its uneven block foundation is lowered to various depths - up to 5000-6000 m in the east. The syneclise is filled with a thick layer of Paleozoic rocks overlain by Meso-Cenozoic deposits.

In the center of the Russian Plate there are two large anteclises - Voronezh and Volga-Urals, separated by the Pachelma aulacogen.

The Caspian marginal syneclise is a vast area of ​​deep (up to 18-20 km) subsidence of the crystalline basement and belongs to the structures of ancient origin, almost on all sides of the syneclise is limited by flexures and faults and has an angular outline.

The southern part of the East European Plain is located on the Scythian epi-Hercynian plate, lying between the southern edge of the Russian plate and the Alpine folded structures of the Caucasus.

The modern relief, which has undergone a long and complex history, in most cases turns out to be inherited and dependent on the nature of the ancient structure and manifestations of neotectonic movements.

Neotectonic movements on the East European Plain manifested themselves with different intensity and direction: in most of the territory they are expressed by weak and moderate uplifts, low mobility, and the Caspian and Pechora lowlands experience weak subsidence (Fig. 6).

The development of the morphostructure of the north-west of the plain is associated with the movements of the marginal part of the Baltic Shield and the Moscow syneclise; therefore, monoclinal (sloping) layered plains are developed here, expressed in orography in the form of uplands (Valdai, Smolensk-Moscow, Belorusskaya, Northern Uvaly, etc.), and layered plains occupying a lower position (Upper Volga, Meshcherskaya). The central part of the Russian Plain was affected by intense uplifts of the Voronezh and Volga-Ural anteclises, as well as subsidence of neighboring aulacogenes and troughs. These processes contributed to the formation of layer-tier, stepped uplands (Central Russian and Volga) and the layered Oka-Don plain. The eastern part developed in connection with the movements of the Urals and the edge of the Russian Plate, therefore, a mosaic of morphostructures is observed here. In the north and south, accumulative lowlands of the marginal syneclises of the plate (Pechora and Caspian) are developed. Interspersed between them are layered-stage uplands (Bugulma-Belebeevskaya, General Syrt), monoclinal-stratified uplands (Verkhnekamskaya) and the intra-platform folded Timan Ridge.

In the Quaternary, the cooling of the climate in the northern hemisphere contributed to the spread of ice sheets.

Three glaciations are distinguished on the East European Plain: the Okskoe, the Dnieper with the Moscow stage, and the Valdai. Glaciers and fluvioglacial waters created two types of plains - moraine and outwash.

The southern boundary of the maximum distribution of the Dnieper ice sheet crossed the Central Russian Upland in the Tula region, then descended along the Don valley to the mouth of the Khopra and Medveditsa, crossed the Volga Upland, then the Volga near the mouth of the Sura River, then went to the upper reaches of the Vyatka and Kama and crossed the Urals in area 60° N Then came the Valdai glaciation. The edge of the Valdai ice sheet was located 60 km north of Minsk and went to the northeast, reaching Nyandoma.

Natural processes of the Neogene-Quaternary time and modern climatic conditions on the territory of the East European Plain determined various types of morphosculptures, which are zonal in their distribution: on the coast of the seas of the Arctic Ocean, marine and moraine plains with cryogenic landforms are common. To the south lie the moraine plains, at various stages transformed by erosion and periglacial processes. Along the southern periphery of the Moscow glaciation, there is a strip of outwash plains interrupted by remnant elevated plains covered with loess-like loams, dissected by ravines and gullies. To the south there is a strip of fluvial ancient and modern landforms on uplands and lowlands. On the coast of the Azov and Caspian Seas there are Neogene-Quaternary plains with erosional, depression-subsidence and eolian relief.

The long geological history of the largest geostructure - the ancient platform - predetermined the accumulation of various minerals on the East European Plain. The richest deposits of iron ore are concentrated in the foundation of the platform (Kursk magnetic anomaly). The sedimentary cover of the platform is associated with deposits of coal (the eastern part of the Donbass, the Moscow basin), oil and gas deposits in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic deposits (the Ural-Volga basin), and oil shale (near Syzran). Building materials (songs, gravel, clays, limestones) are widespread. Brown ironstones (near Lipetsk), bauxites (near Tikhvin), phosphorites (in a number of regions), and salts (near the Caspian Sea) are also associated with the sedimentary cover.

