Events in the foreign policy of Alexander 2. The main directions of the foreign policy of Alexander II

Romanov
Years of life: April 17 (29), 1818, Moscow - March 1 (13), 1881, St. Petersburg
Emperor of All Russia, Tsar of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland 1855-1881

From the Romanov dynasty.

He was awarded a special epithet in Russian historiography - the Liberator.

He is the eldest son of the imperial couple Nicholas I and Alexandra Feodorovna, daughter of the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III.

Biography of Alexander Nikolaevich Romanov

His father, Nikolai Pavlovich, was the Grand Duke at the time of his son's birth, and in 1825 he became emperor. From childhood, his father began to prepare him for the throne, and considered it a duty to “reign”. The mother of the great reformer, Alexandra Feodorovna, was a German who converted to Orthodoxy.

He received an education corresponding to his origin. His main mentor was the Russian poet Vasily Zhukovsky. He managed to raise the future king as an enlightened person, a reformer, not deprived of artistic taste.

According to numerous testimonies, in his youth he was very impressionable and amorous. During a trip to London in 1839, he fell in love with the young Queen Victoria, who later became for him the most hated ruler in Europe.

In 1834, the 16-year-old youth became a senator. And in 1835 a member
Holy Synod.

In 1836, the heir to the throne received the military rank of major general.

In 1837 he went on his first trip to Russia. He visited about 30 provinces, drove to Western Siberia. And in a letter to his father he wrote that he was ready "to strive for the work for which God has ordained me."

1838 - 1839 were marked by travels in Europe.

On April 28, 1841, he married Princess Maximilian Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt, who received the name Maria Alexandrovna in Orthodoxy.

In 1841 he became a member of the State Council.

In 1842, the heir to the throne entered the Cabinet of Ministers.

In 1844 he received the rank of full general. For some time he even commanded the guards infantry.

In 1849, he received military educational institutions and secret committees for peasant affairs in his charge.

In 1853, at the beginning of the Crimean War, he commanded all the troops of the city.

Emperor Alexander 2

March 3 (February 19), 1855 became emperor. Having accepted the throne, he also accepted the problems of his father left behind. In Russia at that time the peasant question was not resolved, the Crimean War was in full swing, in which Russia suffered constant setbacks. The new ruler had to carry out forced reforms.

March 30, 1856 Emperor Alexander II signed the Peace of Paris, thus ending the Crimean War. However, the conditions for Russia turned out to be unfavorable, she became vulnerable from the sea, she was forbidden to have naval forces in the Black Sea.

In August 1856, on the day of the coronation, the new emperor announced an amnesty for the Decembrists, and also suspended recruiting for 3 years.

Reforms of Alexander 2

In 1857, the tsar intends to free the peasants, "without waiting for them to free themselves." He established a Secret Committee dealing with this issue. The result was the Manifesto on the liberation of the peasantry from serfdom and the Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom, published on March 3 (February 19), 1861, according to which the peasants received personal freedom and the right to freely dispose of their property.

Among other reforms carried out by the tsar, there is a reorganization of the educational and legal systems, the actual abolition of censorship, the abolition of corporal punishment, and the creation of zemstvos. He carried out:

• Zemstvo reform on January 1, 1864, according to which issues of local economy, primary education, medical and veterinary services were entrusted to elected institutions - district and provincial zemstvo councils.
• The city reform of 1870 replaced the previously existing class city administrations with city dumas elected on the basis of a property qualification.
• The Judicial Charter of 1864 introduced a unified system of judicial institutions based on the formal equality of all social groups before the law.

In the course of military reforms, a systematic reorganization of the army was launched, new military districts were created, a relatively harmonious system of local military administration was created, the military ministry itself was reformed, operational command and control of troops was carried out and their mobilization. By the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. the entire Russian army was armed with the latest breech-loading rifles.

During the educational reforms of the 1860s. a network of public schools was created. Together with the classical gymnasiums, real gymnasiums (schools) were created, in which the main emphasis was on teaching the natural sciences and mathematics. The published Charter of 1863 for higher educational institutions introduced partial autonomy for universities. In 1869, the first higher women's courses in Russia with a general education program were opened in Moscow.

Imperial policy of Alexander 2

He confidently and successfully led the traditional imperial policy. Victories in the Caucasian War were won in the first years of his reign. The advance to Central Asia was successfully completed (in 1865-1881, most of Turkestan became part of Russia). After a long resistance, he decided to go to war with Turkey in 1877-1878, in which Russia won.

