Switzerland is what a country. "Administrative capital of Switzerland"

SWITZERLAND
Swiss Confederation, a state in Central Europe. The government system is a federal republic. The area of ​​the country is 41.3 thousand square meters. km. In the north it borders with Germany, in the west with France, in the south with Italy, and in the east with Austria and Liechtenstein. The northern border is partly along Lake Constance and the Rhine, which begins in the center of the Swiss Alps and forms part of the eastern border. The western border runs along the Jura Mountains, the southern - along the Italian Alps and Lake Geneva. The capital of Switzerland is Bern.

Switzerland. The capital is Bern. Population - 7100 thousand people (1997). Population density: 172 people per 1 sq. km. Urban population - 61%, rural - 39% (1996). Area - 41.3 thousand square meters. km. The highest point is Peak Dufour (4634 m above sea level). The lowest point is 192 m above sea level. National languages ​​are German, French, Italian, Romansh. The main religions are Catholicism, Protestantism. Administrative division: 20 cantons and 6 half-cantons. Currency: Swiss franc = 100 rappenams (centimes). National holiday: Founding Day of the Confederation ("oath on Rütli") - August 1. National anthem: "Swiss Psalm".

NATURE
Surface structure. In Switzerland, three natural regions are distinguishable: the Jura mountain range in the northwest, the Swiss plateau (plateau) in the center and the Alps in the southeast. The Jura Mountains, separating Switzerland and France, stretch from Geneva to Basel and Schaffhausen. They alternate between mountain folds with a predominance of limestone and valleys; The folds are cut in places by small rivers, forming valleys with steep slopes (cluses). Agriculture is possible only in the valleys; The gentle slopes of the mountains are covered with forests or used as pastures. The Swiss plateau was formed at the site of a trough between the Jura and the Alps, which was filled with loose glacial sediments in the Pleistocene and is currently cut by numerous rivers. The surface of the plateau is hilly, agriculture is developed in the wide valleys, and the interfluves are covered with forests. Here is concentrated population of the country, large cities and industrial centers are located. The most fertile agricultural lands and pastures are concentrated in this area. Almost the entire southern half of Switzerland is occupied by the Alps. These high, rugged, snow-capped mountains are dissected by deep gorges. In the ridge zone there are firn fields and glaciers (10% of the country's territory). The wide bottom of the main valleys is used for fields and arable land. The area is sparsely populated. The Alps serve as the main source of income, as the picturesque nature of the highlands attracts many tourists and climbers. The highest peaks are Peak Dufour (4634 m) in the Monte Rosa massif on the border with Italy, Dom (4545 m), Weisshorn (4505 m), Matterhorn (4477 m), Grand Combin (4314 m), Finsterarhorn (4274 m) ) and Jungfrau (4158 m).

Rivers and lakes. Most of Switzerland is irrigated by the Rhine and its tributary the Are (the most important of its tributaries are the Reuss and the Limmat). The southwestern regions belong to the Rhone drainage basin, the southern ones to the Ticino basin and the southeastern ones to the Inn river basin (a tributary of the Danube). The rivers of Switzerland have no navigable significance. On the Rhine, navigation is maintained only as far as Basel. Switzerland is famous for its lakes, the most picturesque of which are located along the edges of the Swiss plateau - Geneva, Thun in the south, Firwaldstätt, Zurich in the east, Neuchâtel and Biel in the north. Most of these lakes are of glacial origin: they were formed during an era when large glaciers descended from the mountains onto the Swiss plateau. South of the Alpine axis in the canton of Ticino are lakes Lugano and Lago Maggiore.

Climate. Switzerland has pronounced climatic differences due to altitude and exposure to sun and winds. The climate is humid, on the plateau - moderately warm, in the mountains - cold. Daily temperatures in the lowlands fluctuate on average throughout the year from 10 to 16°C; in summer they rise to 27°C or more. The hottest month is July, the coldest is January. The highest peaks of the Alps are covered with eternal snow. The snow line rises to 2700 m on the western slopes and to 3200 m on the eastern ones. In winter, temperatures drop below 0°C throughout the country, with the exception of the northern shore of Lake Geneva and the shores of lakes Lugano and Lago Maggiore, some of which belong to Italy. The climate there is as mild as in Northern Italy, since the mountains protect against the invasion of cold northern winds (bizet). In January-February, when high pressure prevails over the Alps, clear, cold weather sets in, favorable for winter sports. The southern slopes receive a lot of solar heat at this time. In Switzerland there are frequent sharp strong winds accompanied by rain and snowfall. In spring, summer and autumn, foehns prevail - warm, dry winds blowing from the east and southeast. As currents of moist air from the Mediterranean Sea rise up the slopes of the Alps and then descend to the Swiss plateau, precipitation falls on the southern slopes almost twice as much as on the northern ones. The average annual precipitation in Basel (277 m above sea level) is 810 mm, in Lausanne (375 m) on the northern shore of Lake Geneva - 1040 mm, and in Davos (1580 m) in the southeast of the country - 970 mm.
Flora and fauna. The Swiss plateau is located in the zone of European broadleaf forests. The predominant species are oak and beech, with pine mixed in in some places. On the southern slope of the Alps the chestnut tree is typical. Higher up the mountain slopes, coniferous forests grow, forming a transition zone between broad-leaved forests and alpine meadows (at high altitudes). There are many in the mountains bright colors. Crocuses and daffodils bloom in spring, rhododendrons, saxifrages, gentians and edelweiss bloom in summer. Animal world was strongly influenced by human economic activity. While snow partridge and mountain hare are still quite common, such characteristic animals of the upper tier of the mountains as roe deer, marmot and chamois are much less common. Great efforts are being made to protect wildlife. The Swiss National Park, located near the border with Austria, is home to roe deer and chamois, and less commonly, alpine ibex and fox; Ptarmigan and several species of birds of prey are also found.
POPULATION
Ethnic groups. The Swiss form a cohesive national community, although the population is made up of ethnic groups that speak different languages(German, French, Italian and Romansh) and often differing in religion. However, mutual tolerance and goodwill allow them to live and work in the same country. A typical Swiss national image has emerged - a short, stocky brown-haired or blond man with brown or gray eyes, who has a reputation as an enterprising, hard-working person with business acumen. Many Swiss occupy key positions in the economies of other countries. There are many foreigners living in Switzerland. In 1997, foreign workers and other foreigners made up 19.4% of the country's population. Most unskilled work in Switzerland is performed by foreign workers, who come mainly from Italy and other countries in Southern and Eastern Europe.
Languages. The official languages ​​of Switzerland are German, French and Italian. The Romansh language, derived from Latin and also having national status, is spoken by approximately 1% of the country's population. Most common German: its local dialect - Alemannic (Schwitzerdütsch) - is used by 73% of Swiss citizens and 64% of the country's population. French is spoken by approx. 19% of the population, mainly in the cantons of Geneva, Vaud, Neuchâtel, Friborg and Valais. Speaks Italian approx. 4% are Swiss citizens (mainly in the canton of Ticino), and including foreign workers - 8% of the country's population. The Romansh language is spoken only in the mountainous canton of Graubünden.
Religion. At the end of the 1990s, 46% of the Swiss population were Catholics, 40% were Protestants. The proportion of Protestants declined after World War II due to the influx of foreign workers, mostly Catholics. As a result of a national referendum in 1973, two articles of the constitution were repealed, prohibiting the activities of the Jesuit order and the formation of religious orders. Confessional differences in Switzerland do not always coincide with linguistic boundaries. Among Protestants one can find both French-speaking Calvinists and German-speaking followers of Zwingli. The centers of German-speaking Protestantism are Zurich, Bern and Appenzell. The majority of French-speaking Protestants live in the canton of Geneva and the neighboring cantons of Vaud and Neuchâtel. Catholics predominate in central Switzerland around the city of Lucerne, much of the French-speaking cantons of Friborg and Valais, and the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino. There are small Jewish communities in Zurich, Basel and Geneva.
Population. In 1997, the population of Switzerland was 7,097 thousand people and was concentrated mainly in the lowland areas. Large industrial centers - Zurich, Basel and Geneva - have the highest population density. The largest cities in the country (population in thousands in 1997): Zurich (339), Geneva (173), Basel (171), Bern (124), Lausanne (114), Winterthur (87), St. Gallen (71) and Lucerne (58).

