- indicates the connection of thoughts, the order of presentation
- evaluates the fact with t. sp. speaker (Yes, come in, finally!)

- equal in value to after everything, finally, as a result of everything

eventually

- same function as "finally" (Shut up, after all!)

- (We walked, walked and finally came.) - the same function as "finally". (They argued for a long time and eventually reached a decision that suited everyone.)

but

- stands in the middle or at the end of a sentence (Look, however, how he spoke!)

- stands at the beginning of a sentence or between homogeneous members of a sentence and is an opposing union (I didn’t want to see her anymore, but I had to.)
Exception: in sentences like: “However, it’s a cold spring today!” the word "however" is at the beginning of the sentence, it acts as an interjection and is separated by a comma

certainly

- usually acts as a water word (Of course, I will help you.)

- can act as a particle
(Of course I would go there...)

means

- if equal in value to words, therefore, therefore
(I didn't see her at school today, so she must be really sick.)

- if the sentence plays the role of a predicate (according to the meaning, it is approximate in the word means)
(She means too much to me to fool her.)

generally

- if equal in value to the combination generally speaking
(Actually, it's very interesting)

- in other meanings
(He generally forbade going out after twelve)

mainly

- if equal in value to the combination of the most important
(To prepare for the lesson, you need to read the theory and, mainly, complete the assignments.)

- if equal in meaning to words predominantly, mostly, most of all
(He survived mainly thanks to his friends.)

anyway

- if it has a restrictive-evaluative value
(I didn't say that anyway.)

- if it matters under any circumstances
([At least he will never leave his former pet.)

in my
queue

- if used in a figurative sense. (Such secondary members as definition, addition and circumstance are distinguished, in the group of the latter, in turn, by the circumstance of the place).

- if used in a meaning close to direct
(“And you?” I asked Lena in turn.)

if the introductory word is at the beginning or at the end of a separate common member of the sentence, then it is not separated from it by a comma, and if it is in the middle, then it is separated by commas (The young man, apparently recently graduated from the institute, made many mistakes when answering. Young the man, apparently recently graduating from the institute, made many mistakes in his answers.)

if the introductory word can be omitted or rearranged, then it is separated by a comma from the previous coordinating union; if this is not possible, then a comma is placed only after the introductory word, and it is not placed on the border between the union and the introductory word (Firstly, he is very busy and, secondly, he does not want to see you. Misfortune did not change him at all, but on the contrary, made it even stronger.)

introductory sentences are distinguished: by commas if they are small in volume (Here, you know, everything always worked out for me.) Or if they are introduced using conjunctions like, how much, if (Today, as newspapers report, a rally will be held in the center of Moscow.) ;

dashes if they are common (They - I noticed this right away - wanted to get rid of me as soon as possible.);

inserted constructions are highlighted in brackets (unlike introductory sentences, they do not express the speaker's attitude to what was said, but contain some incidental or additional remarks): One evening (it was in the autumn of 1912) ...

86. Punctuation marks for appeals.

appeals are separated from other members of the sentence by commas (Alyosha, come to me, please.),

sometimes an exclamation mark is placed after an address at the beginning of a sentence (Kirill! Why are you there for so long?),

the particle o before the address is not separated from it by a comma (Oh Moscow, you are so beautiful!),

a comma is put between repeated appeals connected by the union a, and after the union itself, it is not put (Fall, but fell, buy me this toy.),

if two appeals are connected by a non-repeating connecting union, then a comma is not placed between them (Hello, sun and cheerful morning).

87. Punctuation marks for interjections, affirmative and negative words.

interjections from the members of the sentence are separated by commas (Life, alas, is not an eternal gift.),

if the interjection is pronounced with an exclamatory intonation, then an exclamation point is put instead of a comma (Hurrah! Ours win the match)),

particles oh, well, oh, oh, which are used to enhance the semantic connotation, are not separated by commas (Oh, yes, you are absolutely right. Oh, that's what you are! No, that's too much.),

the word yes (expresses an affirmation) and the word no (expresses a negation) are separated from the sentence by a comma or an exclamation point (Yes, that's exactly what I want to say. No, you're wrong.)

88. Punctuation marks in complex sentences.

A comma is placed between simple sentences in the Complicated Subordinate, regardless of what union the oui are connected with: connecting, adversative, dividing, connecting or explanatory (The sky frowned, and soon a thunderstorm broke out. He had already forgotten everything, but she could not forgive him. Either the sun is shining very brightly, or my eyesight has become very bad.).

If the phenomena that are mentioned in parts (of a compound sentence quickly follow each other or are opposed to each other, then a dash is put (A rocket fired - and everything around rumbled.).

The comma is not put:

• if parts of a compound sentence have a common sentence member or a common subordinate clause and if they are connected by connecting unions and, yes (in the meaning of and) or divisive unions or, then no comma is placed between them (Cars raced along the streets and trams thundered. When it started rain, the game stopped and everyone went like a lady.).

  between denominative sentences connected by connecting conjunctions and, yes (in the meaning of and) or disjunctive conjunctions or, or (Walking in the park and riding a bicycle.),

  between interrogative sentences connected by connecting conjunctions and, yes (in the meaning of and) or disjunctive conjunctions or, or (When do we leave and what time does the train leave?)

Two impersonal sentences as part of a compound sentence are separated by a comma (It got dark and it became cool.), BUT if the predicates are homogeneous in meaning, then the comma is not put (You need to wash the floor and then wipe it dry.)

Punctuation marks in a complex sentence.

If the subordinate clause comes before or after the main one, then it is separated by a comma (When I came home, everyone was already asleep. The glory of those who die for the fatherland does not die.). If the subordinate clause is in the middle of the main clause, then it is separated by commas on both sides (In the evening, when I had no strength to work, I went to the embankment.).

If the subordinate clause is attached to the main clause with the help of unions because, because, since, in order to, despite the fact that, etc., then the comma is placed only once, either before the entire complex union, or before its second (I did not come because I had a lot to do. I sent in order to express my condolences to you.)

If subordinate clauses depend on the same member of the main clause, then the rules for punctuation between them are the same as for homogeneous members of the sentence:

, (),().

, () and ().

[ , (), a ().

, (), () and ().

, and (), and (), and (). (After the main clause, there is no comma before the first subordinate clause)

, (), and (), and ().

, () and (), () and ().

He said that the weather would improve and (that) we would go on a picnic.

Slavik holds himself equally even when he is angry and when he is very pleased.

When two subordinating conjunctions or subordinating and coordinating conjunctions are joined, a comma is placed between them only if the omission of the subordinate clause does not require a complete restructuring of the sentence (Masha said that when she comes next time, she will bring her fiancé.); if the second part of the subordinate clause begins with the words how, but, then the comma is not put (Masha said that when she comes next time, she will bring her fiancé.)

Sometimes, when underlining intonation, before subordinate explanatory and conditional clauses with a union, is it not a comma, but a dash (I have been sent some books, but I don’t know which ones yet.)

Punctuation marks in a non-union complex sentence.

Between parts of the unionless complex sentence can be set:

a comma if the parts are independent of each other, but united in meaning (The horses set off, the bell rang, the wagon flew.),

semicolon if there are commas inside one or both parts or if the sentences are distant from each other in meaning (the sentence is divided into two semantic parts): Gerasim grabbed Mumu. squeezed her in his arms; she licked his nose, eyes, mustache and beard in an instant.

colon if

1. the second sentence explains the reason or tells about the consequences of what is said in the first sentence (They were silent all the way: the noise of the motor interfered with talking.),

   if in the first sentence there are words to see, hear, know, etc., which tell the reader that a statement of some facts will follow (I understood: she wanted me to leave.),

dash if

1. the first sentence denotes a condition or time (More lessons - more knowledge. They cut the forest - chips fly);

   when the second sentence has the meaning of comparison (Look - give a ruble.);

   the second part contains some unexpected information or an indication of a quick change of events (Lightning flashed, it began.);

   if in the second part there is a sharp opposition in relation to the first part (Holy better - it turned out as always.).

89. Punctuation marks in direct speech and quoting.

A - words of the author
P - direct speech

A: "P".
"P", - a.
A: "P?"
"P?"
A: "P!"
"P!" - a.
A: "P..."
"P..."-a. .

She asked, "Where have you been?"
"Where have you been?" she asked.

"P,-a,-p."
"P,-a.-P."

"P?-a.-P." (Author's words inside direct speech.)
“P!-a. -P".
"P ...-a.-P."

"I don't even know his name," she said, "and where he lives."

"P, - a: - P." (If the author's words contain two verbs with the meaning of vyusazyvanie, and one refers to the first part of direct speech, and the second - to the second.)

“I don’t want to go there,” she said and asked: “What have you been doing all day today?”

A: "P", - a.
A: "P?" (Direct speech within the author's words.)
A: "P!" - a. A: "P..."-a.

He said, "I'm very tired," and immediately fell silent.

Punctuation marks when quoting.

If the quote consists of several paragraphs, then quotation marks are placed at the beginning and at the end of the entire passage.

If a quotation is syntactically connected with the text, then it is enclosed in quotation marks, but it is written with a small letter (Pushkin wrote that "the habit is given to us from above.")

Quoting can be done as direct speech. (Pushkin said: "The habit is given to us from above.")

If the quote is not taken completely, then at the place of the gap, or at the beginning, or at the end (Depending on where the text is truncated), an ellipsis is placed. If the sentence in this case begins with a citation, then it is formatted as follows: "... Citation" the text itself. (The capital letter is written even if the original is lowercase).

90. The combination of punctuation marks, the author's use of punctuation marks.

When a comma and a dash meet, both a comma and a dash are written (The woman performing on stage is my mother.),

When meeting quotes:

• with a period, quotes are written first, and then a period She said: “Come in.”)

  with a question mark, exclamation point or ellipsis in direct speech, a question mark, exclamation point or ellipsis is first written, then quotation marks. Even if this is the end of the whole sentence, there is no period after the quotation marks (She asked: “What do you think about this issue?”),

  with the same signs, but when only certain members of the sentence are enclosed in quotation marks, the exclamation mark, question mark and ellipsis are put depending on the construction of the entire sentence (Have you ever watched The White Sun of the Desert?),

If the comma appeared before the closing or opening bracket, then it is skipped, if after the closing one, it remains.

Authors do not always follow the rules for punctuation marks. Often they find their own, special use for them, and this achieves a special expressiveness and beauty of the text. Such punctuation is called the author's use of punctuation marks.