On April 4, 1866, the first attempt was made on the emperor's life. The nobleman Dmitry Karakozov fired at him, but missed.

In 1866, the 47-year-old Emperor Alexander II entered into an extramarital affair with a 17-year-old maid of honor, Princess Ekaterina Mikhailovna Dolgoruky. Their relationship lasted for many years, until the death of the emperor.

In 1867, the tsar, seeking to improve relations with France, negotiated with Napoleon III.

On May 25, 1867, there was a second assassination attempt. In Paris, the Pole Anton Berezovsky shoots at the carriage where the tsar, his children and Napoleon III were. The rulers were saved by one of the officers of the French guard.

In 1867 Alaska (Russian America) and the Aleutian Islands were sold to the United States for $7.2 million in gold. The expediency of the acquisition of Alaska by the United States of America became apparent 30 years later, when gold was discovered in the Klondike and the famous "gold rush" began. The declaration of the Soviet government of 1917 announced that it did not recognize the agreements concluded by tsarist Russia, thus Alaska should belong to Russia. The sale agreement was carried out with violations, so there are still disputes about the ownership of Alaska by Russia.

In 1872, Alexander joined the Union of the Three Emperors (Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary).

The years of the reign of Alexander 2

During the years of his reign, a revolutionary movement developed in Russia. Students unite in various unions and circles, often sharply radical, while for some reason they saw the guarantee of the liberation of Russia only if the tsar was physically destroyed.

On August 26, 1879, the executive committee of the Narodnaya Volya movement decided to assassinate the Russian tsar. This was followed by 2 more assassination attempts: on November 19, 1879, an imperial train was blown up near Moscow, but again the emperor was saved by chance. On February 5, 1880, there was an explosion in the Winter Palace.

In July 1880, after the death of his 1st wife, he secretly married Dolgoruky in the church of Tsarskoye Selo. The marriage was morganatic, that is, unequal in gender. Neither Catherine nor her children received any class privileges or succession rights from the emperor. They were granted the title of the Most Serene Princes of Yuryevsky.

On March 1, 1881, the emperor was mortally wounded as a result of another assassination attempt by I.I. Grinevitsky, who threw the bomb, and died on the same day from blood loss.

Alexander II Nikolaevich went down in history as a reformer and liberator.

Was married twice:
First marriage (1841) with Maria Alexandrovna (07/1/1824 - 05/22/1880), nee Princess Maximilian-Wilhelmina-August-Sophia-Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt.

Children from first marriage:
Alexandra (1842-1849)
Nicholas (1843-1865), brought up as heir to the throne, died of pneumonia in Nice
Alexander III (1845-1894) - Emperor of Russia in 1881-1894.
Vladimir (1847-1909)
Alexey(1850-1908)
Maria (1853-1920), Grand Duchess, Duchess of Great Britain and Germany
Sergei (1857-1905)
Pavel (1860-1919)
The second, morganatic, marriage to an old (since 1866) mistress, Princess Ekaterina Mikhailovna Dolgorukova (1847-1922), who received the title of Most Serene Princess Yuryevskaya.
Children from this marriage:
Georgy Alexandrovich Yuryevsky (1872-1913), married to Countess von Tsarnekau
Olga Alexandrovna Yuryevskaya (1873-1925), married to Georg-Nicholas von Merenberg (1871-1948), son of Natalya Pushkina.
Boris Alexandrovich (1876-1876), posthumously legalized with the assignment of the surname "Yurievsky"
Ekaterina Alexandrovna Yuryevskaya (1878-1959), married to Prince Alexander Vladimirovich Baryatinsky, and later to Prince Sergei Platonovich Obolensky-Neledinsky-Meletsky.

He opened many monuments. In Moscow in 2005 at an open the inscription on the monument: “Emperor Alexander II. He abolished serfdom in 1861 and freed millions of peasants from centuries of slavery. He carried out military and judicial reforms. He introduced a system of local self-government, city dumas and zemstvo councils. He completed the long-term Caucasian war. He freed the Slavic peoples from the Ottoman yoke. He died on March 1 (13), 1881 as a result of a terrorist act. A monument was also erected in St. Petersburg from gray-green jasper. In the capital of Finland, in Helsinki, in 1894 a monument to Alexander II was erected for strengthening the foundations of Finnish culture and recognizing the Finnish language as the state language.