STATE AND POLITICAL STRUCTURE
Federalism and democracy. The basic principles of the Swiss constitution of 1874 are federalism and democracy. Article 3 of the constitution guarantees the 20 cantons and 6 half-cantons into which Switzerland is divided all rights of self-government, with the exception of those that are the prerogative of the federal government. These include declaring war and concluding peace, signing international treaties and joining alliances, training, material support for the armed forces and their leadership, and regulation of foreign trade. The federal government and cantonal authorities have the right to impose taxes. In addition, the federal government exercises control over communications, higher education, and labor. The adoption of the principle of federalism played a significant role in uniting the very diverse cantonal states into the first all-Swiss union state in 1848. Over time, the federal government began to more actively influence all aspects of life in the country. Nevertheless, the Swiss still feel a strong attachment to their native cantons and their traditions. Until 1971, Switzerland was one of the few countries in the world where women did not have the right to vote on a national level. In February 1971, the male electorate approved a constitutional amendment giving the country's women the right to vote and be elected in federal elections. At the cantonal level, the granting of voting rights to women was delayed: in the German-speaking semi-canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden, women finally received the right to vote only in 1991. The Swiss constitution also includes mandatory referendums on all amendments to the constitution, popular initiatives to put forward such amendments, and legislative referendums on certain laws and treaties. The same rights, often in conjunction with legislative initiative, apply at the cantonal and local levels. In addition, some cantons retained direct democracy in the form general meeting residents (Landsgemeinde): this is a system of direct participation of all voters of a canton or locality in the approval of certain laws and the election of officials. Following a referendum held in March 1991, the voting age for federal elections was lowered from 20 to 18 years.
Political system. The main organs of the Swiss Confederation are the Federal Council, the Federal Assembly and the Federal Court. Executive body is a federal council of seven members elected by parliament for a term of four years. The only formal limitation on the composition of this body is that only one deputy can be elected from each canton. However, in fact, the composition of the council is strictly limited by tradition: for example, the main geographical regions of the country and two of the language groups (French and Italian) must be represented in it. Since 1959, the composition of the council has wherever possible reflected the influence of the main political parties. Each year, one of the council members is elected President of Switzerland, but this position is not vested with special powers. Switzerland's legislative body, the Federal Assembly, consists of two chambers: the cantonal council, to which two representatives are elected from each canton and one from each half-canton, and the national council of 200 deputies, elected in proportion to the population of the cantons. The Assembly is elected for a term of four years. It has normal legislative powers, but some laws must be approved by popular referendum. The Swiss Federal Court is located in Lausanne, the other main government bodies are in Bern. The Federal Court serves as the country's supreme court, although it cannot declare federal laws unconstitutional. There are no lower federal courts, since the cantonal courts are responsible for applying federal laws at lower levels. The federal court consists of 26-28 judges and 11-13 jurors, who sit in separate rooms depending on the nature of the case. Members of the court are elected by the federal assembly for a term of six years. At the cantonal level, executive power is exercised by a state or government council of 5 to 11 members headed by a president (Landmann). Council members are elected by the population of the cantons for a term of 4 years (except Friborg, Appenzell-Ausserrhoden and Appenzell-Innerrhoden) and in some small cantons they work on a voluntary basis. Most cantons have a single legislative body - a large council, a land council, or a cantonal council, also elected for a term of four years. The legal authorities of the canton are represented by courts of two or three levels, depending on the size of the canton. Much of the local peculiarities of Swiss justice were eliminated with the introduction of a single national code of civil, commercial and criminal law in 1942.
Political parties. Switzerland has a multi-party system. On the right wing is the Christian Democratic People's Party (formerly the Conservative Social Christian or Conservative Catholic). It sees its main task as defending the teachings and institutions of the Roman Catholic Church and defending the rights of the cantons. On the left flank is occupied by the Social Democratic (or Socialist) Party, which advocates broad social reforms, including greater state participation in the country's economic life, but while maintaining a partnership between the state and private enterprise. At the center of the political spectrum is the Swiss Radical Democratic Party. She was truly radical by 19th century standards when she determined the country's policies. In modern conditions, this party has become relatively conservative. Each of the three parties holds about a fifth of all seats on the national council. This balance of power persists from election to election, which provides Switzerland with political harmony and stability. Since 1959, each of these parties has two of the seven seats in the Federal Council, and the remaining seat is occupied by a representative of the largest of the other parties - the Swiss People's Party (formerly the Party of Peasants, Craftsmen and Burghers). Other small parties include the Greens, the Union of Independents, the Liberal Party and the Freedom Party (formerly the Motorists' Party). The latter, formed in 1985, protects the rights of car drivers and advocates restricting immigration. The Swiss armed forces are based on a national militia system. Military service is universal and compulsory for all men aged 20 to 50, with periodic training. In the mid-1990s, in the event of full mobilization, the Swiss army would have numbered 625 thousand people. The country's air force consists of 250 combat units. There are no soldiers among the professional military personnel: there are 1,600 officers and sergeants serving as instructors.
Switzerland as an international center. Switzerland adheres to a traditional policy of neutrality and therefore does not join the UN. However, it takes part in the work of all specialized UN organizations; The headquarters of the World Health Organization are located in Geneva trade organization, International Labor Organization, World Health Organization, International Telecommunications Union, World Meteorological Organization and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Other organizations with a main seat in Switzerland are the World Council of Churches and the International Red Cross, founded by the Swiss Henri Dunant.
ECONOMY
General characteristics. Switzerland is poor in natural resources, apart from hydropower. Nevertheless, it is a prosperous country, in many respects the richest in Europe, primarily due to the high development of the manufacturing and service industries (tourism is especially important). During the period 1950-1990, the economy grew steadily, unemployment was kept low, inflation was contained by the Swiss National Bank, and business downturns were short-lived. The economic downturn that hit most European countries in the early 1990s also affected Switzerland: unemployment reached its highest level since 1939 and inflation rates increased. Nevertheless, the standard of living in the country remained very high. In 1997, the gross domestic product (GDP) of Switzerland was estimated nominally at 365 billion Swiss francs, in reality - at 316 billion. In per capita terms - 51.4 thousand Swiss francs (nominally) and 44.5 thousand (real).
Labor resources. In 1996, approximately 28% of the working population of Switzerland was employed in industry (in 1996 it was estimated at 3.8 million people), in agriculture and forestry - 5% and 6% in the service sector. Of these latter, approx. 23% worked in hotels, restaurants, wholesale and retail, OK. 11% - in banking and credit, insurance and entrepreneurship, approx. 6% in the transport and communications system. The unemployment rate in Switzerland in 1997 was 5.2%. In the same year, there were 936 thousand foreign workers who had a temporary residence permit in the country, of whom 30% were Italians and 15% Yugoslavs. In the early 1960s, the share of foreigners in the labor force reached 30%, but fell to 15% at the end of the same decade as a result of restrictions imposed by the Swiss government. Throughout the 1990s, foreign workers made up over 25% of all employment. They do most of the work that does not require qualifications, many of them are employed in construction, metallurgy and mechanical engineering.
Industry. The high standard of living of the Swiss population was achieved thanks to the large-scale development of various industries. The Swiss watch industry has gained worldwide fame, concentrated mainly in the western part of the country (La Chaux-de-Fonds, Neuchâtel, Geneva) and Schaffhausen, Thun, Bern and Olten. In the 1970s, due to competition from East Asian countries, this sector of the Swiss economy experienced a severe crisis, but in the 1980s it was overcome by the production of inexpensive electronic watches. The textile industry, the oldest in the country, has been a major industry for many years. However, during the Second World War there was a shift towards the metallurgy and chemical industries, and throughout the 1980s the production of machinery and equipment developed rapidly. In the 1990s, the production of chemicals and medicines, scientific and measuring instruments, optical instruments, machine tools and food products, especially cheese and chocolate, played a major role. Other industrial products included shoes, paper, leather and rubber products.
International trade. Switzerland's highly developed foreign trade is based on the export of industrial products such as machinery, watches, medicines, electronic equipment, chemicals and clothing. In 1991, the share of manufacturing products accounted for approx. 90% of the country's export earnings. Export structure in 1997: 20% - machinery and equipment; 9% - electric cars and equipment; 9% - organic chemical products; 9% - pharmaceutical products; 6% - precision instruments and watches, 6% - precious metals, 4% - artificial materials. Switzerland's foreign trade balance usually ran a deficit, which was traditionally covered by the import of foreign capital, income from the export of capital, income from foreign tourism, insurance and transport. In the mid-1990s, thanks to improvements in imports, a small positive foreign trade balance was achieved for the first time: in 1997, the value of exports amounted to 105.1 billion Swiss francs, and imports - 103.1 billion. The leading foreign trade partners of Switzerland are Germany, the USA, Italy, France and Great Britain. Switzerland was one of the founding countries of the European Association free trade(EFTA) in 1959, in 1972 Swiss voters approved a free trade agreement with the European Economic Community (now the European Union, EU), and in 1977 all tariffs on industrial goods were abolished. In 1992, Switzerland applied to join the EU, but later that year Swiss voters voted against the country's entry into the European Economic Area (EEA). This project was aimed at facilitating the free movement of labor, goods, services and capital in 7 EFTA countries and 12 EU countries. After this, Switzerland entered into an agreement with the EU on limited participation in the EEA; as a result, Switzerland reduced duties on goods transported through its territory by EU member states.