Vocabulary and phraseology of the Russian language

1. Speech qualities of a verbal expression

1 . Content.

Need to know, what to tell. It should be interesting and new for the addressee. Without this, speech will turn into idle talk, chatter.

· It [prose] requires thoughts and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions are of no use. (A. Pushkin)

· Words fall like pearls on thoughts breathing power. (M. Lermontov)

Follow the rule stubbornly: so that words are cramped, thoughts are spacious. (N. Nekrasov)

2 . Accuracy.

According to M. Gorky, "accuracy gives strength and beauty to the language."

Speech should reflect knowledge of the subject of speech - the topic. The accuracy of the image of reality is the result of observation. The accuracy of observations and the simplicity of descriptions of nature by the masters of the artistic word are striking.

Nature's clear smile

Through a dream meets the morning of the year;

The skies are shining blue.

Still transparent, forests

As if they are turning green.

Bee for tribute in the field

Flies from the wax cell.

The valleys dry and dazzle;

The herds are noisy, and the nightingale

Already sang in the silence of the nights. ( A. Pushkin)

Words must be used strictly according to their meaning. Do not use words whose meaning is not entirely clear. This creates an unfavorable impression. Absolute accuracy is especially important in scientific and business speech, where distortions of facts, figures, etc. are completely unacceptable. In journalism, various interpretations of facts are possible, but the facts must remain reliable.

3 . Logic.

a) Speech must be built according to certain laws.

b) In speech, it is necessary to follow the rules of logic.

Famous pun It was raining and two students. One in galoshes, the other to the university based on the game of two meanings of the verb go and the ambiguity of the preposition in. The comic effect is created by connecting the logically incompatible. An unexpected rethinking of ordinary things causes laughter.

4 . Right.

Compliance with the norms of the literary language (orthoepic, morphological, syntactic, lexical, etc.)

Departure from literary norms should be motivated by the goals and conditions of communication.

5 . expressiveness.

The expressiveness of speech is created not only by the ability to choose the most accurate and appropriate words in a speech situation, but also by the widespread use of proverbs, phraseological units, winged expressions and artistic and visual means. Especially often they sound in oral speech and adorn written phraseological units.

6 . Purity.

The purity of speech implies the absence in it of words and expressions that are not literary. Cursing, rude words, “weed” words are completely unacceptable in literary speech.

Inappropriate in good speech and dialectisms, if they are used unnecessarily, instead of the words of the literary language.

Slang words and expressions do not decorate speech ( I'm trudging, I'm high, the roof has gone, etc.)

The purity of speech is violated by the abuse of foreign words, which have recently been especially numerous in the newspaper and journalistic style: consensus(agreement), rating(rating, level of fame, popularity), pluralism(diversity of opinion) precedent(the case that took place earlier), plebiscite(popular vote), etc.

7 . Emotionality.

Speech has a stronger effect on the interlocutor if it expresses the attitude of the speaker to what he utters, if the speech is emotional. This sign of good speech is not characteristic of works of scientific and business style, but is necessary for colloquial, journalistic and artistic styles of speech.

The emotional coloring of speech is created by intonation, exclamatory sentences, introductory words and expressions, specific vocabulary, and a variety of artistic and visual means.

2. Literary form of the Russian language. Varieties.

Literary language- the processed part of the national language, which has, to a greater or lesser extent, written norms; the language of all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form.

Literary language is a supra-dialect subsystem (form of existence) of the national language, which is characterized by such features as normativity, codification, polyfunctionality, stylistic differentiation, high social prestige among native speakers of this national language. The property of all who owns its norms. It functions in both written and spoken forms. The language of fiction (the language of writers), although it usually focuses on the same norms, contains a lot of individual, not generally accepted. In different historical epochs and among different peoples, the degree of closeness of the literary language and the language of fiction turned out to be unequal.

Literary language - mutual language the writing of one or another people, and sometimes several peoples - the language of official business documents, school education, written and everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form, more often written, but sometimes oral. That is why the written and bookish and oral and colloquial forms of the literary language differ, the emergence, correlation and interaction of which are subject to certain historical patterns.

Literary language is a historically established, socially conscious language system, which is characterized by strict codification, but mobile, and not static, which covers all spheres of human activity: the sphere of science and education - scientific style; socio-political sphere - journalistic style; sphere of business relations - official business style.

The idea of ​​the “fixedness” of the norms of the literary language has a certain relativity (for all the importance and stability of the norm, it is mobile in time). It is impossible to imagine a developed and rich culture of the people without a developed and rich literary language. This is the great social significance of the very problem of literary language.

There is no consensus among linguists about the complex and multifaceted concept of the literary language. Some researchers prefer to talk not about the literary language as a whole, but about its varieties: either the written literary language, or the colloquial literary language, or the language of fiction, etc.

Literary language cannot be identified with the language of fiction. These are different, though related concepts.

3. The colloquial form of the Russian language. Varieties.

If book styles (scientific, official-business, newspaper-journalistic, artistic) are used primarily in an official setting and in writing, require indispensable care about the form of expression, then colloquial style used in informal settings. The degree of preparedness of speech may be different. In everyday conversation, she is usually completely unprepared (spontaneous). And when writing a friendly letter, drafts written in advance can also be used. But this readiness never reaches the degree that is characteristic of book styles.

All this leads to the fact that the dominant of the conversational style, especially colloquial speech that exists in the oral form of informal personal communication, is to minimize the concern for the form of expression of thoughts. And this, in turn, gives rise to a number of linguistic features of conversational style.

On the one hand, the colloquial style of speech is characterized by a high degree of standardization of the language. Typified, standard constructions are convenient for spontaneous (unprepared) speech. Each typical situation has its own stereotypes.

For example, etiquette stereotypes include phrases: Good afternoon!; Hey!; What's new?; Till! Stereotypes are used in urban transport: Are you leaving on the next one?; in the shop - Weigh three hundred grams of oil etc.

On the other hand, in a relaxed environment, the speaker is not limited by the strict requirements of official communication and can use untyped, individual means.

It should be remembered that colloquial speech serves not only the purposes of the message, but also the purposes of influence. Therefore, the colloquial style is characterized by expressiveness, visualization and figurativeness.

Some linguists distinguish three groups of colloquial speech from a lexico-semantic point of view.

1 . Ordinary colloquial words, that is, everyday colloquial, or everyday.

2 . Spoken words with limited use: everyday vernacular, colloquial terminological words, or slang.

3 . Colloquial words with a pronounced limitation of the scope of use: dialect, slang and roughly colloquial, reduced words.

Each of these groups has words that are functionally connotative, that is, stylistically colored.

The literary and colloquial group includes such words that have a certain shade of decline in comparison with other styles. But, despite this, such words are found in many areas of human communication. So, for example, the words correspondent, evening party, concrete, bagpipes, high-voltage, anti-aircraft guns, manner; cry, feverish, celebrate (birthday) and others are widely used in various genres of newspaper and journalistic style.

Colloquial words include words used in everyday everyday communication. Like the words of literary and colloquial speech, they do not violate the norms of actual colloquial speech. But here words with a reduced meaning will already prevail, having, moreover, an additional stylistic coloring. This includes words with disapproving, playful, ironic, familiar shades of speech. Their use in other styles of language would be inappropriate and ridiculous. Colloquial-everyday (colloquial-everyday) words include such words as brainless, nonsense, chatter, grandfather, joker, etc. All these words have a negative or positive expressive-emotional assessment that is not too conspicuous.

4. Vocabulary. Polysemantic words, synonyms, ononyms, antonyms, paronyms.

Vocabulary (from other Greek τὸ λεξικός "referring to a word; word; figure of speech") - a set of words of a particular language, part of a language. Vocabulary is the central part of the language, naming, forming and transmitting knowledge about any objects, phenomena. The science of lexicology is engaged in the study of vocabulary, as well as semasiology and onomasiology.

All words are divided into single-valued and polysemantic.

Single-valued words are words that have only one lexical meaning.

Polysemantic words are words that have two or more lexical meanings.

Examples of single-valued words: trousers, perpendicular, cake, lovely.

Examples of polysemantic words:

hand (body part - left hand; handwriting, creative manner - hand of the master)

beautiful (outwardly attractive - a beautiful girl; interesting, spectacular, difficult to perform - a beautiful solution to a problem, a beautiful goal; designed only for an external effect - these are just beautiful words)

cream (cosmetic product - hand cream, confectionery - cake with chocolate cream).

Usually, all the meanings of a polysemantic word are related to each other by similarity or by contiguity. For example, a mushroom or nail cap is called so because it looks like a hat - a headdress. And not only a wardrobe is called a wardrobe (there is an old wardrobe in the room), but also a room for storing clothes (put the coat in the wardrobe), as well as the clothes themselves (update the wardrobe) - in this case, the meanings of the word are related by adjacency.

The transfer of a name by similarity is called metaphor, and by adjacency - metonymy. A common metaphor or metonymy leads to the formation of a new meaning of a polysemantic word. Author's metaphor and metonymy are means of expressiveness.

It is important to distinguish polysemantic words from homonyms: the meanings of polysemantic words are related by similarity or by contiguity, and the meanings of homonyms are in no way related to each other. An example of homonyms: dachshund (dog breed) - dachshund (tariff).

Synonyms(from other Greek σύν "together" † ὄνομα "name") - words of the same language, usually belonging to the same part of speech, different in pronunciation and spelling, but having a similar lexical meaning.

Examples of synonyms in Russian: cavalry - cavalry, brave - brave, go - walk.

They serve to increase the expressiveness of speech, avoid its monotony.

Homonyms- these are the same in spelling, but different in meaning, morphemes and other units of the language. The term was introduced by Aristotle. Not to be confused with homophones, homographs, homoforms and paronyms.

Antonyms(ancient Greek ἀντι- a prefix with the meaning of the opposite † ὄνομα "name") - these are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, having directly opposite lexical meanings, for example: "truth" - "false", "good" - "evil", "to speak" - "to be silent".

Paronyms(from other Greek παρα- - a prefix with the meaning of adjacency, ὄνομα - "name") - these are words similar in sound and morphemic composition, but differ in lexical meaning. It is also possible to mistakenly use one of them instead of the other. For example, addressee - addresses n t. By analogy with the false friends of the translator, paronyms are sometimes called false brothers.