In Bulgaria, he is known as the Tsar Liberator. The grateful Bulgarian people for the liberation of Bulgaria erected many monuments to him and named streets and institutions in his honor throughout the country. And in modern times in Bulgaria, during the liturgy in Orthodox churches, Alexander II and all Russian soldiers who fell on the battlefield for the liberation of Bulgaria in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 are commemorated.

Born April 17, 1818 in Moscow. In 1855, Alexander became Sovereign of All Russia in one of the most difficult periods for the Russian Empire. Immediately after ascending the throne, a huge problem fell on the newly-made emperor in the form of Crimean War.

Foreign policy of Alexander II.

The Crimean War began in the last years of the reign of Nicholas I. The main reason for the war was the growth of anti-Russian sentiment in Europe. Most of all, England, France, Austria, and also the Ottoman Empire did not want a strong Russia. The reason for the start of the war was a dispute between France and Russia over the rights to holy places in Palestine, and in particular to Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (then the church was under the control of the Orthodox Church, in our time it belongs to three dioceses at once - Orthodox, Catholic and Armenian churches). The fact is that the cunning Turks, who then controlled these territories, made the same promises to both Russian Orthodox and French Catholics.

November 18, 1853 Russian Black Sea Fleet during the famous Sinop battle defeated the forces of the Ottoman Empire. However, after this victory, everything became very difficult. The allied fleet of the British and French entered the Black Sea, which joined the Turks.

During the Crimean War, hostilities took place not only in the Black Sea, but also far beyond its borders:

1. Ground fighting in Silistria (the Black Sea coast near the mouth of the Danube) and Moldova, first against the Turks, and a little later, the British and French in 1853-1854. Russia was forced to retreat, as Austria-Hungary intended to enter the war, because of which the Russian army could be completely surrounded.
2. Military operations in the south of the Caucasus. The attack of the Turks was repulsed, in 1855 the large Ottoman fortress of Kars was taken.
3. Attack on Odessa and Ochakov in 1854. The Franco-English ships bombarded both cities, but met with a barrage of return fire and retreated with losses. The large British steamer "Tiger" was sunk, and 225 crew members were captured.
4. Allied attacks in the Sea of ​​Azov in 1855. They ended with the shelling of Taganrog and Mariupol, as well as robbery on the Belosarayskaya Spit and in the Berdyansk region.
5. British attack in the Baltic Sea. An attempt to lure the Russian Baltic Fleet out of the bay of Kronstadt into the open sea, since they could not take the fortress in any way. As a result, the British fired from afar, received return fire and retreated.
6. British attack from the White Sea (in the Arctic). The Solovetsky Monastery was damaged, and the Resurrection Cathedral was destroyed (near the city of Kola on the Kola Peninsula).
7. British attack from the Pacific Ocean on the Peter and Paul Fortress in the second half of August 1854. The garrison of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky successfully repulsed the attack and defeated the landing force.
8. Attack on Kinburn (near Nikolaev) on the northern coast of the Black Sea - October 2, 1855. The city was captured.
9. Defense of Sevastopol. It lasted 11 months, but the heroic actions of the defenders did not save the city. Fall of Sevastopol happened on September 8, 1855 after the sixth bombardment of the city by the French and the subsequent capture of Malakhov Kurgan.

February 13, 1856 was signed Treaty of Paris and the war is over. The Allies captured the Crimea, pushed Russia out of Bessarabia, but the offensive stopped there (the Allies understood that deepening into the lands of the Russian Empire threatened with complete defeat and another Russian campaign to Paris). The cunning British stopped in time, and thus Russia was considered the losing side. By the way, Alexander II fought on at least six fronts and without a single ally. Under such conditions, the Peace of Paris for the Russian emperor was far from the worst option. As a result of the treaty, political influence on Bessarabia was lost, although Alexander took back the Crimea and Sevastopol in exchange for the Turkish Kars he captured. In addition, the Black Sea was declared neutral waters, where neither the Russians nor the Turks could have a combat fleet.

Of course, Russia could not remain in such cramped conditions for a long time. In addition, in the 70s of the 19th century, a liberation movement began in the Balkan countries against the rule of the Turks, and support for Orthodox citizens of other states was not the last point in the policy of Russian sovereigns.