Agriculture. About 12% of Switzerland's area is used for arable land and another 28% for extensive cattle ranching and dairy production. About a third of the country's territory is occupied by unproductive land (at least unsuitable for agriculture), especially in the cantons of Uri, Valais and Grisons, and a quarter is covered with forests. It is not surprising that 40% of food products have to be imported. At the same time, Switzerland provides itself with wheat; meat and dairy products are produced in abundance. The main centers of agriculture are concentrated in the cantons of Bern, Vaud, Zurich, Fribourg and Aargau. The main agricultural crops are wheat, potatoes and sugar beets. In 1996, the country had 1,772 thousand heads of cattle (of which about 40% were dairy cows), 1,580 thousand pigs, 442 thousand sheep and 52 thousand goats. The large timber processing industry serves domestic and foreign markets. However, in last years Switzerland's forests have been hit hard by air pollution, forcing the government to impose strict emissions controls exhaust gases cars.
Energy. In 1996, 54% of Switzerland's energy was generated by hydroelectric power plants built on numerous mountain rivers. Five nuclear plants meet most of the country's energy needs. However, the use of nuclear energy remains in question: in 1990, Swiss voters approved a ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants. Switzerland long time remained a major oil importer, but natural gas imports beginning in 1974 and energy conservation measures led to a decline in oil imports. In 1991, crude oil came to Switzerland mainly from Libya and Great Britain, while refined petroleum products came from Germany, the Benelux countries and France. The main suppliers of natural gas are Germany and the Netherlands.
Transport and communications. Switzerland has a highly developed transport system. The Rhine, the largest navigable waterway, is navigable within Switzerland only on the 19 km section Basel - Rheinfelden. A large river port in Basel was put into operation. In the 1990s, its annual cargo turnover was 9 million tons. The Rhine-Rhone Canal is also of great importance for the transport of industrial goods. The length of the Swiss railway network in 1995 was 5,719 km. The railways are almost completely nationalized and electrified and are among the best in Europe. Since they were laid in highly rugged terrain, the construction of numerous bridges and tunnels was required. In 1995, Switzerland had over 71,380 km of first-class highways. A park passenger cars in 1996 reached almost 3.3 million, i.e. There was one car for every two residents of the country. In 1964, the Grand Saint Bernard Tunnel was opened, the first road tunnel in the Alps. Built in 1980, the Gotthard Tunnel is currently the longest road tunnel in the world (16.4 km). Switzerland is the only country that does not have access to the seas, but has a significant navy. In 1941, it acquired several ocean-going vessels to support the delivery of important supplies during World War II, and continued to expand its fleet after the war. In 1985, the cargo turnover of its merchant fleet was estimated at 225.4 million registered tons. The fleet includes many modern vessels designed to transport from 6 thousand to 10 thousand tons of cargo, as well as several tankers. The federal government owns all telephone and telegraph lines, as well as the radio and television network. In the 1980s, a major program to modernize telecommunications systems was implemented.
Money circulation and banking activities. Switzerland is one of the most important financial centers in the world. Its banking system greatly exceeds the volume required for domestic transactions. There are two interconnected banking systems: the public system, which includes the Swiss National Bank and cantonal banks, and the private banking system. The Swiss National Bank, which began operations in 1907, is the only financial institution that issues national currency. The main monetary unit is the Swiss franc - one of the most stable currencies in the world. The National Bank is controlled by the federal authorities and has great influence on the economic policy of the confederation. The Swiss private banking system in the 1990s consisted of several large commercial banks, members of the Big Four: Schweizerischer Bankverein (SBF), Schweizerische Bankgesellschaft (SBG), Schweizerische Kreditanstalt and Schweizerische Volskbank. In 1997, the "Big Four" became the "Big Three" after the merger of the SBG with the SBF. There are also 28 cantonal banks, hundreds of regional and savings banks, financial campaigns and other banks, 20 of which are owned by foreigners. The role of foreign banks is increasing: in the late 1990s they owned more than 10% of Swiss banking holdings. Depositors have long been attracted to Swiss banks: in accordance with the Swiss banking law of 1934, banks are prohibited from providing information about their clients without their consent. Under pressure from other governments, especially the United States, regulations have been passed to allow the disclosure of deposits, especially when depositors are under investigation for currency crimes such as counterfeiting and insider trading. After much debate, the Swiss government in the late 1990s also allowed the secrets of deposits to be revealed in connection with the search for funds belonging to victims of the Nazi genocide. The Swiss Stock Exchange is one of the most active international markets for trading stocks and bonds. The exchange in Zurich is the largest in continental Europe. Switzerland also plays an important role in the global insurance market, especially in the field of commercial insurance. Some leading Swiss insurance companies derive more than half of their income from operations on the foreign market.
Tourism. The tourism industry is one of Switzerland's vital sources of income. In 1996, over 18 million people stayed in Switzerland on holiday, arriving mainly from Germany, Great Britain, France, the USA, the Benelux countries and Scandinavia.
Public finances. Switzerland's budget is usually more or less balanced, but in the early 1990s, due to the economic downturn, the expenditure side of the budget increased. In 1997, expenditures were estimated at CHF 44.1 billion and revenues at CHF 38.9 billion. The main sources of revenue were income taxes, turnover taxes and import duties.
SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Education. Universal primary and secondary education is the responsibility of the cantonal authorities, so the age limit for compulsory education varies. Most children attend school between the ages of 7 and 15 or 16 years. Almost all public schools are free. There are practically no illiterates in the country. There are many private schools in Switzerland that accept students from all over the world. There are 9 universities in the country - in Basel, Zurich, Bern, Geneva, Lausanne, Friborg, Neuchâtel, Lugano and St. Gallen. All of them are under the control of the cantons. There are many foreign students studying at universities. There are several other higher education institutions. The total number of students in 1997/1998 was 93 thousand.
Development of culture. Switzerland is a country with a rich cultural heritage. She gave the world many outstanding artists, writers and scientists. These are Nikolaus Manuel (1484-1530), a talented artist of the Renaissance, and the physician Paracelsus (c. 1493-1541), who is considered the first natural scientist of the modern era. The theologian Nicholas of Flues (1417-1487), who was canonized in 1947, received wide recognition. The activities of the great religious reformers Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531) and John Calvin (1509-1564), as well as prominent psychologists Carl Gustav Jung (1895-1961) and Jean Piaget (1896-1980), are associated with Switzerland. Recognized Swiss artists include Heinrich Füssli (1742-1825), Ferdinand Hodler (1853-1918) and Paul Klee (1879-1940). The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), the sculptor Alberto Giacometti (1901-1966), the architect Le Corbusier (1887-1965), and the teacher Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) were also natives of Switzerland.
Music and dancing. Swiss folk music includes song and instrumental music. A specific song genre of the Alpine mountaineers is yodeling, characterized by rapid transitions from the chest low register of the voice to the high head register (falsetto) and back. Swiss composers are famous: Otmar Scheck (1886-1957), Frank Martin (1890-1974) and Willy Burkhard (1900-1955). Arthur Honegger (1892-1955), who belonged to the modern French school, had Swiss parents, and he began to study music in Zurich. Several cities in Switzerland, most notably Zurich, Basel and Geneva, have ballet companies. In 1989, the innovative choreographer Maurice Bejart moved with his dance troupe from Brussels to Lausanne. Expressive traditional folk dances are showcased at national and regional festivals held annually in Switzerland.
Literature. Swiss literature has a rich tradition. Johann Bodmer (1698-1783) and Johann Brettinger (1701-1776) influenced German literature. The famous writer Germaine de Stael (1766-1817) had Swiss parents. Writer and educator Johann Rudolf Wys (1781-1830) is best known as the publisher of Swiss Robinson, a book written by his father, Johann David Wys (1743-1818). Johanna Spiri (1827-1901) became famous as the author of the classic children's book Heidi.
Other famous Swiss writers include Jeremiah Gotthelf, Gottfried Keller, Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, Rodolphe Tepffer and Karl Spitteler. Swiss writers of the 20th century. Albert Steffen and Charles Ferdinand Ramus (1878-1947), Max Frisch and Friedrich Dürrenmatt created many wonderful works. Payder Lancel, writing in Romansh, gained a reputation as an outstanding poet. The Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt is known for his work The Culture of Italy in the Renaissance, and Johann von Müller (1752-1809, he earned the honorary nickname of the “Swiss Tacitus”) for his work Swiss History.
STORY
Creation of the Swiss Confederation. Among the Celtic tribes that inhabited the territory of Switzerland in prehistoric times, the Helvetii stood out, becoming allies of the Romans after they were defeated by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Bibractus in 58 BC. e. In 15 BC The Rhaetae were also conquered by Rome. In the next three centuries, Roman influence contributed to the development of the culture of the population and its Romanization. In the 4th-5th centuries. AD The territory of present-day Switzerland was captured by the German tribes of the Alemanni and Burgundians. In the 6th-7th centuries. it became part of the kingdom of the Franks and in the 8th-9th centuries. was under the rule of Charlemagne and his successors. The subsequent fate of these lands is closely connected with the history of the Holy Roman Empire. After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire, they were captured by the Swabian dukes in the 10th century, but they were unable to keep them under their rule, and the region disintegrated into separate fiefs. In the 12th-13th centuries. Attempts were made to unite them under the rule of large feudal lords, such as the Zähringens, the founders of Bern and Fribourg, and the Habsburgs. In 1264 the Habsburgs gained a dominant position in eastern Switzerland. The Counts of Savoy gained a foothold in the west. The Habsburgs encountered strong resistance when they tried to unify their domains by abolishing the privileges of some local communities. At the center of this resistance were the peasants living in the mountain valleys of Schwyz (hence the name of the country Switzerland), Uri and Unterwalden. These forest cantons, located along the strategically important road over the Gotthard Pass, benefited from the struggle between the Hohenstaufen emperors and the papacy. In 1231, Uri, and in 1240, Schwyz received the rights of imperial territories of the Holy Roman Empire, freed from dependence on petty feudal lords. After the death of Emperor Frederick II in 1250, the empire entered a period of decline, marked by civil war during the Great Interregnum of 1250-1273. The Habsburgs, who did not recognize the rights of Uri and Schwyz, tried to conquer Schwyz in 1245-1252. Uri and Unterwalden came to his aid and entered into a temporary alliance. In August 1291, the Swiss communities entered into a permanent defensive alliance and signed a treaty known as the "Eternal Alliance", the first documented evidence of cooperation between the forest cantons. This year marks the beginning of the official history of the Swiss state. Part of the traditional legend about these events, associated with the name of William Tell, is not confirmed in historical documents.