5. Passive and active composition of the language: historicisms, archaisms, neologisms.

The totality of the words of the modern Russian language, as a designation of objects, phenomena and concepts, forms its vocabulary, or vocabulary. Words are characterized by a certain specificity: they differ from each other in their origin, the degree of their activity, the scope of their use and their stylistic affiliation. Taking into account these features of language units allows us to substantiate general principles vocabulary classification:

According to its origin, the vocabulary is divided into native Russian and borrowed (from Old Church Slavonic and other languages ​​of the world);

According to the degree of use, vocabulary is divided into active and passive vocabulary (regularly and often reproduced units belong to the first, obsolete and new vocabulary to the second: historicisms, archaisms and neologisms);

Outdated words.

Words that have ceased to be actively used in the language do not immediately disappear from it. For some time, they are still understandable to speakers of a given language, known from fiction, although everyday speech practice no longer needs them. Such words make up the vocabulary of the passive stock and are listed in explanatory dictionaries marked obsolete.

The process of archaization of a part of the dictionary of a particular language, as a rule, takes place gradually, therefore, among obsolete words there are those that have a very significant "experience" (for example, child, enemy, speech, scarlet, therefore, this); others are removed from the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, as they belong to the Old Russian period of its development. Other words become obsolete in the shortest period of time, appearing in the language and disappearing already in the newest period; cf .: shkrab - in the 20s replaced the word teacher, rabkrin - Workers' and Peasants' Inspection; Enkavedist - an employee of the NKVD. Such nominations do not always have corresponding marks in explanatory dictionaries, since the process of archaization of a particular word may be perceived as not yet completed.

The reasons for the archaization of vocabulary are different: they can be extralinguistic (extralinguistic) in nature, if the refusal to use the word is associated with social transformations in the life of society, but they can also be due to linguistic laws. For example, the adverbs left, right (left, right) disappeared from the active dictionary, because the generating nouns shuytsa - "left hand" and the right hand - "right hand" became archaic. In such cases, the systemic relations of lexical units played a decisive role. So, the word shuytsa fell out of use, and the semantic connection of the words united by this historical root also fell apart (for example, the word shulga did not stay in the language in the sense of "left-handed" and remained only as a surname dating back to the nickname). Antonymic pairs collapsed (shuytsa - right hand, oshuyu - right hand), synonymous connections ( oshuyu, on the left). However, the word right hand, despite the archaization of words associated with it by systemic relations, was retained in the language for some time. In the Pushkin era, for example, it was used in the "high syllable" poetic speech; cf: And I put the sting of a wise snake into my frozen mouth with a bloody right hand (P.), while oshuyu was only an echo of dilapidated archaism, and its use was possible only in a satirical context: Oshuyu sits here with me the eighth miracle light (Bat.)

Obsolete words are divided into two groups: historicisms and archaisms.

To historicism include those obsolete words that have fallen out of use due to the fact that the objects or phenomena they designate have gone out of life: armyak, caftan, camisole, chain mail, serf, prince, armor, etc. Historicisms have no synonyms in modern Russian. In the Russian language, historicisms of the Soviet period make up a special group, these are: tax in kind, NEP, NEPman, farm laborer, worker's faculty, kulak, kombed, Budyonovka, etc.

Archaisms, their types

To archaisms include the names of currently existing objects and phenomena, for some reason displaced by other words belonging to the active lexical stock; cf. everyday - always, comedian - actor, it is necessary - it is necessary, percy - chest, verb - to speak, to know - to know. Their main difference from historicisms is the presence of synonyms in the modern language, devoid of a hint of archaism.

Words can be archaized only partially, for example, in their suffixal design (height - height), in their sound (eighth - eighth, hospital - hospital), in their individual meanings (nature - "nature", fairly - "excellent", disorder - "mess" ). This gives grounds to single out several groups in the composition of archaisms.

Lexical archaisms- words that are outdated in all their meanings: lying (possible), barber (hairdresser), very (very), therefore, know, it is coming.

Lexical and derivational archaisms- words in which separate word-forming elements are outdated: fisherman, flirt, since (because), it is necessary, handicrafts (craft), transgress.

Lexico-phonetic archaisms- words in which their phonetic design has become outdated, which has undergone some changes in the process of the historical development of the language: licorice, vorog, young, breg, night, Sveisky (Swedish), English (English), heroism, atheism.

Lexico-semantic archaisms- words that have lost their separate meanings: guest - "merchant", shame - "spectacle", vulgar - "popular", dream - "thought".

The largest group is actually lexical archaisms, which can be subjected to further systematization by highlighting words that are close in time to transition to passive stock, or distinguishing, for example, words that have the same root as part of the modern vocabulary (lzya - impossible, ryahaya - slovenly), and words devoid of family ties with modern nominations: uy - "maternal uncle, strynya -" uncle's wife, cherevye - " leather (compare: Ukrainian chereviki), vezha - "tent, wagon, etc.

3. New words (neologisms).

The lexical composition of the language is constantly updated with new words, neologisms, created to designate new objects, phenomena, to express new concepts. At the moment of their appearance, they enter the passive vocabulary and remain neologisms until they lose their shade of novelty and freshness. When such words become common and enter the active vocabulary, they cease to be neologisms.

Neologisms, their types

The classifications of neologisms are based on various criteria for their selection and evaluation. Depending on the method of appearance, neologisms are distinguished lexical, which are created according to productive models or borrowed from other languages, and semantic, which arise as a result of assigning new meanings to already known words. Among the lexical neologisms, on the basis of word-formation, one can single out words produced with the help of suffixes (earthlings), prefixes (pro-Western), as well as suffix-prefix formations (landing, undock), names created by compounding (moon rover, hydroweightlessness), compound abbreviated words (omon , special forces, CIS, GKChP) and abbreviated words (help, deputy).

Depending on the conditions of creation, neologisms should be divided into general language that appeared along with a new concept or a new reality, and individually-author's introduced by specific authors. The vast majority of neologisms belong to the first group; so, neologisms that appeared at the beginning of the century collective farm, Komsomol, five-year plans many others are characterized by commonness.

The second group of neologisms includes, for example, the word created by V. Mayakovsky prosessed. Having crossed the boundaries of individual authorial use, having become the property of the language, these words have now joined the active vocabulary. The language also has long mastered the terms introduced by M. V. Lomonosov constellation, full moon, attraction; used for the first time by N.M. Karamzin's words industry, future others

To the same group of neologisms belong the so-called occasionalisms(lat. occasionalis random) - lexical units, the occurrence of which is due to a certain context. All of the above neologisms are linguistic, they have become the property of Russian vocabulary, are recorded in dictionaries, like any lexical unit, with all the meanings assigned to them.

Occasional neologisms- these are words formed by writers and publicists according to the word-formation models existing in the language and used only once in a certain work - wide-noiseoak trees(P.), in heavy snakes hair (Bl.), flammable sprigs of elderberry (Color). The authors of such neologisms can be not only writers; we ourselves, without noticing it, often come up with words in case (such as opener, unpack, overload). Especially many occasionalisms are created by children: I messed up; See how the rain poured; I am no longer a baby, but a big one and under.

In order to distinguish between artistic and literary occasionalisms and purely everyday ones, which are not a fact of artistic speech, the former are called individual stylistic. If everyday occasionalisms usually arise in oral speech, involuntarily, without being fixed anywhere, then individual stylistic ones are the result of a conscious creative process, they are imprinted on the pages of literary works and perform a certain stylistic function in them.

In terms of their artistic significance, individual stylistic neologisms are similar to metaphors: their creation is based on the same desire to discover new semantic facets in the word, to create an expressive image with economical speech means. Like the brightest, freshest metaphors, individual stylistic neologisms are original and unique. At the same time, the writer does not set himself the task of putting into use the words he invented. The purpose of these words is different - to serve as an expressive means in the context of one, specific work.

Depending on the purpose of creating new words, their purpose in speech, all neologisms can be divided into nominative and stylistic. The former perform a purely nominative function in the language, while the latter give a figurative description of objects that already have names.

Nominative neologisms include, for example, the following: futurology, feminization, pre-perestroika (period), pluralism. The appearance of nominative neologisms is dictated by the needs of the development of society, the success of science and technology. These neologisms arise as the names of new concepts. Nominative neologisms usually do not have synonyms, although the simultaneous emergence of competing names (cosmonaut - astronaut) is possible, one of which, as a rule, subsequently displaces the other. The bulk of nominative neologisms are highly specialized terms that are constantly replenishing the scientific vocabulary and may become commonly used over time; cf .: moon rover, dock, spaceport.

Stylistic neologisms are created as figurative names of already known objects, phenomena: pioneer, atomograd, motor city, starship. Stylistic neologisms have synonyms that are inferior to them in intensity of expressive coloring; cf: starship - spaceship. However, the frequent use of these neologisms in speech translates them into an active vocabulary, neutralizes their stylistic coloring. For example, the word health resort, which came into the language as a stylistic neologism, is now perceived as a neutral synonym for the words sanatorium, rest home.

6. Origin of Russian vocabulary. Exoticisms. Barbarisms.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others relatively recently.

Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions.

1 . New words were created from word-forming elements (roots, suffixes, prefixes) available in the language. Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.

2 . New words were poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of Russian vocabulary in terms of its origin can be schematically represented in the table.

exoticism- a foreign borrowing denoting an object or phenomenon from the life of another people. Unlike other barbarisms, due to their persistent ethnic association, exoticisms, with rare exceptions, are not fully assimilated and usually remain on the periphery of the vocabulary of the language. At the same time, such words can often be changed to fit the norms of the new language or distorted, especially if they came through a third language, such as sushi or comics. Close to exoticisms are localisms, dialectisms and ethnographisms that describe the life realities of a sub-ethnic group as part of a larger people (for example, the szeklers (székelys) and changos (people) as part of the Hungarian people). Culinary and music are especially distinguished by their exotic vocabulary (the concepts of baursak, salsa, tacos, tam-tam, merengue, etc.)

Barbarism- a word from a foreign language or a figure of speech built on the model of a foreign language, violating the purity of speech of a native speaker.

Barbarism refers to the least mastered type of borrowed vocabulary; it can be used in transliteration or even in foreign language spelling. Usually used for stylistic purposes to create "local color" or to follow "fashion requirements".