In 1877 began Russian-Turkish war. The reason for the start of the war was the brutal suppression in Bulgaria April uprising Orthodox Bulgarians. During a lightning raid through the Balkan countries (the exception was the five-month siege of the city of Pleven in Bulgaria), with the support of the local population, Russian troops liberated all these territories from Ottoman influence. In 1878 was convened Berlin Congress, fixed a little later San Stefano Peace Treaty between Russia and Ottoman Empire, according to which Romania and Montenegro became independent states. Bulgaria received broad autonomy and privileges for the Orthodox population as part of the Ottoman Empire, while Bosnia and Herzegovina received similar autonomy as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. As for Russia itself, Alexander II returned Bessarabia, and also recaptured the Kars region in the Caucasus. In addition, the Black Sea Fleet was restored.

During reign of Alexander II significant territories of Central Asia (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, part of Afghanistan and Iran), as well as the Far East (Transbaikalia, Ussuri Territory, Khabarovsk Territory and partly Manchuria) were annexed to the Russian Empire - according to Beijing Treaty 1860 with the Chinese.

In 1867, after long negotiations, sale of alaska United States of America for $7.2 million. This deal was driven by the following factors:

1. It is not economically profitable to transport people and goods to such a remote region.
2. The vulnerability of Alaska and the problematic of its protection.
3. The economic crisis caused, for the most part, by the defeat in the Crimean War and the costs of it.
4. The fact of this sale for several decades established friendly relations with the United States of America, as well as the Empire of Japan (since at the same time the Kuril Islands were given to the Emperor of Japan in exchange for Sakhalin).

There was a struggle for the liquidation of the articles of the Paris Treaty of 1856, which were humiliating for Russia (Russia was ousted from the Black Sea). Russian diplomacy (Minister of Foreign Affairs - Gorchakov) tried to use the contradictions between the Western European countries.

In 1871, at an international conference in London, Russia again won the right to have a navy and fortifications on the Black Sea.

Middle Asia. As a result of successful military operations (1864-1865), the territory of Turkestan (the Turkestan Governor-Generalship) became part of Russia, and in 1873 the Bukhara Khanate fell under the control of Russia . In addition, the Khiva Khanate also fell into the zone of influence of Russia (by agreement with England). Instead, Russia recognized Afghanistan as a neutral territory. In 1876, the Kokand Khanate became part of Russia . Thus, the conquest of a number of territories in the Central Asian region allowed Russia not only to expand its borders, but also to ensure economic growth, primarily through the intensification of trade relations with new neighbors and the development of the cotton industry.

Far East. The main disputed territorial issue with Japan was a number of the Kuril Islands. First, under an agreement in 1855, the Kuril Islands passed to Russia, and the territory of Sakhalin was jointly controlled by both Japan and Russia. However, already in 1875, the Kuril Islands were ceded to Japan, and for this, Russia received the Japanese part of Sakhalin Island in its possession. At the same time, border disputes were settled with

China. In accordance with the concluded agreements of 1858 and 1860. the border between the two states was established along the Amur River. IN 1867 Russia sold Alaska to the United States.

The Balkans and the war with Turkey 1877-1878 The reason for the start of the war was the aggravation of the situation in the Balkans, where the Orthodox population raised an uprising against Turkey, refusing to recognize their equal rights with Muslims. At the beginning of hostilities, Russia undertook a number of successful military maneuvers, as a result of which it was possible to significantly advance deep into enemy territory. In November 1877, after several unsuccessful attempts, Plevna was taken. At the same time, in Transcaucasia, Russian troops defeated the Turks at Aladzha and captured a number of strategically important fortresses. At the end of 1877 Sofia was taken, and at the beginning of 1878 the army M. D. Skobeleva came close to Istanbul.

By San Stefano Peace Treaty, signed in February 1878, Turkey was forced to recognize the independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania. South Bessarabia, Kare, Batum and Ardagan retreated to Russia. The Bulgarian principality was also created. However, already in the summer of 1878, at the Berlin Congress, a number of territories given to Russia were returned to Turkey. At this congress, the “Union of Three Emperors” concluded in 1873 (between Russia, Austria-Hungary and Germany) broke up, since both Germany, represented by Bismarck, and Austria supported the territorial claims of England, to which Cyprus seceded.