Growth and expansion of the confederation. The first proof of the strength of the confederation was given in 1315, when the highlanders of the forest cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden faced superior forces of the Habsburgs and their allies. At the Battle of Morgarten they won what is considered one of the most important victories in Swiss history. This victory encouraged other communities to join the confederation. In 1332-1353, the cities of Lucerne, Zurich and Bern, the rural communities of Glarus and Zug entered into separate agreements with the three united cantons, forming a number of confederations. Although these agreements did not have a common basis, they were able to ensure the main thing - the independence of each of the participants. Having been defeated at the battles of Sempach in 1386 and Näfels in 1388, the Habsburgs were finally forced to recognize the independence of the cantons, united in a confederation. At the beginning of the 15th century. The confederates felt strong enough to go on the offensive. During numerous wars and campaigns against the Austrian Habsburgs and the Holy Roman Empire, the Dukes of Savoy, Burgundy and Milan, and the French King Francis I, the Swiss gained a reputation as magnificent warriors. They were feared by their enemies and respected by their allies. During the "heroic age" of Swiss history (1415-1513), the territory of the confederation expanded by annexing new lands in Aargau, Thurgau, Vaud, and also south of the Alps. 5 new cantons were created. From 1513-1798 Switzerland became a confederation of 13 cantons. In addition to them, the confederation included lands that entered into an alliance with one or more cantons. Constant central authority was absent: all-Union Sejms were periodically convened, where only full-fledged cantons had the right to vote. There was no all-Union administration, army or finance, and this situation remained until the French Revolution.
From the Reformation to the French Revolution. In 1523 Huldrych Zwingli openly defied the Roman Catholic Church and led a movement for religious reform in Zurich. He was supported by residents of a number of other cities in northern Switzerland, but in rural areas he met resistance. In addition, differences arose with the radical Anabaptist wing of his followers in Zurich itself. The Zwinglian movement of Protestantism subsequently merged with the movement of John Calvin from Geneva into the Swiss Reformed Church. Since the cantons of central Switzerland remained Catholic, a schism along religious lines was inevitable. After short religious clashes, an approximate balance was established between both religions. In 1648, Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was officially recognized by the Treaty of Westphalia. Political life of Switzerland in the 18th century. was calm. The Bernese naturalist and poet Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777), the historian J. von Müller, as well as the Geneva-born philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau and the great educator and humanist from Zurich I. G. Pestalozzi became famous in the “Age of Enlightenment.” At this time, a stream of foreign guests rushed to Switzerland, among them Voltaire, Gibbon and Goethe.
Revolution and restoration of the Confederacy. The French Revolution had a profound impact on Switzerland, both politically and philosophically. In 1798, French troops invaded the country and occupied it. The French provided the conquered cantons with a constitution that replaced the loose federation with a "single and indivisible Helvetic Republic." Revolutionary ideas of democracy, civil liberties and centralized power led to the creation of a strong centralized government for the first time in Swiss history. The Constitution of 1798, based on the constitution of the first French Republic, provided all Swiss with equal rights before the law and a code of civil liberties. However, it encroached on traditional federalism, and many Swiss did not want to recognize it. The struggle between federalists, opponents new system, and the centralists who supported it, temporarily subsided when Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802 granted the Republic a constitution known as the “Act of Mediation (mediation)”. It restored many of the cantons' previous privileges and expanded the number of cantons from 13 to 19. After Napoleon's defeat, the cantons disassociated themselves from the regime imposed by the French and tried to revive the old confederation. After lengthy negotiations, a Treaty of Union was developed, signed in September 1814. It proclaimed a union of 22 sovereign cantons, but did not indicate that they constituted one state. In the declaration of the Congress of Vienna (March 1815) and the Treaty of Paris (November 1815), the great powers recognized the eternal neutrality of Switzerland.
Civil war and the new constitution. Over the next three decades, liberal sentiment grew in Switzerland. In response to the actions of radicals in the Diet and in some cantons (closing of monasteries in Aargau, expulsion of the Jesuits), seven conservative Catholic cantons formed the Sonderbund defensive union. In 1847, the Sejm, by a small majority of votes, announced the dissolution of this association. The federal army, under the leadership of General Guillaume Dufour, won the civil war before European powers could intervene in the conflict. As a result of the victory over the Sonderbund, a new constitution was adopted (1848). A balance was achieved between the aspirations of the centralist radicals and the federalist conservatives. From a fragile union of cantonal states, Switzerland turned into a single union state. A permanent executive body was created in the form of a federal council of seven members elected by the legislature from two chambers - the national council and the council of cantons. The federal government was given the power to issue money, regulate customs regulations and, most importantly, determine foreign policy. Bern was chosen as the federal capital. The revised constitution of 1874 and subsequent amendments further strengthened the power of the federal government without jeopardizing the federal basis of the Swiss state. In the last decades of the 19th century. Swiss industry developed and railway construction began. Imported raw materials were processed into high-quality products, which were then supplied to the world market.
Switzerland in the world wars. With the outbreak of the First World War, a threat arose to the national unity of Switzerland: the French-speaking Swiss mainly sympathized with France, and the German-speaking Swiss with Germany. The four-year mobilization placed a heavy burden on the country's economy, there was a shortage of industrial raw materials, unemployment grew, and there was a shortage of food. General discontent resulted in mass strikes in November 1918. In 1919, Geneva was elected as the headquarters of the League of Nations. Switzerland became a member of this organization only after heated internal debates and after receiving guarantees of its neutrality. The outbreak of World War II found the country's population more united: few people in Switzerland welcomed Nazism. However, strategically the position of the confederation was much more vulnerable, since it was surrounded by totalitarian powers.
Foreign policy. With the end of World War II, the League of Nations ceased to exist. Switzerland decided not to join the newly created United Nations (UN) and acquired observer status, which allowed the European headquarters and several specialized UN organizations to be located in Geneva, including the International Labor Organization and the World Health Organization. Switzerland considered that refusal to join the UN was the best way to maintain its independent position as a neutral country in the ever-changing balance of power on the world stage. This decision strengthened Switzerland's position in international politics. The country is a member of several UN organizations: the International Court of Justice, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Switzerland provides significant assistance to developing countries. Following a traditional policy of neutrality, Switzerland faced great difficulties in participating in various European integration plans in the 1950s and early 1960s. In 1948, it joined the Organization of European Economic Cooperation, but refrained from joining the European Economic Community (later the European Union, EU). The obvious political goals of this organization were unacceptable to Switzerland. However, it became one of the founding countries of the European Free Trade Association in 1959, and in 1963 it joined the Council of Europe, again demonstrating its interest in European cooperation. In 1972, a national referendum ratified a free trade agreement with the EU, according to which tariffs on all industrial products were gradually removed by 1977. In 1983, Switzerland became a full member of the Group of Ten, the grouping of the largest savers of the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
Political and social changes. In the 1960s, Switzerland faced a severe internal problem. Several French-speaking districts located in the Jura Mountains in the canton of Bern demanded the formation of a new canton. This met with resistance from the German-speaking population of the region. Federal troops were brought in to prevent clashes. In the early 1970s, voters in the canton of Bern approved a referendum in the French-speaking districts on the issue of secession. As a result of a series of plebiscites held over a number of years, three of the seven districts and several border communities voted to create a new canton. This new canton was named Jura. The decision was then approved by a national referendum in 1978, and the new canton joined the confederation in 1979. In the 1960s, noticeable tensions arose over the issue of the large number of workers from southern European countries coming to work in Switzerland. Despite the traditional international character of the country and the need for foreign participation in its economic life, many Swiss were hostile towards migrants from southern Europe and considered them to be responsible for the country's internal problems, such as the housing shortage. Accordingly, the government introduced restrictions that sharply reduced the share of foreigners among the workforce. The political movement, which demanded a further reduction in the number of foreign workers, did not achieve much support in the elections, but was able to organize referendums in 1970, 1974 and 1977 on constitutional amendments to limit the share of foreigners in the Swiss population. These proposals were not approved, but attempts to limit the presence of foreigners in Switzerland continued in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1982, voters rejected a government proposal to liberalize rules governing the stay of foreign workers and their families, and in 1987 immigration was further restricted. In 1994, referendum participants approved a tightening of the law on the stay of foreigners. Nevertheless, the contingent of foreign workers remains large - 25% of the total number of employees. At the same time, the number of foreign nationals living in Switzerland has increased to approximately 1.4 million. Many of them are refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina and developing countries. In the mid-1980s, the Swiss government made attempts to end the country's isolation and conclude a number of bilateral and multilateral agreements with EU countries. In a 1986 referendum, Swiss voters overwhelmingly rejected the government's proposal to join the UN, but six years later they voted for Swiss participation in the IMF and the World Bank. In December 1992, seven months after the government announced Switzerland's intention to join the EU, the population rejected the proposal to join the European Economic Area, which since January 1994 has included the countries of the European Free Trade Association with the EU in a single free trade area. Switzerland's attitude towards the gradually strengthening EU remained a stumbling block for foreign policy countries in the late 1990s. The 1995 elections revealed a growing polarization of voters' opinions on this issue. The greatest success in them was achieved, on the one hand, by the Social Democrats, who actively support integration, and on the other, by the right-wing Swiss People's Party, which opposes not only joining the EU, but also against participation in the European Economic Area and cooperation between Switzerland and other trading countries. and political unions. The decision taken in 1996 to allow the Swiss armed forces to participate in the maneuvers and technological programs of the Partnership for Peace organization caused violent protests in the country. Controversy over monetary contributions from victims of Nazi genocide. In the late 1990s, the Swiss government was involved in an international dispute over the return by private Swiss banks of gold and other valuable property confiscated by Nazi Germany during World War II from victims of the genocide. The subject of discussion was also the cash deposits and valuables placed by European Jews in Swiss banks before and during the war in order to protect them from capture by the Nazis. Immediately after the war, Switzerland agreed to return the stolen deposits to the victims and their heirs. But in court cases that attracted much public attention in the mid-1990s, private plaintiffs and Jewish legal groups argued that Switzerland had failed to live up to its obligations and accused Swiss banks of preventing heirs from accessing "frozen" accounts. deceased investors. Since 1996, American local and federal politicians and organizations have launched a campaign to return the so-called. Nazi gold, and many US municipalities, including New York City, threatened to impose economic sanctions against Swiss banks if the latter refused to assist the plaintiffs. In August 1998, the Schweizerische Kreditanstalt banking group and the SchBF agreed to pay $1.25 billion in compensation to the victims of the genocide and their heirs. After this, threats of sanctions were stopped. The controversy damaged Switzerland's international prestige and caused outrage in the country. The US and European media often portrayed Swiss bankers and diplomats as extremely unsympathetic people who showed indifference to the claims of genocide victims. Public attention was also drawn to the aid that came to Nazi Germany from Switzerland. Despite the country's neutrality, Swiss industrialists supplied raw materials and industrial products to Hitler's Germany. Many Swiss politicians felt that US officials were portraying them as villains; The Swiss were of the opinion that the agreement reached was a capitulation to outside pressure, humiliating for the nation as a whole.
The fight for women's rights. The women's enfranchisement movement, which first achieved success in the French-speaking cantons in the late 1950s, achieved its main goal only in 1971, when women gained the right to vote and be elected in federal elections. However, in a number of cantons, women continued to face obstacles for a long time in exercising their voting rights in local elections. In 1991, in the German-speaking semi-canton of Appenzell-Innerrhoden, the last Swiss territory to oppose women's emancipation, they gained the right to participate in annual meetings of voters. The next step was the adoption of a constitutional amendment in 1981 guaranteeing equal rights for women. In 1984 Elisabeth Kopp became the first woman elected to a federal council. In 1985, women were granted equal rights in the family (before this, the husband was considered the head of the family, which allowed him to unilaterally manage family finances and not allow his wife to work). In 1991, the city council of Bern decided that its membership should not be more than 60% of the same gender.
Environmental protection measures. The transit position of Switzerland in the system of meridional European transport carried out by heavy vehicles has complicated environmental situation on the country's mountain roads. In addition, exhaust fumes contributed to the destruction of forests that protect mountain villages in Switzerland from avalanches and mudflows. To reduce exhaust gas emissions from vehicles, the Swiss government introduced road taxes in 1985, established a maximum weight limit for vehicles (28 tons), and limited traffic at night and on weekends. In a 1994 referendum, voters approved a decision that by 2004 foreign commercial cargo would have to be transported through Switzerland only by rail.
Economic development. Until the end of the 1980s, Switzerland had a positive budget balance. Its economy was characterized by low inflation, low unemployment and low interest rates. In 1988 and 1989, budgets exceeded revenues by $900 million and $300 million, respectively, and unemployment in 1987 reached a record low of 0.7%. However, rising inflation (6% in 1991) prompted the Swiss National Bank to raise interest rates and limit the issue of money. In the early 1990s, there was a recession in the country's economy. Although gross domestic product contracted by less than 1% between 1991 and 1993, the unemployment rate reached 3.6% in 1992 and 4.5% at the end of 1993, mainly due to a decline in construction and engineering jobs. In 1994 there were signs of economic recovery, especially in international financial services, but unemployment in manufacturing and other industries continued to rise. In 1997, the situation improved due to increased exports, demand revived, and investments increased, but investment in construction continued to decline.
LITERATURE
Sabelnikov L.V. Switzerland. Economics and foreign trade. M., 1962 Mogutin V.B. Switzerland: big business in a small country. M., 1975 Dragunov G.P. Switzerland: history and modernity. M., 1978 A manual on democracy: The functioning of a democratic state using the example of Switzerland. M., 1994 Schaffhauser R. Fundamentals of Swiss communal law using the example of communal law of the canton of St. Gallen. St. Petersburg, 1996

Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

Bern is often called the capital of Switzerland, although this is not entirely true. The fact is that in the constitution of the Alpine Republic there is no such concept as a “capital” at all, but there is a city of federal significance where the main authorities are located. Moreover, this city is not fixed in the main law of the country, and the responsibility to determine the actual capital (and at the same time the place of their work) is assigned to members of the bicameral parliament. And for more than one and a half hundred years, people's representatives have preferred Bern, a German-speaking city located in the very center of the country. In the mid-19th century, when the constitution was adopted, its competitors included Zurich and Lucerne. I won’t say anything about Lucerne, but Zurich () seemed to me a sterile, cloying, boring city. Bern is more interesting. So the choice of the Swiss parliamentarians is clear to me. Although, perhaps, the relative “gaiety” of Bern is not the reason, but a consequence of its capital status.

Despite its special status, there is no airfield where large planes could land in Bern. We flew through Zurich. The journey by road took an hour and a half

The city is located on the banks of the Aare River

The Bundeshaus is where both houses of parliament sit: the National Council (lower) and the Council of Cantons (upper). The building was built soon after it was decided that Bern would become the political center of the country, that is, in the middle of the 19th century.

There is a modern fountain in front of the Bundenhaus. On the platform, indistinguishable from the pedestrian part, either one or a dozen jets of water burst out at once. Passersby need to be alert.

But Bern is famous not for its modern, but for its ancient well fountains, the water from which you can drink.

According to legend, the first such springs began to be built back in the 13th century - first wooden, later stone.

We walk through the historical center, which is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site

In the forties of the 16th century, the fountains were decorated with stone statues. Pictured is the statue of Justice (1543)

At Themis’s feet are figures of august persons

Episodes from the film "17 Moments of Spring", which took place in Bern, were filmed, as is known, in the Baltic states. But this did not stop us from conveying the atmosphere of the city. It seems that somewhere here Professor Pleischner was intoxicated by the air of freedom...

But now the flowers are in place, we can move on...

One of the main symbols of the city is the Gothic Bern Cathedral

The Protestant cathedral was founded back in 1421, and the spire was completed in 1893. As you can see, now the structure, which took four centuries to build, is being reconstructed.

View of the city from the Kirchenfeldbrücke bridge

Another stone fountain in the Marktgasse alley

Bicycle parking. By the way, in Bern there are also those where bicycles are left for the use of everyone. The fact is that throwing it away will cost more - you will have to pay something like a recycling fee.

A street leading to another symbol of Bern - the Zytglogge (Clock Tower)

Market in the Bundeshaus district

Swiss cheese

Berne founded at the end of the 12th century by the Burgundian Duke Berthold V of Zähringen. To build a city, which in the future will become administrative capital of Switzerland A long and narrow piece of land was chosen, formed by the winding bed of the Are River. According to legend, the Duke vowed to name the new city in honor of the first animal he killed while hunting in the surrounding forests. As you might guess, it turned out to be a bear (German: “Bär”). Thanks to its geographical location, Bern quickly became a major trading city, soon gaining political and military power.

After the death of Berthold V, his brainchild became part of the Holy Roman Empire, receiving the status of an imperial city. This was not enough for the local monks, and they, skillfully forging the “Golden Charter of Bern”, turned it into an independent state, which it remained throughout its history. In 1353 the city city ​​of Bern became part of the Swiss Union, with it traveled a difficult path to the Confederation, and in 1848, after voting in the National Council and the Council of Cantons, it received the status of “seat of the Federal authorities” (the very concept of “capital of Switzerland” is absent in the Swiss Constitution).

Bern is the capital of Switzerland... almost

“Where should we put them?” - this is the question Berners asked themselves after the city community (gemeinde) supported the decision to locate the Parliament and Government of the country on its territory. The city council had to make room and allocate a place in the Town Hall.

The building of the Berne Town Hall was erected in the first half of the 15th century in a Romanesque style, which was not entirely characteristic of that time, and was crowned with a Florentine roof, which was not at all characteristic of local architecture.

This complex was built from 1894 to 1902 in an impeccable neo-Renaissance style and became the decoration of the main square of the city - Bundesplatz. Its height is 64 meters, the roof is topped with a luxurious dome, inner side which is designed in the form of a mosaic depicting the coat of arms of Switzerland and its cantons.The Bundeshaus hosts meetings of the Federal Assembly and the Federal Council. Each Swiss canton has its own constitution and laws, and the federal authorities are in charge of war, peace, the army, railways, money, foreign relations, the federal budget and some other issues. Everyone can watch the work of the Federal Assembly and the Council: tourist access to the Bundeshaus is open all year round.

But the most significant Bern sights are located in its heart - the Old Town.

Bern - a city without medieval chaos

Since the peninsula chosen by Berthold V for the city had a long and narrow shape, its development was carried out in parallel rows of buildings. Perpendicular rows appeared only in places where the fortress walls were located, which were gradually moved.

Thus, old Bern is a rare example of a medieval city built according to a single plan with uncharacteristically wide streets for that era. Another feature of it is the galleries on the sides of the streets, designed to provide shelter from the rain; their total length is about 6 kilometers.

The famous composition of fountains-wells fits harmoniously into the concept of Old Bern. Initially, they were sources of water supply for the city, but gradually turned into its decoration.

The child eater was most likely created for educational purposes,

and the Zähringen Fountain is dedicated to the city’s founder, Berthold V.

The Old Town is a big landmark of Bern

The entire Old Town has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1983, where every building is a historical and architectural monument. In its southern part stands the famous Bern Cathedral, the largest church in the country, construction of which began in 1421. Previously, there was a small church on this site, which could no longer accommodate all the parishioners and was repeatedly exposed to the elements.

So the people of Bern decided to surprise the world with a huge cathedral. The ambitious project took more than 470 years to implement, resulting in a masterpiece of late Gothic architecture 100 meters high. A colorful bas-relief was placed above the central entrance, realistically depicting an episode of the Last Judgment. The interior of the temple is quite ascetic, since during the Reformation it went to the Protestants, who removed from it everything that was considered unnecessary. Stained glass paintings and figured carvings on the choirs have been preserved from their former luxury.

After 150 years, the temple grew with a bell tower and a new nave. But during the Reformation in 1529, Niedegkirche was turned into a warehouse for storing grain. In 1566, justice was restored, the church was put in order and services resumed. In the 19th century it was significantly expanded, and the courtyard was decorated with a fountain.