7. Phraseological units and winged words.

Absolutely every person uses phraseological units in communication with other people. And what is a phraseological unit and what is it eaten with? Phraseologism is a stable combination of words, that is, with an invariable order, which, in turn, individually do not mean everything the same as together. Where do phraseological units come from? Who invented them? It is likely that phraseological units, they are idioms, aphorisms, idioms have existed since the beginning of human speech. Academician V. began to closely study phraseological units, he also laid the foundation for phraseological units as a linguistic discipline. At present, it is quite difficult to imagine our life without phraseological units. Often we use them in a particular situation, sometimes even for a bunch of text, in order to emotionally enhance the effect of what was said. In some moments it is impossible to do without phraseological units! For example, “don’t talk my teeth into me” in the meaning - don’t say too much, agree that phraseologism sounds more emotional and persistent than just a request not to say too much, unnecessary. Phraseologisms: examples and their meanings. History of occurrence. The origin of phraseological units. For example, such a phraseological unit as "lead by the nose" in its unity means to deceive a person, if you take the words separately, then the meaning is already lost. The history of the emergence of this phraseological unit goes back to Central Asia. Previously, camels and bulls were led there by ropes that were tied to rings threaded through the nose of a camel or a bull. Thus, the temper of the animal becomes more docile. Such a phraseological unit as “a matter in the hat”, meaning that everything is fine, the assigned task is done, was “born” in the distant, distant past, several centuries ago, when important letters and papers were delivered by a messenger on horse artillery. In those days, it was extremely dangerous to carry a bag with important papers, as robbers could attack on the way and take it away. To preserve important papers, they were sewn into the lining of the messenger's hat, and he delivered them to the specified place safe and sound. Or, for example, the phraseologism “kill yourself on the nose”, meaning to remember once and for all! Do not think that he is not associated with any bodily bullying. It's just that in ancient times, when people were still illiterate, they carried a small tablet with them everywhere, and if something needed to be remembered, they made notches on it. This little board was called the nose. Interesting, isn't it? Sentences with phraseological units: examples. Some examples of the use of phraseological units in sentences. Yes, he will not go to school today, how to drink to give! Your friend is rather strange, if not of this world. It's written on his forehead who he is. The prodigal son has returned! I know everything, you can not lead me by the nose.

winged the words

commonly used expressions, phrases, sayings historical persons and literary characters. Winged words, unlike an aphorism, may not express a complete thought, but simply represent a well-aimed figurative expression. For example, “I came, I saw, I conquered” by Julius Caesar, “And yet it spins” by Galileo Galilei, “Potemkin villages” (from memoirs of the 18th century). Winged words, as a rule, have already lost touch with their original source and are rethought with each use in connection with a specific situation.

Publicists, orators, politicians resort to the use of winged words as a confirmation of their opinion or a well-aimed argument against an opponent. Sometimes there is a deformation of winged words (for example, a newspaper headline “I came, I saw, I paid”). Often winged words are filled with new content in literary work. For example, the use of a Latin proverb in "The Stranger" by A. A. Blok:

And drunkards with rabbit eyes.

8. Lexicography as a branch of linguistics. Dictionary types.

Lexicography- a section of linguistics devoted to the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, one of the areas of applied lexicology.

There are two main types of dictionaries according to their content: encyclopedic and linguistic. The object of description in the encyclopedic dictionary and encyclopedia is various objects, phenomena and concepts; the object of description in a linguistic dictionary is a unit of language, most often a word. The purpose of the description in a linguistic dictionary is to provide information not about the designated object itself, but about the linguistic unit (about its meaning, compatibility, etc.), while the nature of the information provided by the dictionary differs depending on the type of linguistic dictionary.

The main type of linguistic dictionary is dictionary. The explanatory dictionary serves to interpret the meaning of words, their role in the study of the lexical system of the language is enormous. In the explanatory dictionary, you can get information about the lexical meaning of a word, find out whether it is polysemantic or not, find out if it has homonyms. Such a dictionary also provides information about the main orthoepic, morphological, syntactic, stylistic characteristics of the word, and examples of word usage are given. The dictionary consists of dictionary entries . A headword is at the beginning of a dictionary entry. (the totality of all capital, i.e. interpreted, words of the dictionary is called a dictionary). The interpretation of values ​​in a dictionary can be represented in different ways: descriptive(a description of the essential features of the object, phenomenon is given), synonymous(the meaning of the word is explained by the selection of synonyms), reference(derivative words are described by referring to the producer, taking into account the meaning of the word-formation means). In one interpretation, different methods can be combined. Different meanings of the same word can be interpreted in different ways.

Dictionaries may differ in the selection of vocabulary (in terms of composition and number of included words). Thus, a dictionary can cover the entire vocabulary of a language or any of its individual layers (dictionaries of terms, foreign words, jargon). Dictionaries that include vocabulary of the national (nationwide) language (for example, "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.V. Dahl) or separate layers of the national language that are not included in the literary language ("Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects", "Arkhangelsk Regional Dictionary") are non-normative- they do not codify the literary language, do not set its boundaries. If the dictionary is normative(such are all explanatory dictionaries published in Soviet times), it includes the vocabulary of the literary language.

A special place among explanatory dictionaries is occupied by Dahl's dictionary, published in 1863 and including 200 thousand words. In 1935, D.N. Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language was published in 4 volumes. This is a normative dictionary with a carefully designed labeling system. In 1949, S.I. Ozhegov's Dictionary of the Russian Language was published. In the first edition, about 50,000 words were included. In the 1960s, the 17-volume Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language (BAS) was published - the most complete of the standard explanatory dictionaries. Explanatory dictionaries differ in the volume of the dictionary, the principles of the arrangement of words, and the technical means of presenting the material.

In addition to explanatory, there are other types of linguistic dictionaries, which differ in what aspect of linguistic units is the main one in them. There are dictionaries for translation, reference (orthoepic, spelling), reflecting systemic relations in the vocabulary (dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, etc.).

Linguistic dictionaries differ in the way the material is organized. The most common is alphabetical way of arranging words. Vocabulary can be organized by nesting principle, when in one dictionary entry it is not the word that is interpreted, but the whole derivational nest.

9. Expressive means of language. Trails.

The means of speech expressiveness is one of the most important factors due to which the Russian language is famous for its richness and beauty, which has been glorified more than once in poetry and immortal works of Russian classic writers. To this day, Russian is one of the most difficult languages ​​to learn. This is facilitated by a huge number of expressive means that are present in our language, making it rich and multifaceted. To date, there is no clear classification of expressive means, but two conditional types can still be distinguished: stylistic figures and paths.

trails(from the Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech, technique, image) - such turns of speech that are based on the use of words in a figurative sense and are used to enhance the expressiveness of the speech of the speaker or writer.

Metaphor (from Greek metafora - transfer, figurative meaning) - the transfer of a name from one reality to another based on the similarity of features. For example: a noble nest, the sound of waves, etc.

Metonymy (from Greek metonymia - renaming) - renaming an object based on the similarity between the object and the material from which it is made. For example: the theater applauded (instead of the audience applauded).

Synecdoche (from Greek synekdoche - correlation) (a kind of metonymy) - renaming an object based on a quantitative ratio; the name of a part (smaller) instead of the whole (larger) or vice versa. For example: My little head is gone (instead of I am gone).

Comparison is a comparison of two concepts, in which their similarity is found on some basis. For example: The road winds like a gray ribbon ...; Snow dust stands in a column in the air; The snowflakes sparkled like diamonds.

Hyperbole (from the Greek hyperbola - exaggeration) - tropes of speech, a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of size, strength, value, etc. any object or phenomenon. For example: a river of blood.

Litota (from Greek litotes - simplicity) - 1) deliberate understatement; 2) trope of speech, which consists in defining a concept or object by negating the opposite; negation of a sign that is not characteristic of the object, i.e. a kind of "negation of the negation". For example: 1) a little man with a fingernail; 2) not useful.

Irony (from the Greek eironeia - pretense) - a trope consisting in likening a word or expression in a sense opposite to the literal one, with the aim of ridicule. For example: This is Hercules! (about a sick person).

Epithet (from the Greek epitheto - attached) - an artistic, figurative definition. It is usually expressed in a word in a figurative sense - an adjective, an adverb, a noun-application. For example: emerald eyes, dress noisily, tramp-wind.

Figures of speech- in the general case, any turns of speech that deviate from the natural norm.

Allegory (from the Greek allos - different, agoreuo - I say) is an allegorical depiction of a situation with the help of a specific life image: we are talking about one thing, but in fact something completely different is meant. For example: Whoever looks back too often can easily stumble and fall.

Alliteration (from Latin ad - to, with and littera - letter) - a figure of speech, a stylistic device that consists in repeating the same consonant sounds or sound combinations. For example: The hiss of frothy glasses And the blue flame of punch.

Anaphora (from the Greek anaphora) is a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same sounds, words, syntactic or rhythmic elements at the beginning of each parallel row. For example: We must think about Russia! We must think about the people! Therefore, we must adopt a law on environmental protection!

Antithesis (from the Greek antithesis - opposition) - opposition of concepts, images, thoughts. For example: What did you make of that France that I left in such a brilliant position? I left you peace, but I find war! I left you Italian millions, but I find predatory laws and poverty! I left you victories, but I find defeats!

Antonomasia (from Greek antonomasia - renaming) - replacement of a common noun with a proper name. For example: For a long time, jealous people have been called the name Othello, voluptuaries and womanizers - Don Juans.

Gradation (from Latin gradation - gradual increase) is a stylistic figure consisting in such an arrangement of parts of the statement, in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often decreasing) semantic or emotionally expressive meaning, due to which an increase in the impression they produce is created. For example: I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry ....

Inversion (from Latin inversio - turning, rearranging) - the arrangement of the members of the sentence in a special order that violates the usual (direct) order, in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech. For example: I saw an interesting book yesterday; It plays and howls like a young beast that sees food from an iron cage.

A pun (from the French calembour) is a figure of speech consisting in the humorous use of the ambiguity of a word or the sound similarity of different words. For example: Osip is hoarse, and Arkhip is hoarse.

Polyunion (polysyndeton) is a stylistic figure consisting in a deliberate increase in the number of unions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members, thereby emphasizing the role of each of them, creating a unity of enumeration, and enhancing the expressiveness of speech. For example: The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and shone, and went somewhere to infinity.

Oxymoron (from the Greek oxymoron witty-stupid) is a stylistic figure consisting in the combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding one another. For example: a living corpse, the heat of cold numbers.

Paradox (from the Greek paradokos - unexpected, strange) - an opinion, a judgment that sharply differs from the generally accepted one, but upon closer examination, it is true, at least under some conditions. For example: Mutual misunderstanding is the most suitable basis for marriage.