Poland. At the beginning 1863 in Poland, an uprising began. The main demands of the rebels, as well as during the unrest of 1830-1831. was the recognition of Poland's independence by Russia. Some weakening of political control on the part of Russia (the restoration of the State Council of Poland), which had been outlined shortly before, was not enough for the supporters of independence. The rebels demanded the return of the borders of Poland to the state of 1772. In January 1863, there was an attack on Russian soldiers stationed in the barracks. The leaders of the uprising counted on the support of the Western European states.

England and France sided with Poland, but Austria-Hungary gave Russia decisive support. To prevent mass protests in Poland, a land reform was carried out, according to which Polish peasants received significant land plots. Thus, the rebels could no longer appeal to the peasant masses to the same extent as before. The Russian troops brought into Poland completed the suppression of the uprisings (autumn 1864).

The foreign policy of Alexander II - success or failure?

Made by Burkatsky I.N. group DM-11

Alexander II Nikolaevich

12th Emperor All-Russian

Predecessor: Nicholas I

Successor: Alexander III

Place of birth: Moscow, Kremlin

Place of death: Petersburg Winter Palace

Spouse: 1. Maria Alexandrovna (Maximiliana-Wilhelmina of Hesse)
2. Ekaterina Mikhailovna Dolgorukova, Most Serene Princess Yurievskaya

Dynasty: Romanovs

Father: Nicholas I

Mother: Charlotte of Prussia (Alexandra Feodorovna)

Alexander assumed power at the most difficult moment, when it was obvious to everyone that Russia was doomed to defeat in the Crimean War. Amazement, resentment, pain, anger and irritation reigned in society. The first years of his reign became for Alexander a harsh school of political education. It was then that he fully felt all the discontent accumulated in society and drank all the bitterness of cruel and fair criticism.

In March 1856, with the active participation of Prince Gorchakov, the Peace of Paris was concluded. It cost Russia the Black Sea Fleet, but it was still much less shameful than one might expect. After the Peace of Paris, perceived by the entire Russian society as a national humiliation, Russia's foreign policy prestige fell extremely low. Alexander had to spend a lot of effort before he returned to his state the weight that it had before the Crimean War. Only after going through the shame of defeat, Alexander was able to decide on reforms, but he never forgot the main goal of these reforms - to revive the military power of the Russian Empire. It is reported that, presiding over a meeting in 1863, the sovereign said: “Seven years ago I committed one act at this table, which I can determine, since I did it: I signed the Treaty of Paris, and it was cowardice.” And, striking the table with his fist, he said: "Yes, it was cowardice, and I will not repeat it!" This episode sharply characterizes the sharpness of the bitter feeling concealed by the sovereign. Neither he nor Gorchakov forgot the humiliation of 1856. The goal of Russian foreign policy since that time was the destruction of the Paris Treaty. The means is the renewal of the destroyed military power.

Failures Successes

March 18 (30), 1856 - Paris Peace Treaty - The agreement was concluded between Russia, France, England, Turkey, Austria, Sardinia and Prussia. Russia lost Kars, the mouth of the Danube and part of southern Bessarabia. Russia and Turkey lost the right to maintain a navy in the Black Sea. The exclusive Russian protectorate over the Danubian Principalities was abolished.

September 1857 - Meeting of Alexander 2 and Napoleon 3 - The Russian emperor was forced to improve relations with yesterday's military adversary, trying to avoid further confrontation with Europe.

May 1858 - Aigun Treaty between Russia and China - According to the Aigun Treaty, the border along the Amur was established, the Amur region was recognized as belonging to Russia, and the lands from the river. Ussuri to the sea - undivided. Only Russian and Chinese vessels were allowed to navigate the Amur, Sungari and Ussuri rivers.

June 1858 - Tianjin treaty between Russia and China - the clauses of the treaty provided Russian subjects with the rights of the most favored nation, while the rights of Russian merchants in China expanded significantly.

1863 -deterioration of relations with France due to failure to communicate to support Russia's demands

1867 - Russian-American agreement on the sale of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands to America. - Alexander 2 sold Alaska with the Aleutian Islands (a territory of 1.5 million sq. Km.) To the United States for 7.2 million dollars (11 million rubles) to strengthen ties with America and replenish the treasury.

April 1877 - the break in diplomatic relations between Russia and Turkey - having accumulated enough strength and started to carry out military reform, Russia was ready for a new war with Turkey, the reason for which was the brutal suppression of the liberation movement of the southern Slavs by the Ottomans.