On the outskirts of the Old Town

In the western part of the Old Town there is the Zytglogge tower, that very local “celebrity” what to see in Bern Recommended by all guidebooks.

In the 13th century, this tower protected Bern from incursions by uninvited guests; after the city streets moved west, it lost its defensive significance and turned into a prison. It burned down in 1405, after which it was rebuilt as a Clock Tower, and in the 17th century it acquired the appearance that has survived to this day.

Not far from Zytglogge there is another medieval tower - the Prison Tower, built above the city gate. Prisoners were moved into it after the fire of 1405, and in 1641 it was demolished due to dilapidation, a new one was erected in its place, the facade was decorated with the “Greatness of Bern” clock and the city coat of arms. Instead of a prison, an archive was located here, and later a library. Now the Prison Tower houses a small museum dedicated to the business life of Bern.

Its internal layout is made in the form of a circular gallery, decorated with stucco molding and a colonnade. Like all Protestant churches, the Church of the Holy Spirit is distinguished by its discreet beauty.

Bern - birthplace of the theory of relativity

At different times Bern and Switzerland became the refuge of outstanding people. From 1902 to 1907, Albert Einstein lived here and worked as a technical expert at the Patent Office. Subsequently, he would call these 5 years the happiest of his life. It was in Bern that Einstein wrote his famous 3 papers, the first of which gave rise to the theory of relativity, the second became the foundation quantum theory, and the third advanced statistical physics.

In memory of these events, the city authorities converted the house where the scientist rented an apartment into his museum. On the first floor there was a model of the galaxy, on the second - a recreated interior of the home of Einstein's family, on the third - an exhibition telling about his biography and scientific works.

Since 2005, there has been a hall dedicated to the great physicist in the Historical Museum of Bern. It was built in 1894 on Helvetiaplatz. The architectural style of the building became historicism, which was already going out of fashion; the result was a knight’s castle, where exhibits were transported from the Antique Museum, which had become cramped.

The museum's exhibition is divided into 4 thematic sections: history of Bern, archaeological finds, ethnography and numismatics. There are exhibits from the Stone Age, armor of medieval knights, and the numismatic collection includes more than 80 thousand ancient coins.

“A boring, small, but cultural town,” as Lenin called Bern. But the opinion of the leader of the revolution is not shared by everyone who was lucky enough to walk along the cozy streets of almost the capital of Switzerland, where time seemed to stand still in the distant 13th century.

The official name is the Swiss Confederation (Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, Confederation Suisse, Confederazione Svizzera, Swiss Confederation). Located in Central Europe. Area 41.29 thousand km2, population 7.3 million people. (2002). Official languages ​​are German, French, Italian. The capital is Bern (112.5 thousand people, 2001). National holiday - Day of the creation of the Swiss Confederation on August 1 (since 1291). The monetary unit is the Swiss franc.

Member 67 international organizations, incl. UN (since 2002), OECD, UNCTAD, WTO, etc.

Sights of Switzerland

Geography of Switzerland

Located between 8°00′ east longitude and 47°00′ north latitude. The country is landlocked. It borders on the east with Austria (164 km) and Liechtenstein (41 km), on the north with Germany (334 km), on the west with France (573 km), on the south with Italy (740 km). The country's landscape is mainly mountainous: 58.5% of the entire territory (south, southeast, center) is occupied by the Alps, 10% by the Jura Mountains (northwest), the rest falls on the Swiss Plateau (Mittelland), which is located between two main mountain arrays. The highest mountains: Peak Dufour (4638 m), Finsteraarhorn peak (4275 m).

Main rivers: Rhine (within the country - 375 km), Rhone (264 km), Ticino (91 km) - a tributary of the river. Po, Inn (104 km) - tributary of the Danube River. Located on the Swiss Plateau a large number of lakes, the largest: Geneva (581 km2), Constance (538.5 km2). The country's soils are not naturally fertile. In high mountain areas the soil cover is not continuous and is replete with rubble. The Swiss Plateau has brown forest and alluvial soils that are relatively fertile.

IN flora The influence of vertical zoning is clearly pronounced. Up to an altitude of 800 m, cultivated vegetation (meadows, gardens, vineyards) predominates. At an altitude of 0.8-1.8 thousand meters there are deciduous and coniferous forests (they occupy a quarter of the entire territory of the country). Above 2 thousand meters alpine meadows begin.

The fauna is included within the European-Siberian subregion of the Palearctic region. Found (mainly in nature reserves): bear, wolf, hare, deer and mountain goat. In the highlands there are chamois and alpine marmot. The country's climate is also characterized by vertical zonation. On the Swiss Plateau - moderately warm and humid; in the valleys of the southern slope of the Alps - it approaches the Mediterranean; in high mountains it is cold and wet (snow usually does not melt even in summer).

Mineral resources include: hydro resources, timber and rock salt.

Population of Switzerland

Dynamics of population growth since mid. 1950s quite active - the increase occurred by 46% (in 1950 - 5 million people). At the same time, the annual increase reaches 2.4‰ (2002). Net influx of immigrants - 1.37‰. Birth rate 9.84‰, mortality 8.79‰, infant mortality 4.42 people. per 1000 newborns. The average life expectancy is 79.86 years, incl. men 76.98 years, women 82.89 years (2002).

Age structure of the population: 0-14 years - 16.8%, 15-64 years - 67.7%, 65 years and older - 15.5%. The average ratio of men to women is 0.97, but at the age of 65 years and older women predominate - 0.69. The educational level of the population is high. Over the age of 15, 99% of the country's population can read and write. Ethnic composition: Germans (65%), French (18%), Italians (10%) and Romansh (1%). Spoken languages: German-Swiss (High German dialect) - 63.7%, Franco-Swiss (Provençal French dialect) - 19.2%, Italian-Swiss (Lombard dialect) Italian language) - 7.6%, Romansh (Graubünd dialect of the Romanized Rhineland tribes) - 0.6%.

Among believers, Catholics have a slight advantage (46.1%) compared to Protestants (40%).

History of Switzerland

On the territory of modern Switzerland in the 2nd century. BC. lived the Celtic tribe of the Helvetii (after their name the country was called Helvetia in ancient times). Then these lands were conquered by the troops of Julius Caesar (58 BC) and were included in the Roman Empire. In the 3rd-5th centuries. AD The German tribe of the Alemanni began to constantly invade this territory, gradually occupying the entire eastern part. In the 2nd half. 5th century the western regions went to the Burgundians. In the 6th century. these territories became part of the Frankish state. After its collapse (843), the eastern part went to Germany (which later became the core of the Holy Roman Empire), and the western part to Burgundy (this division mainly corresponded to linguistic and ethnic differences).

In 1033 both parts were included in the Holy Roman Empire. Large feudal estates (counties and duchies) began to appear. In the east, the Habsburgs seized dominant positions, in the west - the Savoy counts. But some influential cities (Geneva, Zurich and Bern), as well as the “forest cantons” (Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden) managed to achieve special imperial rights, i.e. gain actual independence.

The Swiss Confederation arose in 1291 as a result of an alliance treaty between the three "forest cantons" to jointly fight for independence against Habsburg rule. Another attempt to subjugate them again ended in the defeat of the imperial troops at Margarten (in 1315), after which other cantons (Lucerne, Zurich, Zug, Glarus and Bern) began to join the alliance of the winners. Thus, a union of 8 cantons emerged, which continued the struggle for independence. In 1388 the Habsburgs were forced to make peace on terms very favorable to the Swiss Union.

In long and almost continuous wars, Swiss military skill reached a high level. In the 14th-16th centuries. the confederation even became the main supplier of mercenary soldiers in the armies of many leading European countries. In con. 15th century Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I made another attempt to make the union of the Swiss cantons dependent again. However, this Swiss (or Swabian) war ended in the complete defeat of the imperial troops. In the concluded agreement (dated 1511), the Swiss Union completely dissolved its connection with the empire and was defined as an independent state (this act received international recognition at the Peace of Westphalia in 1648).

In subsequent years, the territorial expansion of the confederation continued (by 1798 it already included 13 cantons). The process of gradual organizational restructuring of the union began. Within the confederation, there was no permanent central governing body; it was replaced by periodically held Sejms, in which only “full-fledged cantons” had the right to vote. Along with them, there were “allied lands” (Geneva, St. Galen, etc.) and even “subordinate territories” (Aargau, Ticino, etc.). The latter were completely powerless. Contradictions between the participants in the “union of cantons” led to constant fighting and even armed clashes.

The first attempt to create a central government and proclaim the equality of all cantons was made within the framework of the Helvetic Republic (1798), created with the assistance of France. But after the collapse of the Napoleonic Empire, the Swiss Diet adopted (in 1814) a new version of the union treaty on the confederation of the cantons, which again significantly limited the competencies of the central government. The Congress of Vienna (1814 - 15) approved this treaty, the principle of “permanent neutrality” of Switzerland, as well as the accession of new cantons to the confederation (their total number increased to 22).

At the same time, the supreme power, which was again transferred to the Sejm, became less and less effective. In 1832, 7 of the most economically developed cantons (Zurich, Bern, etc.) created the so-called. “Siebenbund” (“Union of Seven”), which demanded a revision of the union treaty (dated 1814). In contrast to it, in 1845 the “Sonderbund” (“Special Union”) arose, which also included 7 cantons, but economically less developed ones with a feudal-clerical society (Schwyz, Uri, etc.). Contradictions grew between the opposing alliances and even began Civil War(November - December 1847), which ended in victory for the bourgeois forces.

In 1848, a new Constitution of the country was adopted, on the basis of which the Swiss Confederation turned from a fragile union of cantons into a single union state. Instead of the Diet, a Federal Assembly was established, consisting of the National Council and the Council of State (Council of the Cantons). Executive branch was transferred to the Federal Council (i.e. the government). In 1874, amendments were made to the Constitution that significantly expanded the competence of the central government, incl. allowing the establishment of state supervision over the activities of the church.