Paraphrase (periphrase) (from the Greek periphrasis - a descriptive expression, allegory) - a modified name of an object, phenomenon or person, replacing them with a description of essential features or an indication of their characteristic features. For example: the king of beasts (instead of a lion), being in the arms of Morpheus (instead of sleeping), the temple of Melpomene (instead of a theater).

Parcellation (new Latin parcellatio - division) is a figure of speech, a special division of a sentence, in which the content of the statement is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic speech units, following one after another after a separating pause. For example: And again. Gulliver. Costs. slouching.

A period is a structurally organized rhythmic utterance, consisting of two proportionate parts - ascending and descending. For example:

The more often the lyceum celebrates

Your holy anniversary

The more timid is the old circle of friends

The family is shy of being single,

The less often he so our holiday

Darker in its joy;

The more muffled is the sound of convalescent bowls,

And our songs are the sadder.

A rhetorical question is a question that does not imply new information in the answer: the speaker is essentially asking about what he has long known, it is important for him that the listeners give the same answer to themselves. For example: Who is not affected by novelty?

Syntactic parallelism - the same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech (identical or similar arrangement of speech elements). For example:

In the blue sea

The waves are splashing.

In the blue sky

The stars are shining.

Silence is a deliberate break in the statement, giving emotionality, excitement to speech and suggesting that the reader himself will guess what exactly was left unsaid. For example:

This fable could be explained more -

Yes, so as not to annoy the geese ...

(The ellipsis means "better keep quiet")

Ellipsis (from the Greek elleipsis - omission, lack) is a stylistic figure that consists in the omission (in speech or text) of any implied member of the sentence (language unit) and gives speech dynamism, liveliness. For example: An order was given to him to the west, to her - to the other side; Tanya - 5, and Valya - 3; My mother is a doctor.

Epiphora (from the Greek epiphora - additive) is a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel row. For example:

This is the artist Altman,

A very old man.

In German it means Altman -

A very old man.

10. Visual means of language. Figures.

Figurative and expressive means of language- These are poetic turns of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense. At the heart of all tropes (with the exception of metonymy) is a comparison, a comparison of two phenomena in order to explain one with the help of the other.

Lexical means

Antonyms - different words related to the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning ( good - evil, powerful - powerless). The opposition of antonyms in speech is a vivid source of speech expression, which establishes the emotionality of speech, serves as a means of antithesis: he was weak body, but strong spirit.

Contextual (or contextual) antonyms - these are words that are not opposed in meaning in the language and are antonyms only in the text: Mind and heart - ice and fire - That's the main thing that distinguished this hero.

Hyperbole - figurative expression exaggerating any action, object, phenomenon. Used to enhance the artistic impression: Snow felled from the sky by the pood.

Litota - worst understatement : a man with a fingernail. Used to enhance the artistic impression.

Individual-author's neologisms (occasionalisms) - thanks to their novelty, they allow creating certain artistic effects, expressing the author's view on a topic or problems: ... how can we make sure that our rights do not expanded at the expense of the rights of others?(A. Solzhenitsyn)

Synonyms - These are words belonging to the same part of speech, expressing the same concept, but at the same time differing in shades of meaning: Love is love, friend is friend. Used Synonyms allow you to more fully express the idea, use. To enhance the feature.

Contextual (or contextual) synonyms - words that are synonymous only in this text: Lomonosov - a genius - a beloved child of nature. (V. Belinsky)

Metaphor - a hidden comparison based on the similarity between distant phenomena and objects. At the heart of any metaphor is an unnamed comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature.

In a metaphor, the author creates an image - an artistic representation of the objects, phenomena that he describes, and the reader understands what kind of similarity the semantic relationship between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based on: There were, are, and, I hope, always will be more good people in the world than bad and evil ones, otherwise disharmony would come in the world, it would have skewed...tipped over and sunk. Epithet, personification, oxymoron, antithesis can be considered as a kind of metaphor.

personification - one of the types of metaphor, when the transfer of a sign is carried out from a living object to an inanimate one. When impersonating, the described object is externally used by a person: Trees leaning towards me outstretched thin arms. Even more often, actions that are permissible only to people are attributed to an inanimate object: Rain slapped bare feet along the paths of the garden.

Proverbs and sayings, used by the author, make the speech figurative, apt, expressive.

Comparison - one of the means of expressiveness of the language, helping the author to express his point of view, to create whole artistic pictures, to give a description of objects. In comparison, one phenomenon is shown and evaluated by comparing it with another phenomenon. Comparison is usually joined by conjunctions: like, as if, as if, exactly, etc. but it serves for a figurative description of the most diverse features of objects, qualities, and actions. For example, comparison helps to give an accurate description of a color: Like the night his eyes are black.

Often there is a form of comparison expressed by a noun in the instrumental case: Anxiety snake crept into our hearts. There are comparisons that are included in the sentence using words: similar, similar, reminiscent: ... butterflies are like flowers.

Phraseologisms - these are almost always vivid expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and pictorial characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality, use. In order to show the author's attitude to events, to a person, etc.: people like my hero have divine spark. Phraseologisms have a stronger effect on the reader.

Epithet - a word that highlights in an object or phenomenon any of its properties, qualities or signs. An epithet is an artistic definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in the word being defined. Any meaningful word can serve as an epithet, if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition for another: chatterbox forty, fateful hours. looks eagerly; listens frozen; but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives used in a figurative sense: half-asleep, tender, loving eyes.

Gradation - a stylistic figure that consists in the consequent intensification or, conversely, the weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech: For the sake of your child, for the sake of the family, for the sake of the people, for the sake of humanity - take care of the world! Gradation is ascending (strengthening of the feature) and descending (weakening of the feature).

Antithesis - a stylistic device that consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of a sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, contrast phenomena. It serves as a way of expressing the author's view of the described phenomena, images, etc.

colloquial vocabulary gives additional. Expressive-emotional. Coloring (put, deny, reduce) can give a playful, ironic, familiar attitude to the subject.

Historicisms - words that have fallen out of use along with the concepts they denoted (chain mail, coachman)

Archaisms- words that are in modern. Rus. The language is replaced by other concepts. (mouth-mouth, cheeks-cheeks)

In the works of the artist Lit. They help to recreate the color of the era, are a means of speech characteristics, or can be used as a means of comic.

Loans. The words - to create humor, a nominative function, give national. Coloring brings the reader closer to the language of the country whose life is described.

Stylistic figures - special turns of speech fixed by stylistics used to enhance the expressiveness (expressiveness) of the utterance (for example, anaphora, epiphora, simplock, ellipse, amplification, antithesis, oxymoron, parcellation, parallelism, gradation, inversion, non-union, multi-union, chiasm, default, etc.) . Sometimes stylistic figures include tropes, as well as unusual phrases, turns of speech that go beyond the language norm (for example, solecism).

11. Gender of indeclinable nouns

Declension of names and surnames

12. Adjective. Synonymy of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives.

Adjective name An adjective is an independent part of speech denoting a non-procedural sign of an object and answering the questions “what?”, “what?”, “what?”, “what?”, “whose?” etc. In Russian, adjectives change by gender, case and number, and can have a short form.

Synonymy of forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives

From most qualitative adjectives it is possible to form simple and complex forms of comparative and superlative degrees: dangerous– dangerous her – more (less ) dangerous; dangerous eysh ii - most dangerous - more dangerous all - the most dangerous, nai dangerous her neck.

A complex form of comparative degree (ex. more dangerous, more complex, higher, more beautiful) characterized as a book; simple form (more dangerous, harder, higher, prettier) stylistically neutral. However, with the attachment on- it takes on a colloquial coloring, cf.: taller, prettier, stronger etc.

Forms with suffix -her also characteristic of colloquial speech: fast her - faster, smarter her smarter, dangerous her- more dangerous. Forms prettier, sweeter, worse, livelier, louder and others like it are colloquial.

The connection is simple and complex shapes (more stronger, faster, less dangerous etc.) is a violation of the stylistic norm.

The comparative degree of adjectives is used in speech to compare the same quality in different subjects: There is no treasure more valuable than life. A drunk driver driving a car is no less dangerous than an armed bandit. As part of legal terms, it is used without comparison with another subject: less grievous bodily harm, more lenient punishment.

Superlative forms are characterized by a greater variety in education and use than comparative forms. The book character has a simple form (especially with the prefix nai – ), the complex form is used in all styles of speech. Wed: the most important – most important, brightest– the brightest, the strictest– the most strict. Note that simple superlatives are more expressive than complex ones. Compound forms made up of a simple comparative degree and a word all (most important, stricter than all, smarter than all etc.), have a colloquial connotation.

The combination of simple and complex forms contradicts the language norm: the most dangerous, the most difficult. Necessary: most dangerous or most dangerous, heaviest or the heaviest . Unfortunately, in recent years, in radio and television programs, one can increasingly hear inthe nearest, the shortest time; the most dangerous disease, the most important task, which violates the literary norm. Interestingly, in legal terms lower penalty simple forms of comparative and superlative degrees are combined.

Synonymous forms of short adjectives

AT in some cases it is difficult to use parallel forms of short adjectives. How, for example, is correct: responsible or responsible? Sharp or sharp?

Variants in the formation of a short form of masculine adjectives with suffixes -en and -enen usually observed with adjectives that have several consonants before the suffix –enn– , eg: lawsuit ssv enny, naturally stv ed, answered tstv enny, beznra vstv enny etc. The development of these forms is interesting. More ancient was the form with the suffix –en, she came from the Slavic language. Then there was a tendency to use forms with the suffix -enen, in recent decades, researchers have noted the predominance of forms with the suffix –en: yav en, nonsense en, properties en, ignorance en etc. It should be remembered that short forms with a suffix –en are the norm of literary speech, forms with a suffix -enen perceived as outdated. But you need to distinguish between short forms responsible (short participle: responsibility en for the investigation i.e. answers) and responsible (short adjective: om responsible, i.e. conscientious).

13. The name is numeral. Variants of combinations of numerals with nouns. Declension of numerals one and a half, one and a half hundred.

Numeral- an independent part of speech that denotes the number, quantity and order of objects. Answers the questions: how much? which?

Numerals are divided into four lexical and grammatical categories: quantitative (two, fifty, two hundred, three hundred fifty one) and collective (both, two, five) - answer the question how many?, ordinal- answer the question which? (first, second, hundredth), fractional (one fifth, three whole, two sevenths). Cardinal numbers include definite-quantitative and indefinite-quantitative numerals. The former denote a certain number of units ( two, four, fifteen, a hundred and fifty, two hundred), the second - an indefinite number of units; these include the words few, quite a few, lot, Little, as well as pronominal numerals some, how many, any, some, so many.