June 1858 - the signing of trade agreements with England and Belgium - Russia tried in every possible way to avoid the isolation of Russia from Europe that emerged under Nicholas 1.

June 1858 - the annexation of Chechnya to Russia (commanded by A.I. Baryatinsky)

March 3, 1859 - the conclusion of a secret Russian-French agreement - provided for the benevolent neutrality of Russia in the event of a war between France and the Kingdom of Sardinia against Austria.

1860 - the annexation of the Zachui region to Russia - this modest step preceded a large-scale military invasion of Central Asia.

November 14, 1860 - the Beijing Treaty between Russia and China - the Ussuri Territory joined Russia.

1877-1878 - War with Turkey. It ended with the Treaty of San Stefano, modified by the Berlin Treaty - “The concessions made by Russian diplomacy at the Berlin Congress caused greater discontent and disappointment both in Russian society and among the Balkan peoples and weakened the authority of the Russian government at home and abroad” (S.G. Pushkarev)

June-July 1878 - The Berlin Congress - was convened at the initiative of England and Austria-Hungary to revise the terms of the San Stefano Treaty. As a result of the congress, the Berlin Treaty was signed. The accession to Russia of the mouth of the Danube, the fortresses of Ardagan, Kars and Batum with districts was recognized. From other advantages achieved in San Stefano, Russia was forced to give up under pressure from the Western powers.

Spring 1864 - the end of the Caucasian War - the exhausting war lasted 47 years, but the highlanders were eventually forced to lay down their arms

1864-1865 - the accession of Central Asia to Russia - without significant efforts and unnecessary sacrifices, the empire absorbed the richest lands into its sphere of influence, which became the last major territorial acquisition in the history of the Russian Empire.

March 1867 - Russian-Japanese Treaty on Sakhalin - the Japanese government renounced its claims to the northern part of the island, retaining southern Sakhalin.

January 1868 - Russia's peace treaty with the Kokanad Khanate - Khudoyar Khan recognized vassal dependence on Russia and ceded all the conquered lands to it. Russian subjects received the right to free trade in the khanate.

Chancellor Prince Gorchakov himself, who represented Russia at the congress, admitted in a note to Alexander: "The Berlin Congress is the blackest page in my official career." The emperor noted: "And in mine too." Such was the end of the war, for which more than a billion rubles were spent (with a total budget of 1878 of 600 million) and for the sake of which domestic finances were completely upset.

February 1881 - Petersburg Russian-Chinese agreement - The agreement was concluded instead of Livadia. Russia refused to acquire acquisitions in the valley of the Tekes River and the Muzartsky Pass, except for the western section of the Ili Valley. Trade privileges for Russian merchants are limited.

June 23, 1868 - a peace treaty between Russia and the Emirate of Bukhara - established the vassal dependence of the Emirate of Bukhara on Russia.

Autumn 1869 - Russian-English agreement - provided for the creation of a neutral zone between Russian and English possessions in Central Asia, including the territory of Afghanistan.

June 1870 - the meeting of the emperors Alexander 2 and Wilhelm 1 - the meeting took place in Ems. The Prussian emperor promised to support Russia's interests in the Middle East.

January 1871 - London International Conference - at the conference of the countries participating in the Paris Treaty, Russia achieved the abolition of the articles of the treaty that were humiliating for itself and officially received the opportunity to keep the navy on the Black Sea.

1873 - Union of 3 emperors - Russia secured its western borders. The treaty was important in a defensive sense and determined positions in the Balkans

August 12, 1873 - a peace treaty between Russia and the Khiva Khanate - the lands of the Khanate along the right bank of the Amu Darya River were annexed to Russia. Khiva recognized vassal dependence on Russia. Russian merchants were exempted from paying duties.

April 25, 1875 - Russo-Japanese treaty - dealt with territorial disputes between the two countries. Russia handed over the Kuril Islands to Japan in exchange for the southern part of Sakhalin.

February 1876 - a decree on the accession of the Kokand Khanate to the Russian Empire - the last of the largest states of Central Asia was forced to recognize Russian rule.

July 1876 - Russian-Austrian negotiations - both emperors and chancellors of both powers participated in the negotiations. The parties agreed to pursue a coordinated policy of Russia and Austria towards the Balkans.

January 1877 - a secret Austro-Russian convention - was signed in Budapest and provided for the neutrality of Austria in the war between Russia and Turkey.