The completed centralization contributed to faster economic development of the country. A single internal market emerged (customs and post offices were united, the monetary system was unified, etc.). Light industry, watch production began to grow at a rapid pace, and eventually. 19th century the emergence of mechanical engineering began. The main prerequisites for the industrialization of the country were the accumulation of capital as a result of intermediary operations in the international financial sphere, a significant influx of technical intelligentsia and skilled labor from neighboring leading European countries. A significant role was played by growing income from the resort and tourism sector, which gradually turned into one of the leading sectors of the national economy.

A large-scale change in the general appearance of the country (as a “quiet and cozy alpine paradise”) was facilitated by increased activity in the formation of new transport infrastructure. Railway construction became of great importance, with the opening of two major tunnels: St. Gotthard (1882) and Simplon (1906). The country gradually turned into the most important European transport crossroads (especially between the North and South of the continent). This factor turned out to be one of the most important in the formation of new “production niches” of the country, focused mainly on world markets. Particularly intensive development of specialized branches of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and chemistry (especially pharmaceuticals) began.

During the 1st and 2nd World Wars, Switzerland remained neutral, but its Armed Forces were very active in protecting national borders (for example, during the 2nd World War, over 200 aircraft were shot down (or interned) in the country's airspace warring countries). Of course, during these wars the country received huge income from fulfilling not only large production orders, but also large-scale intermediary financial transactions.

Modern Switzerland is one of the most highly developed countries in the world. Reliance on the basic principles of “eternal neutrality” allowed it to create an effective democratic society characterized by political stability and economic prosperity. Switzerland has made a particularly significant contribution to the formation of the religious and educational image of modern Europe and the whole world.

Government and political system of Switzerland

Switzerland is a federal republic, the country has a Constitution adopted on May 29, 1874. Switzerland includes 26 cantons (Aargau, Appenzell Ausser - Roden, Appenzell Inner - Roden, Basel - Landscape, Basel - Stadt, Bern, Friborg, Geneva, Glarus, Graubunden, Jura, Lucerne, Neuchâtel, Nidwalden, Obwalden, St. Gallen, Schaffhausen, Schwyz, Solothurn, Torgau, Ticino, Uri, Wallis, Vaud, Zug, Zurich). The largest cities (thousand people): Bern, Zurich (337.9), Geneva (175), Basel (166), Lausanne (114.9).

The principles of public administration of the country differ in some features. The head of state and government (i.e. the Federal Council) is the president. Since January 2003, this position has been occupied by P. Couchepin, the vice-president is R. Metzler. They are elected by the Federal Assembly for 1 year from the members of the Federal Council (it consists of 7 people), which is also formed by it, but for 4 years. The Federal Council includes representatives of the four parties that received the largest number of votes in the elections to the Federal Assembly (two representatives each from the first three parties and one from the last fourth).

The bicameral Federal Assembly consists of the Council of State (i.e. the Council of the Cantons, 46 members elected for 4 years) and the National Council (200 deputies elected by direct popular vote based on proportional representation for 4 years). The last elections to the Council of State took place in 1999 (in different months in each canton), to the National Council on October 24, 1999.

The largest number of votes in the last elections to the National Council were given to: Swiss People's Party (SVP) - 22.6%, Social Democratic Party (SPS) - 22.5%, Radical Free Democratic Party (FDP) - 19.9 % and the Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP) - 15.8%. They account for 80.8% of all votes (the Big Four won all the seats in the State Council).

The highest judicial power is exercised by the Federal Supreme Court. Its members are elected by the Federal Assembly (for 6 years).

The peculiarities of the functioning of the executive and legislative powers are manifested primarily in the annual automatic rotation of heads of state (and government). Switzerland is the only European country in which the principle of a “system of correspondence” of socio-political movements operates. This allows representatives of the “big four” political parties included in the Federal Council to lead the state for a very specific period and pursue their own policies. But in order to succeed in implementing their concept, socio-political parties temporarily at the head of the state must rely on the principles of constant compromise. They need to reach agreement with other members of the Federal Council, who will inevitably also temporarily lead the state.

The “compliance system”, which involves various parties in the process of forming national strategic goals, thus prevents unexpected changes in concepts in the social development of the country; it is able to absorb conflicts and tensions that inevitably arise in a country with many national mentalities and various religions. This process usually develops complexly and slowly, but it is considered one of the main factors ensuring sustainable political stability and identity in the country.

The second feature can be considered the functioning of the principle of a unique Swiss political culture in the form of direct democracy. This system allows every citizen to be directly involved in solving public problems at the cantonal and federal levels. To hold a popular referendum, it is necessary to collect at least 50 thousand signatures to make a decision on the legal provision being developed and 100 thousand to make changes to existing legal norms. When holding national referendums, it is necessary to ensure a majority not only of the population, but also of the cantons.

Leading business associations also have a serious influence on the formation of the basic principles of the functioning of Swiss society. At the same time, the Swiss Union of Industrialists and Traders stands out (it arose in 1870), which constantly guides the main directions of the country’s strategic economic growth. The emphasis is on increasing the share of capital-intensive and knowledge-intensive products in national production. The Association of Swiss Bankers has an equally significant influence on the formation of society. It makes great efforts to maintain the prestigious level of this sector in the global economy. It is especially important to show the inconsistency of the international myth about the so-called. dwarves of Zurich, who, deep in their dungeons, provide a “safe haven” for less than conscientious investors.

Main strategic goal domestic policy- ensuring the sustainability of socio-economic development, stability of the political system and the identity of the country's population. The importance of this problem is determined by the fact that within the Swiss Confederation there is no single common language and national culture. Switzerland unites three leading Eurocontinental ethnic groups, each of which is adjacent to neighboring large countries with a related mentality. Therefore, the main emphasis in solving internal problems is on observing the equal rights of minorities.

The most important mechanism for the consolidation of Swiss society is considered to be the active use of the postulates of the “compliance system” at all levels. The shock-absorbing ability of this principle of government was quite clearly demonstrated during the integration into the government coalition (within the Federal Council) of the radical nationalist party of the famous Swiss multimillionaire K. Blocher. Using populist nationalist slogans (about 19% of the country's total population are foreigners - the highest European figure), this party received almost 1/5 of all votes in the last elections. However, the entry of representatives of national radicals to the highest level of government did not lead to the destruction of the unshakable stability of the country’s socio-political system.

In foreign policy, the most radical changes occurred in March 2002 - Switzerland became a member of the UN. For many years, the Alpine Republic, based on the principles of “permanent neutrality,” avoided membership not only in NATO, the EU, but even in the UN. True, she was a member of some specialized agencies of this organization, and often adhered to the economic sanctions it imposed. The country's attempt to join the UN in 1986 was blocked in a popular referendum; 75% of Swiss citizens were against it. But in March 2002, more than half voted positively, and Switzerland became the 190th member of the UN.

The main reason for such a decisive change in the principles of foreign policy is related to economic factors. The volume of products (and services) produced abroad by leading industrial and financial corporations already significantly exceeds national indicators. Under these conditions, the preservation of the “traditional Alpine isolation” began to threaten Swiss competitiveness in world markets.

The situation is more complicated with the country’s accession to the EU, which accounts for the overwhelming volume of foreign economic turnover. But, according to Swiss analysts, this is more a political issue than an economic one. Believe it's ok. 90% of all economic problems arising from non-entry into the EU have already been resolved as a result of a bilateral agreement (Switzerland - EU) within the European Economic Area. We are talking primarily about establishing the principle of freedom of movement of goods, capital, labor and patents (licenses).

Serious objections to the country's possible accession to the EU are associated with the need to adapt the existing Swiss socio-political system to European norms. The gradual elimination of the basic rather specific postulates of the country’s government (automatic annual rotation of heads of state, “direct democracy” through nationwide referendums, etc.) could damage the identity of the Swiss population and traditional socio-political stability. Recent polls (2002) showed that only 1/3 of the population is in favor of joining the EU, 1/3 is categorically against it and, finally, the rest believe that with their “head” they approve of this process, but their “heart” is strongly against accession to this organization.

The country's armed forces are considered the largest in Europe. The Swiss regular army numbers approx. 360 thousand people (and in conditions of mobilization it can be increased to 500 thousand people within 48 hours). It consists of the Ground Forces, the Air Force, border guards and fortification units (personnel of mountain bunkers). The annual conscription into the army is 42.6 thousand people. (2002). Military spending is $2.5 billion, which is 1% of GDP.

The reserve army is formed on the basis of a “militia system”, according to which a part of the male population (aged 20-24 years) is regularly called up as recruits for military service (18 weeks). The second group consists of reservists who can be called up in conditions of full mobilization. All those liable for military service receive uniforms, weapons, necessary ammunition and even a bicycle for safekeeping at home so that they can independently arrive at their destination in full combat readiness.

Such a large-scale militarization of public life in the Alpine Republic is based on well-defined historical traditions. The centuries-old struggle for independence, the long period of participation of Swiss “mercenary soldiers” as the most professionally trained personnel of many European armies, etc. - all this contributed to the introduction into the public consciousness of the importance of military service to ensure the security and well-being of the confederation. In addition, the army is a kind of symbol of the “Swiss identity” of the inhabitants of this country.

And yet in the end. 2002 began a large-scale military reform, according to which by the end. 2004 The regular army should be reduced threefold (to 120 thousand people). Accordingly, there will be a decrease in the number of recruits (up to 20 thousand people) and reservists (up to 80 thousand people). But it is assumed that military spending will not be reduced. They will be used in large quantities for the development and implementation of the latest military equipment.