The numeral both is used in combination with masculine and neuter nouns, as well as different genders: both brothers, both windows, both: brother and sister. The numeral both - only in combination with feminine nouns: both sisters, both doors. The numerals both, both are not used with nouns that do not have a singular form. Incorrect: at both gates, at both points. We can say: at both gates, at two points.

The word pair is used in the meaning of two only with paired objects and is colloquial: a pair of stockings, socks, a pair of eyes, hands. Incorrect: a pair of coats (an unpaired object), it is necessary: ​​two coats. The word couple also has several meanings and is found in colloquial speech: a couple of trifles, a couple of days, a couple of words. May I ask you for a few words?

With a mixed number, the noun is controlled by a fraction, i.e. the noun is put in the genitive singular: 8.7 seconds; 41.3 centners; 12.7 kilometers.

Compound numbers ending in two, three, four (22, 23, 44, 102, 104, etc.) do not combine with nouns that have only plural forms (day, scissors). The fact is that such words as a day are combined not with quantitative, but with collective numbers (two, three), which cannot be included in a compound number. Incorrect: The campaign lasted twenty-two days. The campaign lasted twenty-two days. Correct Options: The campaign lasted for twenty-two days (the whole construction is put in the genus case). The campaign lasted twenty-two days (the option with a synonym is less preferable).

Compound numbers for two, three, four, combined with animate nouns in the accusative case, they retain the form of the nominative case: accept twenty-two students, deliver twenty-three passengers. This is a book edition. Colloquial option: accept twenty-two students, deliver twenty-three passengers.

The numerals one and a half, one and a half hundred in all cases, except for the nominative and accusative, are combined with the plural of the subsequent noun and have the forms of one and a half, one and a half hundred, respectively: one and a half dozen apples were bought - to one and a half dozen apples, one and a half meters - limit yourself to one and a half meters.

Declension of numerals "one and a half", "one and a half hundred"

numeral one and a half has two forms of the nominative case - one and a half(m. R. and S. R.) and one and a half(female): one and a half liters, one and a half logs, one and a half lives. Declension of numerals one and a half, one and a half, a hundred and fifty(number, amount of something., equal to 150) is limited to only two case forms: one and a half, one and a half, a hundred and fifty for the nominative-accusative case and one and a half and one and a half hundred for all indirect cases without gender differences. Correctly: about a day and a half, a hundred and fifty kilometers, a not about a day and a half, a day and a half, a hundred and fifty kilometers.

14. Pronoun. Features of the declension of personal pronouns, combining them with prepositions.

Pronoun- an independent part of speech, which includes words that indicate objects, signs, etc., but do not name them. In a sentence, pronouns can act as various members of a sentence.

Groups of pronouns according to correlation with other parts of speech:

Pronouns-nouns (I, who, nothing);

Pronouns-adjectives (none, own);

pronouns-numerals (several, not at all).

Ranks of pronouns:

personal (indicate a person or object): I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they;

reflexive (indicates the attitude to the acting person): oneself;

Possessive (indicate belonging to one of three persons): mine, yours, mine;

demonstrative (generally indicate objects, their quality or quantity): this, this, that;

interrogative (transmit the question): who, which, whose;

Relative (in form they coincide with interrogative pronouns, but act as allied words): who, what;

negative (indicate the absence of an object): no one, nothing;

indefinite (indicate indefinite objects or their signs): someone, someone;

Definitive (indicate a generalized attribute of the subject): anyone, any.

In a sentence, a pronoun can act as the same member of a sentence as the part of speech for which it is used:

subject: I came home very tired.

Definition: I want to buy some book.

· Addendum: I want to ask her about it.

circumstance: The boys went to her.

· Declension of pronouns- this is an inflection of pronouns according to cases, gender and numbers. Since in Russian pronouns are represented by groups of words with different grammatical features, the features of their declension are different.

Most pronouns are inflected. Indeclinable exception words include possessive pronouns him, her, them and uncertain someone, something. demonstrative pronoun such is and interrogative what change only in numbers and genders (these are the rules, this is the decision, what are the questions, what is the plan).

· Features of the declension of pronouns in Russian with examples are given in the tables.

Declension of personal pronouns in Russian

In indirect cases, when used with prepositions, a prefix is ​​added to personal pronouns of the 3rd person n-. Prepositions with pronouns are written APART!

15. Verb. Features of the formation of some personal forms.

Verb- this is a word that denotes an action and answers the questions what it does, what it did, what it will do, etc. Verb is a part of speech denoting an action or state of an object. ... In the indicative mood Verbs change in time, that is, they can be present, future and past tense.

Formation of some personal forms

1. Verbs win, convince, find oneself, feel, kink and some others belonging to the so-called insufficient verbs (i.e., verbs limited in formation or use of personal forms) do not form the 1st person singular present-future tense. If it is necessary to use these verbs in the indicated form, a descriptive construction is used, for example: I will be able to win, I want (strive) to convince, I can find myself, I will try to feel, I will not be weird.

Due to phonetic coincidence with forms from other verbs, such forms as “buzhu” (from buzz, cf. wake up from wake up), "hold" (from dare, cf. I keep from Keep), "I grieve" (from pummel, cf. grieving from grieve) and some others.

Verbs kill, grumble form in the l-th person singular of the form I will kill, I will grumble.

2. Verbs recover, recover, recover form personal forms according to I conjugation: get well, -eesh, -eut; disgusted, -eesh, -eut; I resist, -eat, -eut. The forms of these verbs get well, -ish, -yat etc. (according to II conjugation) are colloquial.

3. Verb be based forms indefinite form and past tense ( was based) with suffix -and- (by II conjugation); the present tense and the participle are formed according to the I conjugation ( builds, -utsya, builds).

The same ratio of forms for the verb be ruffled (swayed; shaky - shaky, shaky, unshakable).

Verb to lay used only in the infinitive and in the past tense ( the fog was creeping); personal forms are formed according to I conjugation from an equal verb lay, For example: fog spreads, meadows spread over the boundless space.

Verb honor in the 3rd person plural has equal forms honor - honor; cf. from Gorky: Both of them honor her memory with love.. – They are honored, they are obeyed by thousands of people like him..

4. Some verbs form two forms of the present tense, such as the verb rinse: rinse(without alternating final consonants of the stem of the infinitive and the stem of the present) and rinses(with alternating consonants in the named forms).

First forms: rinses, splashing, dripping, cackling, swaying, purring, waving, prowling and others - are characteristic of the colloquial style. Second forms: rinses, splashes, drips, cackles, sways, purrs, waves, roars and others are inherent in the literary language. Wed in fiction:

On the river ... the women are sitting, rinse (L. Tolstoy). - In the bright blue skies rinse banners(Pavlenko) (the use of the word in a figurative sense in the second case does not affect its literary form);

flock of sea birds swaying on the waves(Goncharov). - Romantic ghosts of the past surround me, take possession of the soul, sway, cradle, caress ...(Korolenko);

Horse waving tail(Saltykov-Shchedrin). - There is a gray-haired sorceress, shaggy waving sleeve(Derzhavin).

Along with the stylistic, there is a semantic distinction between parallel forms.

The form splash - sprinkle has the meaning "sprinkle, sprinkle": splashing water, splashing clothes; the form splatter - splatter means "scatter drops, scatter drops, pour splashes": mud splashes, sparks splash, splashes with saliva.

The form move - moves means "to move by pushing or pulling something": moves furniture; the form move - moves along with the same value locomotive moves wagons) has a figurative meaning "to encourage, lead": they are driven by a sense of compassion. Wed also verb forms move: business is not moving - time is moving forward(the second version of the book); Tired horses move with difficulty. – Familiar figures move, ordinary episodes, everyday scenes(both examples from Korolenko). The train is moving means "set in motion"; the train is moving means "in motion".

The form drip - dripping has the meaning "fall in drops, pour drop by drop": sweat drips from the forehead, the nurse drips medicine into a glass; book version: rain drops; the form drip - caplet means "to flow, to pass a liquid": caplet roof.

The form throw - throws has the meaning "to sew, stitch with stitches, sheathe a loop": throws a jacket, throws a seam. The form throw– mosque means "throw, scatter, scatter": mosquethunder and lightning, throws angry eyes; also: caviar; in the same sense of "throw" in sports use the form throws: throws hammer, discus, spear etc.

In common speech and in dialects there are forms clicks(instead of calls- from click), meows(from meow; literary form meows- from mew).

Forms are spacious squeal, sting(instead of sprinkles, pinches- from sprinkle, pinch).

5. Verbs to milk, to cut, to drink, to conceal in the literary language form a form of the imperative mood on -and : ... Anxious swear drink!(Block).

Some prefixed verbs you- form equal forms of the imperative mood: put out - put out, put out - put out, straighten out - straighten out, pour out - pour out; the second options in each pair have a book character.

Verbs that have before -it infinitive there is a combination st or a confluence of two consonants, the first of which is a smooth consonant R , also form equivalent forms: clean - clean, do not spoil - do not spoil, do not writhe - do not wrinkle, do not wrinkle - do not wrinkle. However, in the plural, only forms on -ite : clean, do not spoil.

Forms notify - notify, feast - feast, cork - cork, uncork - uncork are also equal. However, the forms take a look, get out, don't steal, lay down(in phraseological combination take it out and put it down) are colloquial.

The forms have a vernacular character go(instead of go),clip(instead of hug); also drive(instead of go)

View form options

1. Forms manageconfess, preach etc. are obsolete. Wed modern profess, profess, preach.

Use of the form organize(as well as organize in the meaning of not perfect look) is justified by the fact that in the past tense the verb organize only the perfect form matters (cf.: he organized a tourist song festival), so to express the value imperfect form past tense form required organized(cf.: annuallyhe organized tourism song festivals). For the same reason, the correct form attacked(the form attacked has the meaning of the perfect form).