April 1877 - The capture of the Bayazet fortress by the Russian troops - the Caucasian theater of operations and in this war was very promising for Russia.

November 6, 1877 - the capture of the Kars fortress by the Russians - the capture of this most important fortress in the Caucasus made the prospects for a significant increase in Russian influence in the Middle East real.

January 1878 - the occupation of Adrianople by the Russians - this event meant the complete collapse of the Turkish plans for waging war. The road to Istanbul was open, and the Turks were in danger of complete defeat.

February 19, 1878 - the signing of the San Stefano preliminary peace treaty between Russia and Turkey - according to the agreement, autonomy was granted to Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, independence - to Serbia, Montenegro and Romania. South Bessarabia, the fortresses of Ardagan, Kars, Batum, Bayazet with the Alashkert valley were annexed to Russia

October 2, 1879 - preliminary signing of the Russian-Chinese treaty - the treaty signed in Livadia restored the power of the Chinese government in the Ili region and granted Russian subjects the right to duty-free trade in Mongolia and walled Western China. China ceded to Russia a small area in the west of the Ili Valley, the Tekas River basin and the Muzart Pass. The Chinese government refused to ratify the treaty.

Criteria for comparing the table: treaties that increase the international prestige of Russia, the number of successful and unsuccessful treaties, the overall result of Russia's foreign policy under Alexander II, the results of treaties.

Based on the table, we can conclude that Russia under Alexander II concluded agreements that contributed to the favorable development of foreign policy. Russia tried to pursue its foreign policy in peaceful ways, and there were more successful treaties than those that in one way or another adversely affected the position and authority of the country. Even despite the fact that Russia had defeats in foreign policy, it was able to regain its international authority and position.

Outcome

Thus, foreign policy after the Crimean War turned out to be quite effective. The long struggle for the abolition of the restrictive articles of the Paris Peace was crowned with success. As a result, Russia regained its leading position in the "concert of Europe" again. Successful transformations in the economy and military affairs made it possible to achieve a spectacular victory in the next Russian-Turkish war, which showed the selflessness of Russia, its ability to come to the rescue, guided not by imperial interests, but by high moral aspirations, a desire to help those who are dying from cruelty and injustice. No other European power throughout the 19th century was able to do something similar.

Domestic history (until 1917) Dvornichenko Andrey Yurievich

§ 2. The domestic policy of Alexander II in the 1860s-1870s. Liberal reforms

The peasant reform of 1861 led to changes in the economic structure of society, which necessitated the transformation of the political system. Reforms in Russia were not the cause, but the consequence of the development of socio-economic processes. At the same time, after the implementation of the reforms, they objectively had the opposite effect on these processes.

The ongoing transformations were contradictory in nature - tsarism tried to adapt the old political system of autocracy to new conditions without changing its class essence. The reforms (1863-1874), although they were progressive in nature, were distinguished by half-heartedness and inconsistency.

The tasks of organizing local self-government were to be solved by zemstvo and city reforms. In accordance with the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions" (1864), elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos - were introduced in uyezds and provinces. Formally, zemstvo institutions consisted of representatives of all estates, but suffrage was determined by property qualification. Members of the zemstvo assemblies (vowels) were elected by three curiae: landowners, city voters and elected from rural societies (in the last curia, elections were multistage). The leader of the nobility was the chairman of the meetings. Executive bodies were also created - provincial and district zemstvo councils. The zemstvos mainly dealt with economic issues, but even within these limits they were controlled by the governors and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Zemstvos were introduced gradually (until 1879) and not in all regions of the empire. Already at this time their competence was more and more limited by the government. However, despite the restrictions, the zemstvos in Russia played a significant role in solving both economic and cultural issues (enlightenment, medicine, zemstvo statistics, etc.).

The new system of institutions of city self-government (city dumas and councils), created in accordance with the "City Regulations" adopted in 1870, was based on the principle of a single property qualification. Elections took place according to curiae, created in accordance with the amount of tax paid. The overwhelming majority of residents who did not have an established property qualification turned out to be excluded from the elections. As a result of the reform of local self-government bodies, the dominant position in the zemstvos (especially at the provincial level) was occupied by the nobility, and in the city dumas by representatives of the big bourgeoisie.

City self-government bodies were also under unremitting control of the government and mainly dealt with issues related to the management of the city economy.

Judicial reform.