Climate

The climate of the East European Plain is influenced by its position in temperate and high latitudes, as well as neighboring territories (Western Europe and North Asia) and the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. The total solar radiation per year in the north of the plain, in the Pechora basin, reaches 2700 mJ / m2 (65 kcal / cm2), and in the south, in the Caspian lowland, 4800-5050 mJ / m2 (115-120 kcal / cm2). The distribution of radiation over the territory of the plain changes dramatically with the seasons. In winter, radiation is much less than in summer, and more than 60% of it is reflected by the snow cover. In January, the total solar radiation at the Kaliningrad-Moscow-Perm latitude is 50 mJ/m2 (about 1 kcal/cm2), and in the southeast of the Caspian lowland it is about 120 mJ/m2 (3 kcal/cm2). Radiation reaches its greatest value in summer and in July, its total values ​​in the north of the plain are about 550 mJ/m2 (13 kcal/cm2), and in the south - 700 mJ/m2 (17 kcal/cm2). All year round, the western transfer of air masses dominates over the East European Plain. Atlantic air brings coolness and rainfall in summer, and warmth and rainfall in winter. When moving east, it transforms: in summer it becomes warmer and drier in the surface layer, and colder in winter, but also loses moisture.

In the warm period of the year, from April, cyclonic activity proceeds along the lines of the Arctic and Polar fronts, shifting to the north. Cyclonic weather is most typical for the northwest of the plain, so cool sea air from temperate latitudes often comes to these areas from the Atlantic. It lowers the temperature, but at the same time it heats up from the underlying surface and is additionally saturated with moisture due to evaporation from the moistened surface.

The position of the January isotherms in the northern half of the East European Plain is submeridional, which is associated with greater frequency in the western regions of the Atlantic air and its lesser transformation. The average January temperature in the Kaliningrad region is -4°С, in the western part of the compact territory of Russia it is about -10°С, and in the northeast -20°С. In the southern part of the country, the isotherms deviate to the southeast, amounting to -5 ... -6 ° С in the region of the lower reaches of the Don and Volga.

In summer, almost everywhere on the plain, the most important factor in the distribution of temperature is solar radiation, so isotherms, in contrast to winter, are located mainly in accordance with geographic latitude. In the extreme north of the plain, the average temperature in July rises to 8°C, which is associated with the transformation of the air coming from the Arctic. The average July isotherm of 20°C goes through Voronezh to Cheboksary, approximately coinciding with the border between forest and forest-steppe, and the isotherm of 24°C crosses the Caspian lowland.

The distribution of precipitation over the territory of the East European Plain is primarily dependent on circulation factors (western transport of air masses, the position of the Arctic and polar fronts, and cyclonic activity). Especially many cyclones move from west to east between 55-60°N. (Valdai and Smolensk-Moscow Uplands). This strip is the most humid part of the Russian Plain: the annual precipitation here reaches 700-800 mm in the west and 600-700 mm in the east.

The relief has an important influence on the increase in the annual total precipitation: on the western slopes of the uplands, precipitation is 150-200 mm more than on the lowlands lying behind them. In the southern part of the plain, the maximum precipitation occurs in June, and in the middle lane - in July.

The degree of moistening of the territory is determined by the ratio of heat and moisture. It is expressed by various values: a) the coefficient of moisture, which in the East European Plain varies from 0.35 in the Caspian lowland to 1.33 or more in the Pechora lowland; b) dryness index, which varies from 3 in the deserts of the Caspian lowland to 0.45 in the tundra of the Pechora lowland; c) the average annual difference in precipitation and evaporation (mm). In the northern part of the plain, moisture is excessive, since precipitation exceeds evaporation by 200 mm or more. In the zone of transitional moisture from the upper reaches of the Dniester, Don and the mouth of the Kama, the amount of precipitation is approximately equal to evaporation, and the further south from this zone, the more evaporation exceeds precipitation (from 100 to 700 mm), i.e., moisture becomes insufficient.

Differences in the climate of the East European Plain affect the nature of the vegetation and the presence of a fairly clearly expressed soil-vegetation zonality.