2. Type shape options to condition - to condition associated with the peculiarities of the formation of the imperfect form through suffixes -yva-, -iva- : in some cases there is an alternation of vowels oh-ah in the root, and in others the root vowel about saved:

1) verbs requiring the specified alternation: to procure - to procure, to swamp - to swamp, to freeze - to freeze, to build up - to build up, to affect - to affect, to process - to process, to ennoble - to ennoble, to master - to master, to challenge - to challenge, to honor - to honor, to assimilate - to assimilate and etc.;

2) verbs that preserve the root about : slam - slam, worry - worry, defame - defame, delay - delay, time - time, legitimize - legitimize, empower - empower etc. This also includes verbs in which about refers to the suffix -ov- , since the alternation of letters in the root, and not in the suffix, is associated with the formation of species, for example: to rob - to rob, to commemorate - to commemorate, to charm - to enchant, to equip - to equip;

3) verbs that allow both forms (book form - with about , colloquial - with a ): to suspect - to suspect, to condition - to condition, to concentrate - to concentrate and some others;

4) verbs forming imperfective forms with suffixes -yva-, -iva- (colloquial form) and with suffixes -and I- (book form): prepare - prepare, litter - clog, accumulate - accumulate, empty - empty, cheer - cheer up, prepare - prepare, replace - replace, try on - try on, adapt - adapt, catch a cold - catch a cold, cut - cut and etc.;

5) verbs forming an imperfect form with a suffix -I- (book form): improve - improve, acquaint - acquaint, formalize - formalize, legitimize - legitimize(also legitimize, see above), speed up - speed up and etc.

Non-prefixed forms of an imperfect form are also possible, acting in tandem with prefix formations of a perfect form, for example: disturb - disturb, disgrace - disgrace, discredit - discredit etc. The use of these forms is more preferable than the forms with the suffix -willow- (to disgrace, to denigrate).

3. Among verbs like (with suffix -izova- and suffix -izirova- ) can be divided into three groups:

a) verbs with a suffix -izova- :

demoralize, mobilize, neutralize, normalize, paralyze, realize, stylize, centralize, electrify;

b) verbs with a suffix -izirova- :

agonize, activate, militarize, hospitalize, democratize, idealize, ironize, canonize, latinize, monopolize, moralize, municipalize, polemize, signalize, symbolize, utilize, vernalize;

c) verbs that have both options:

to vulcanize - to vulcanize

to harmonize - to harmonize

to colonize - to colonize

crystallize - crystallize

legalize - legalize

localize - localize

modernize - modernize

pasteurize - pasteurize

to popularize - to popularize

rationalize - rationalize

secularize - secularize

stabilize - stabilize

to standardize - to standardize

terrorize - terrorize and some others.

In book and written speech, the second option is more common.

4. The colloquial shade is inherent in the second option in pairs:

to scoff - to scoff; For example: Grandfather ... did not disdain to make money on the side when he went to a cab(Gladkov);

to see - see; For example: ... Wild Master I am in it[in the room] did not see(Turgenev);

to smoke - to smoke(meaning "to emit soot"); For example: On thelooking at you, the flies are dying and the lamps are starting to smoke(Chekhov);

climb - climb; For example: They climbed trees, destroyed bird nests(Saltykov-Shchedrin);

measure - measure; For example: Cut all lines...(Bitter);

torment - torment; For example: Why are you torturing me like this?(Dostoevsky);

raise - raise; For example: Gypsies... raised them[horses] legs and tails, screaming, cursing...(Turgenev);

whistle - whistle; For example: The boy whistled piercingly...(Kuprin); in the meaning of "to make a whistle by means of a mechanical device" only the verb is used whistle;

hear - hear; For example: - Have you heard, sir, of your misfortune? the coachman asked(Garin-Mikhailovsky).

5. In some cases, both forms are acceptable, for example: Busthis line runs every five minutes. – A bus runs along this line every five minutes.. The difference between both options is as follows: walks has the meaning "back and forth", i.e. indicates movement not in one direction, but goes means "only there", i.e. indicates movement in one direction.

6. The names of means of land mechanical and air transport are usually combined with the verb to go, for example: The bus is on the new track; The train is moving at a speed of 60 kilometers per hour; The tram goes to the park; Planes are coming(also are flying) in sequence. Word motorbike combined with the verb drive, For example: The motorcycle was heading straight for us..

The names of vehicles on water are combined as with a verb go, and with the verb swim, For example: Loaded barges go (float) down the river; A boat was sailing near the shore; Torpedo boats go in a wake column; Ships are sailing in the sea.

7. In pairs gas - went out, mok - got wet, dry - dried etc. in the modern language, the first options are more often used (without the suffix -well- ). Past masculine forms of verbs with suffix -well- equal: sluggish - withered, rejected - rejected, resorted - resorted to, terminated - terminated, refuted - refuted and etc.

Returnable and non-returnable forms

1. Type options in the distance the sail is whitening - in the distance the sail is whitening(with reflexive and non-reflexive forms of the verb having same value“to be prominent in one’s own color, to stand out for it”) differ in that in the reflexive verb the indicated feature is revealed less clearly and less steadfastly. Wed also: in the distance the forest turns black - in the distance the forest turns black, something turns blue in the fog - something turns blue in the fog, honey turns yellow in a cup - honey turns yellow in a cup etc. If there is a word in the sentence indicating the intensity of the manifestation of the feature, the irrevocable form is preferable, for example: bright green young grass.

In the meaning of “become white (green, red, black, etc.)”, only the irrevocable form is used, for example: strawberriesturns red in the sun, silver turns black with time, fox fur turns yellow very quickly.

2. In pairs to threaten - to threaten, to knock - to knock etc., reflexive verbs have a meaning of greater intensity of action, interest in its result; compare: he knocked on the door - he knocked on the door to be opened. Stylistically, these forms differ in that the forms on - are peculiar colloquial colloquial style, for example: One woman from the threshold of her hut threatened me with a grip(Turgenev).

3. In pairs circle - circle, splash - splash, decide - decide etc. the first (irreversible) forms are characterized as literary, the second - as colloquial; compare: Dasha decided to start an independent life as soon as possible(A. N. Tolstoy). - Relegated to the degree of a cook, Glafira decided to spend her life in the kitchen.(Ch. Uspensky).

4. When using verbs in -sya one should take into account the possibility that they have two meanings - passive and reflexive, which can give rise to ambiguity, for example: Foreign citizens who got lost in our city gather here(they come or collect them?). In such cases, an edit corresponding to the desired meaning is necessary; compare: a) Foreigners come here...; b) Foreign citizens are gathered here ...

Parts of a language or words that a person or group of people knows. Vocabulary is the central part of the language, naming, forming and transmitting knowledge about any objects, phenomena.

According to social In terms of usage, origin and functional orientation, the vocabulary is divided into layers, between which there are no rigid boundaries. All social transformations in the life of society are reflected in the vocabulary of the language.

The vocabulary of the language is the most open and mobile area of ​​the language. New words constantly enter it and old ones gradually leave. The growing sphere of human knowledge is primarily fixed in words and their meanings, due to which there are more and more lexical acquisitions in the language. Education, science, the latest technology, information from other cultures - all this forms a new type modern society(informational), in which a new language style is formed - the style of the era of information development.

Types of speech

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Vocabulary- (Greek) a set of words of some kind of language, the vocabulary of a language. L. one of the sides of the language, most clearly revealing the connection of the language. as "practical consciousness" (Marx's definition of language) with its socio-economic base and its role as a tool ... ... Literary Encyclopedia

VOCABULARY- (from the Greek lexikos referring to the word), 1) the whole set of words, the vocabulary of the language. 2) The totality of words characteristic of a given variant of speech (household, military, children's vocabulary, etc.), of one or another stylistic layer (lexicon ... ... Modern Encyclopedia

VOCABULARY- [Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

vocabulary- lexicon, vocabulary, active dictionary, lexical stock, dictionary, vocabulary, stock of words, lexical composition Dictionary of Russian synonyms. vocabulary vocabulary, dictionary, lexical composition (or stock) Dictionary of Russian synonyms ... ... Synonym dictionary

VOCABULARY- (from Greek lexikos referring to the word) 1) the entire set of words, the vocabulary of the language. 2) The set of words characteristic of a given variant of speech (household vocabulary, military vocabulary, children's vocabulary, etc.), one or another stylistic layer (lexicon ... … Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

VOCABULARY- VOCABULARY, vocabulary, pl. no, female (from Greek lexikos dictionary) (philol.). A set of words of some language, dialect, works of some writer, etc.; same as dictionary in 2 digits. Russian vocabulary. Lexicon of Pushkin. Dictionary… … Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

Vocabulary- (Greek lexsikos - related to the word) 1) the whole set of words, the vocabulary of the language; 2) a set of words characteristic of a given variant of speech (household, military, children's vocabulary, etc.); of one or another stylistic layer (lexicon ... ... Encyclopedia of cultural studies

VOCABULARY- VOCABULARY, and, wives. The vocabulary of the language, which n. his style, sphere, as well as whose n. works, individual works. Russian l. Spacious l. L. Pushkin. | adj. lexical, oh, oh. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova… … Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

Vocabulary- VOCABULARY (Greek) a set of words that make up Ph.D. language, the vocabulary of the language ... Dictionary of literary terms

vocabulary- (from the Greek lexikos verbal, dictionary). 1) The vocabulary of the language. 2) A set of words related to the scope of their use. Vocabulary of oral speech. Colloquially everyday vocabulary. Lexis of book written speech. Social media vocabulary... Dictionary of linguistic terms

vocabulary- and; well. [from Greek. lexikos dictionary, verbal]. A set of words of a language, dialect or speech of an individual; vocabulary of what l., whom l. Russian l. Dialect L. Professional l. L. Pushkin. ◁ Lexical, oh, oh. L oh… … encyclopedic Dictionary

Books

• Vocabulary of modern Russian Orthodoxy. Explanatory-encyclopedic dictionary, Sklyarevskaya Galina Nikolaevna. The content of the Dictionary presents the world of Russian Orthodoxy and religious and church life in modern Russia. In an accessible form, the vocabulary is described, reflecting the basic concepts of the Orthodox faith, ... Buy for 2780 rubles
• Vocabulary, grammar, connected speech. Methodological guide with illustrations on the development of speech, Kutsina Ekaterina Vladimirovna, Sozonova Nadezhda Nikolaevna. This methodological manual, aimed at developing coherent speech in children on a given topic, presents illustrative and textual material for working on 17 lexical topics: "Toys", ...

In general, the lexical composition of the Russian language is characterized by a noticeable predominance of Slavic elements in origin. Well-adapted internationalisms of Greek and Latin origin play an important role in written and scientific speech. In addition, lexical layers of multilingual origin are distinguished, although specific gravity each of them is generally insignificant.