The most archaic in the middle of the XIX century. remained the Russian judicial system. The court was class-based, the meetings were private in nature and were not covered in the press. The judges were completely dependent on the administration, and the defendants had no defenders. A very prominent liberal beginning was manifested in the new judicial statutes of 1864, which were based on the main principles of bourgeois law: the absence of estates of the court, the adversarial process, publicity and independence of judges.

The result of the judicial reform was the introduction in Russia of two systems: the crown and the world courts. The Crown Court had two instances: the district court and the judicial chamber. During the trial, the prosecution was brought forward by the prosecutor, and the defense was conducted by lawyers (sworn attorneys). The decision on the guilt of the accused was made by elected jurors. The measure of punishment was determined by the judge and two members of the court.

Magistrates' courts considered petty crimes, justice here was conducted by magistrates elected by zemstvo assemblies or city dumas.

However, the imprint of the old feudal remnants also lay on the new system of justice. So, special courts were retained for certain categories of the population (for example, volost courts for peasants). To a certain extent, the judges were dependent on the administration.

military reforms.

The need to increase the combat effectiveness of the Russian army, which became obvious already during the Crimean War and clearly declared itself during the European events of the 1860-1870s, when the Prussian army demonstrated its combat effectiveness (the unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia, the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 ), demanded the implementation of fundamental military reforms. These reforms were carried out under the leadership of Minister of War D. A. Milyutin. In 1864, he introduced a system of military districts, and somewhat later centralized military administration. The system of military educational institutions was reformed, new military regulations were adopted. The army was rearmed. In 1874, all-class military service with a limited period of military service was introduced in Russia. Military service was established for a period of 6 years (in active service) and 9 years in the reserve. Served in the Navy for 7 years and 3 years in reserve. These periods were significantly reduced for those who had an education. Thus, a new type of mass army was created in the country, which has a limited personnel in peacetime and large human resources in case of war. However, as before, the regular officers of the Russian army consisted mainly of nobles, while the soldiers - who came mainly from peasants - were actually deprived of rights.

financial reforms.

The development of capitalist relations led to the reorganization of the financial system of the empire, which was greatly upset during the war years. Among the most important measures to streamline finance was the creation of the State Bank (I860), the streamlining of the process of forming the state budget, and the transformation of state control. The "sober" movement hastened the abolition of wine farming. However, financial transformations did not change the class character of the taxation system, in which the entire burden of taxes fell on the taxable population.

Reforms in education and the press.

The needs of the economic and political life of the country made necessary changes in the organization of public education. In 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” was published, which expanded the network of primary educational institutions. According to the “Regulations”, elementary schools were allowed to be opened by public institutions and even private individuals, but they were all under the control of school councils. They taught writing, reading, the rules of arithmetic, the law of God and church singing in elementary school. Most elementary schools were zemstvo (created by zemstvos), parochial and "ministerial" (established by the Ministry of Public Education).

In 1864, a new statute of gymnasiums was introduced, which began to be divided into classical (focused on noble and bureaucratic children) and real (mainly for children of the bourgeoisie). Studied in high school for 7 years. In classical gymnasiums, emphasis was placed on a thorough study of ancient languages ​​(Latin and Greek), in real languages, instead of "classical" languages, extended courses in the natural sciences were taught. Graduates of classical gymnasiums could enter universities without exams, "realists" mainly went to technical higher educational institutions.

The number of primary and secondary educational institutions in Russia increased rapidly in the post-reform period. In the late 1850s there were about 8 thousand of them, in the early 1880s. - over 22 thousand, and by the mid-1890s. - over 78 thousand. However, by the end of the XIX century. Russia remained a country of illiterates, there were almost 80% of them.

In 1863, a new university charter came into effect, which restored and expanded the autonomy of the universities. New higher educational institutions were opened in the country, including technical ones, as well as women's courses in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Kyiv. During the transformation, the government was forced to make a number of concessions in the area of ​​censorship. "Temporary Rules for the Press" (1865) partially abolished preliminary censorship in the capitals, but at the same time established legal liability for persons who violated the law in this area.

Thus, despite the opposition of conservative circles, in Russia in the 1860s-1870s. implemented a whole range of liberal reforms. Many of them were contradictory and inconsistent, but on the whole they were a step forward towards the transformation of the Russian feudal monarchy into a bourgeois monarchy, contributed to the development of capitalist relations in the country, the growth of the economy and culture, and raised the prestige of Russia in the field of international relations.