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  According to its origin, the vocabulary of the modern Russian language is divided into two large unequal groups:

  • primordial;
  • borrowed.

  Aboriginal vocabulary

  The original vocabulary is divided into the following groups:

  • common Indo-European (names of animals, terms of kinship and simple numerals: sheep, bull, wolf, meat; brother, daughter, mother; one, two, three, four, five etc.)
  • common Slavic, which goes back to the linguistic community of all Slavs in the VI-VII centuries. During this period, most of the words of modern Russian and other Slavic languages ​​appeared, denoting the names of trees, plants, birds, basic household items: boron, branch, wood, bark, forest, sheet,boughs; oak, spruce, maple, Linden, pine, bird cherry, ash; peas, poppy; oats, millet, wheat, barley; forge, flog; hoe, the cloth, shuttle; house, shelter, floor, canopy; goose, hen, starling, nightingale; kvass, kissel, salo, cheese, sword, book etc.
  • The East Slavic layer is represented by Old Russian words that appeared and spread within the Slavic population of Kievan Rus, which flourished in the 11th-12th centuries. This includes words such as rumble, gray, good; uncle, stepdaughter; lace, churchyard; squirrel, finch; fourty, ninety; suddenly, today and etc.
  • proper Russian lexical units began to appear from the end of the 15th century. These include, for example, the words grumble, coo, crush, thin out, scold; cover, irradiation, wallpaper; cabbage rolls, kulebyaka; total, bluntly, deception, experience and many others.

  Borrowed vocabulary

  In terms of the number of foreign borrowings, the modern Russian language as a whole occupies a balanced position in the circle of Slavic languages. Their number is not as great as in Polish, but not as insignificant as in Croatian, where linguistic purism is noted. In this regard, the modern Serbian language is close to him. Despite the influx of words of non-Slavic origin into the Russian language over the past 400 years, most of the borrowings in Russian are borrowings from other Slavic languages, first of all, these are Church Slavonicisms, which make up up to 10% of the vocabulary of the Russian language. Another significant group of early borrowings are groups of words of Turkic origin - Turkisms. Later borrowings represent Polonisms, Bohemisms, Gallicisms, Grecisms, Latinisms, Italianisms, Hispanisms, Germanisms, Anglicisms and others.

  In modern Russian, there are many lexical borrowings from Church Slavonic (these include, for example, such familiar words as thing, time, air, delight, verb, single, withdraw, reward, cloud, general, response, victory, work, advice, compose, vain, excessive and many others. etc.), some of which coexist with proper Russian doublets, which differ from Church Slavonic ones in meaning or stylistically, cf. (Church Slavonic word is given first): power / volost, drag / drag, head / head, citizen / city dweller, milky / milky, darkness / darkness, clothes / clothes, equal / even, depravity / reversal, give birth / give birth, cathedral / collection, guard / watchman and others. Individual morphemes were also borrowed from Church Slavonic into the literary language (for example, verb prefixes from-, bottom-, before- and co-) and even individual grammatical forms - for example, verbal participles (cf. Church Slavonic participles in origin current or burning with their corresponding native Russian forms fluid and hot, preserved in the modern language as adjectives with the meaning of a constant property) or forms of verbs like flutters(with an alternation unusual for proper Russian forms t/w, cf. primordially Russian laughs or babbles).

  The vocabulary of the modern Russian language was greatly influenced by those languages ​​with which Russian (and earlier Old Russian and Proto-Slavic dialects) had been in contact for a long time. The oldest layer of borrowings is of East German ("Gothic") origin (these are words such as dish, letter, camel, much, hut, prince, cauldron, cross, buy, donkey, plow, glass, bread, barn, hill, artist, church, helmet etc.), as well as a few, but important words borrowed from ancient Iranian languages ​​("Scythian vocabulary") - for example, heaven, dog, ax(however, it should be borne in mind that not all of these Germanic and Iranian etymologies are considered absolutely indisputable). Germanic (mostly Scandinavian) origin and some Russian personal names, for example, Gleb, Igor, Oleg, Olga.

  The next layer in time is made up of Greek words ( hell, letter, clerk, abbot, icon, katavasia, penal servitude, bed, crocodile, doll, magnet, cucumber, ward, sail, pop, shroud, beetroot, bench, notebook, vinegar, lantern etc.) and Turkic origin ( diamond, lasso, head, shoe, biryuk, money, raisin, wild boar, treasury, border, shackles, trap, guard, caftan, carpet, sausage, quiver, horse, hearth, barn, chest, goods, fog, prison, hut, tent, pants, coachman, label and etc.; some of these words, in turn, go back to Arabic or Persian sources). It should be borne in mind that the vast majority of Russian personal baptismal names are also borrowed from Greek (such as Alexander, Alexey, Anatoly, Andrey, Arkady, Vasily, Vlas, Gennady, George, Denis, Dmitry, Evgeny, Kirill, Kuzma, Leonid, Luka, Makar, Nikita, Nikolai, Peter, Stepan, Timofey, Fedor, Philip; Anastasia, Barbara, Galina, Ekaterina, Elena, Zoya, Irina, Xenia, Pelageya, Praskovya, Sophia, Tatyana and etc.; through Greek, such common Christian names of Hebrew origin as Benjamin, Daniel, Ivan, Ilya, Matvey, Mikhail, Naum, Osip, Semyon, Yakov; Anna, Elizabeth, Mary, Martha and etc.).

  In the XVI-XVII centuries. the main source of borrowings is polish, through which a large number of Latin, Romance and Germanic words penetrate into Russian (for example, algebra, author, pharmacy, Africa, screw, hubbub, arrogance, barracks, keys, jacket, kitchen, paint, painter, music, drill, shell, Paris, please, mail, private, powder, crimson, leggings, company, market, knight, steel, dance, plate, factory, fake, fortel, goal, shop, figure, school, grind, sword, thing, bayonet, card sharper, skirt, fair and many others. etc.), as well as a certain number of proper Polish ( jar, bottle, redneck, monogram, allow, finish off, thorough, bully, inveterate, passionate, inveterate, beg, rabbit, jacket, cop, tradesman, courage, fatherland, stick, lousy, jam, tease, duel, lieutenant, suburb, capital, suma, buffoon, lad, fumbling, mischievous, cheat sheet and etc.).

  The influence of the South Russian dialect of the Russian language took place in the 17th - early 18th centuries. In the Russian language of that time: girlo, relish, savory, tavern, tavern, zlochinets, joke, duties, station wagon, commission other. In the modern Russian language, words have been preserved mainly of everyday ethnographic and historical character associated with the South of Russia: hut, way, dumplings, pot, scroll, tavern, tavern, bandura, hopak, mace, haidamak, father(ataman), lad other.; a small amount of common words: shtetl, kids, girls, kosovitsa, grain grower, farmer(the word was created on this model cotton grower), milkmaid; in 1920 - 1930s.: hut-reading room, hut-laboratory. Stylistically colored words and expressions used to emphasize the "simplicity" of speech: already, with a hook: a hundred kilometers with a hook, zhinka, dad, do not go ahead of the father in hell; ironically: sack, open, do not rock the boat, kurkul, schoolboy, verse, paint, do anyhow, my hut is on the edge, elderberry in the garden, and uncle in Kyiv, in particular those that are used in relation to Ukrainians and Ukraine: independent, broad Ukrainian, mova; some proper names: Oksana instead of Xenia or Aksinya, affectionate forms Marusya, Natalochka. In the Russian language on the territory of modern Ukraine, there are numerous cases of profanity.

  In the new period (from the 18th century), borrowings come mainly from the Dutch ( apricot, admiral, orange, boatswain, trousers, drift, umbrella, south, cable, cabin, bunk, coffee, sailor, wig, flight, rudder, mouthpiece, hold, fairway, flute, lock, yacht), German ( paragraph, bandage, exchange, accountant, tie, general, count, huntsman, hall, apartment, cinema, blot, resort, coachman, lieutenant, master, uniform, mouthpiece, officer, parade ground, planer, locksmith, mourning, fireworks, paramedic, time pressure, cement, mine, tire, screen, barrier, train, headquarters, staff, ersatz and many others. others) and French ( lampshade, avant-garde, advance, album, actor, barrier, boulevard, bourgeoisie, bureau, veil, garage, debut, conductor, dossier, shower, blinds, magazine, canvas, caprice, kiosk, nightmare, courage, shop, make-up, machine, Menu, Negro, Pavilion, Parachute, Park, Password, Parter, Perron, Platform, Beach, District, Rubber, Relief, Repair, Restaurant, Risk, Role, Piano, Season, Soup, Circulation, Sidewalk, Trick, Stay, Fairy, foyer, chance, charm, overcoat, highway, driver and many others. etc.).

  Currently, the most powerful source of borrowings is English, some borrowings from which date back to the 19th - first half of the 20th century. (early borrowings - avral, iceberg, bar, boycott, boxing, station, clown, club, cowboy, cocktail, elevator, rally, rails, rum, square, sports, start, tank, tennis, shorts, fashionable, finish, folklore, football, hooligan, shorts, newer - business, businessman, briefing, dumping, default, jeans, dispatcher, clearing, harvester, container, computer, content, leasing, marketing, rating, trend, weekend, file, holding and many others. etc.). Some English words were borrowed into Russian twice - for example, the old lunch and modern lunch; the newest English borrowings often displace earlier borrowings from other European languages ​​- for example, new English. franchising and old French franchise, New English bowling and old German bowling alley in the same sense, new English. broker and old German broker, New English office and old German office, New English tagline and old German slogan, New English lobster and old French lobster, New English hit and old German smash hit, New English price list and old German price-list and etc.

  From other European languages, there were significantly fewer borrowings, but in certain areas of the lexicon their role is also quite important. For example, a number of military terms are borrowed from Hungarian ( haiduk, hussar, saber), a large number of musical, as well as a number of financial, culinary and other terms - from Italian (sometimes through French or German mediation): advice note, aria, bravo, cello, libretto, pasta, malaria, opera, pasta, clown, piano, balance, somersault, scherzo, solfeggio, sonata, soprano and etc.

  In turn, there are many ancient borrowings from Russian in the Finno-Ugric languages ​​(for example, in Finnish and Karelian, Mordovian, Mari, etc.). A number of Russian words (including those borrowed by origin) have become internationalisms, already borrowed from Russian into many languages ​​​​of the world ( vodka, dacha, mammoth, matryoshka, perestroika, pogrom, samovar, satellite, steppe, tsar).