Economy of Switzerland

Switzerland is a technologically highly developed country with market economy. The enterprise is focused on the production of high-quality specialized products (within its own “production niche”), most of which are intended for sale on the world market (its own “marketing niche”). The country continues to be one of the world's largest financial centers focused on serving foreign investors.

The country's economic growth rates are traditionally more stable and moderate compared to the European average - 1.5-2% per year. They are less dependent on the state of the economic situation, since the country is dominated by the production of durable goods (and services). GDP volume is $231 billion (2002), which is 0.7-0.8% of world production. GDP per capita 31.7 thousand dollars. Employment 4 million people. (2001), unemployment - 1.9%, inflation - 0.5% (2002).

Sectoral structure of the economy by contribution to GDP: Agriculture- 2%, industry - 34%, service sector - 64%; by number of employees: agriculture - 5%, industry - 26%, service sector - 69% (2002). The features of the economic structure are more clearly identified at the corporate level.

The international appearance of Switzerland's modern industrial structure is determined by a relatively small group of corporations. These are primarily pharmaceutical manufacturers, food giant Nestle and the banking and insurance sector. Pharmaceuticals - undisputed leader Swiss industry. Its position is especially strong in the production of antipyretic drugs, vitamins, anti-cancer interferon, and drugs for the treatment of AIDS. Switzerland accounts for approx. 10% of world production of medicines and almost 30% of world exports. The enterprises employ 85 thousand people. (including 26.5 thousand people within the country). The share of pharmaceutical products in national exports is 20%.

The second basis of the Swiss international “production niche” is made up of specialized mechanical engineering companies (special industrial equipment, precision machines, medical equipment, watch production, etc.). The share of mechanical engineering in the value of national exports is approx. 44%. The number of people employed in the industry is approx. 1 million people (including within the country - 332.7 thousand people). Medium and small specialized firms predominate (approx. 4.2 thousand). In terms of the value of exported engineering products, Switzerland ranks 7th in the world and is among the world's top five in exports of machine tool products.

There are 644 companies operating in the watch industry, employing approx. 39.5 thousand people Share of products in national exports approx. 7.7%. Switzerland remains the world's leading manufacturer of high-quality watch products. Switzerland's share in the volume of manufactured products (27.8 million pieces) is relatively small (7% of the world market), but in terms of the value of watch products (approx. $6.5 billion), the country remains an unattainable leader (52% of the world market).

The latest trends in modern global mechanical engineering (nanotechnology, software, medical equipment, etc.) have allowed Switzerland to quite clearly define its new “production niche.” Based on a number of traditional areas of national industrial specialization (pharmaceutical and precision watchmaking), the largest European cluster of “medical-tech producers” is being formed in the country. According to the OECD, Switzerland was recognized as the country with the best prospects for global success in knowledge-intensive industries (2001).

The country's banking and insurance sector is also a traditional specialization of the Swiss economy. Almost 1/3 of the annual global volume of financial transactions occurs in Switzerland (approx. 2.0-2.5 trillion dollars).

There are 375 banks in the country (2000), incl. so-called grossbanks (large joint stock companies), cantonal and regional (public ownership), private banks (family ownership), etc. Their total closing balance is CHF 2.1 trillion. fr. (2000), number of employed 112 thousand people, tax contribution provides 12% of all revenues to the state budget. Mainly gross banks (UBS, Credit Suisse), as well as leading private banks (Baloise - capitalization $5 billion, Iulius Baer - $3.5 billion, Vontobcl - $1.9 billion, etc.) are involved in cross-border asset management. ). Cantonal banks are focused mainly on servicing domestic financial transactions.

The main current problem for Swiss banks is related to the growing international claims regarding their use of the principle of “banking secrecy,” which allows some foreign depositors to evade paying national taxes and even “money laundering.” The Swiss banking sector is seeking to rid itself of this “unfavorable image”. Additional tightening is being implemented, obliging banks to more carefully check the origin of any money. But international complaints persist.

In general, the activities of Swiss elite companies within the “industrial and marketing niches” they have mastered are developing quite successfully. In the list of the 500 largest European corporations there is always a solid group from Switzerland (in September 2002 there were 26 of them, in Sweden - 25, in the Netherlands - 22, etc.). But the global economic recession has not spared the “Swiss economic paradise”. Such failures, as a rule, befell corporations that, for the sake of economic expansion, went beyond the boundaries of their traditional specialization.

The country's agriculture is focused mainly on livestock farming (75% of the total value of agricultural products). Highly productive cattle of local dairy breeds (Simmental, Schwyz, etc.) are bred. The vast majority of milk is used to produce high-quality cheese (half of the 725 thousand cows graze exclusively on alpine meadows).

The share of cultivated land accounts for 6.5% of rural land. Cereal crops are insignificant, but viticulture is actively developing. Small and medium-sized farms predominate, with the active development of various types of agricultural cooperation. Its own agricultural sector provides only approx. 60% of national food needs.

Transport and communications in Switzerland occupy an extremely important place in the entire system of European transport communications. Numerous highways of the continent pass through the country (North - South, East - West). In the conditions of the mountainous landscape, the construction of numerous and expensive structures was required: tunnels (Simplonsky - 19.7 km; St. Gotthard - 14.9 km, etc.), bridges, viaducts, etc. Two new transalpine tunnels are currently under construction; this infrastructure project is considered the largest in Europe.

The length of the railway network is 4406 km (almost completely electrified). The length of highways is 71.1 thousand km (including 1638 km of highways). River navigation is carried out along the Rhine (45 km from Basel to Schaffhausen), as well as on 12 lakes. The main river port is Basel. The merchant fleet includes 26 ships (including 7 foreign ones). These include: 15 dry cargo ships, 6 container ships, 4 chemical tankers. There are two pipelines in Switzerland: for pumping crude oil - 314 km, for transporting natural gas - 1506 km. 66 airports (including 41 with a paved runway).

Telephone communication is automated. Cable and microwave radio systems operate within the country. The external part is provided through near-Earth satellite stations (Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean). The number of people connected to the phone is 4.82 million people. (1998), there are 3.85 million mobile phone owners. (2002).

The tourism industry plays a vital role in economic development countries. A century and a half ago, it was income from the hotel business that turned out to be one of the financial sources for the development of national industry. The modern tourism development strategy is based on the concept of using two favorable natural conditions. The most prestigious tourist centers in Switzerland are located either close to famous mineral water springs (for example, San Moritz), or near mountain ranges that are landscaped for skiing (for example, Zermatt). The country has 50 thousand km of pedestrian tourist roads.

Economic and social politics country is aimed primarily at maximizing the use of the potential competitive advantages of the national economy ( high quality and product reliability, specialization in the production of special-purpose products, focus on foreign markets, etc.). Particular attention is paid to identifying and forming new “production niches” (for example, massive support for emerging clusters of biopharmaceuticals and medical technology).

In a broad sense, public finance is increasingly focused on stimulating the most effective solution to two main economic (social) problems. First of all, it is necessary to increase the efficiency of the entire education system through the integration of science and practice. The use of more qualified personnel in the economy should ensure constant innovative progress. The second problem is the need for significant modernization of transport infrastructure, which will decisively ensure the profitability of the newest types of production. This will happen as a result of a large-scale entry of products into world markets and a noticeable influx of foreign entrepreneurial capital (the construction of the two largest transalpine tunnels is being carried out with budgetary funds). The declared goal of Swiss economic policy is to establish the country as one of the world's leading centers of technology and research.

Success in solving social problems is usually closely linked to increased economic efficiency. Modern social conditions in the country are considered one of the best in the world. But recently, due to the rapid aging of the population, some imbalance has arisen in the state pension system. It is known that Switzerland has huge gold reserves. They amount per capita to approx. 10 ounces, which is 10 times higher than in the US and Europe. Some political groups (especially populist radical nationalists) propose using these gold resources to strengthen the financial basis of the state pension system.

In the 1990s. public finances were characterized by an increase in the budget deficit and public internal debt. In the 21st century Significant progress has been made in addressing these problems. The state budget has become balanced, i.e. the amounts of financial receipts and expenses became equal ($30 billion in 2001). The growth of domestic debt has stopped, and the country has no external debt.

The country's monetary policy is carried out by the Swiss National Bank. It is aimed primarily at solving three main problems: ensuring monetary stability, strengthening the position of the Swiss franc, and maintaining low lending rates (the country is traditionally considered such a zone).

The world market has long become the main factor in the business cycle in Switzerland. Therefore, the principle of diversification of foreign economic relations is actively used, which makes it possible to reduce the negative impact of economic downturns on the stability of the national economic situation. At the same time, the emphasis is on gaining powerful positions in those sectors and industries that are least exposed to cyclical fluctuations in production.

Switzerland is among the top ten world exporters of capital and the second ten exporters of goods. Switzerland has already shifted a significant part of its industrial production outside the country. In terms of the volume of accumulated foreign direct investment ($215.2 billion), Switzerland ranks 5th in Europe (2000). Switzerland is the undisputed world leader in terms of their cost per capita (27 thousand dollars) and when compared with GDP (89.2%). Swiss companies employ 1.73 million people abroad, i.e. 43.3% of the number of workers within the country. This figure is the highest in the world. In the field of foreign trade, Switzerland occupies a more modest position. Merchandise exports amounted to $100.3 billion (2002). Main export partners: EU - 61%, USA - 10%. Import of goods - $94.4 billion. Main import partners: EU - 79%, USA - 5.1%.

Switzerland is among the top ten major exporters of direct investment to the Russian Federation (in 2002 - $0.7 billion). Some elite companies have already created powerful production units (Nestle, ABB, Holcim, etc.). But the majority continues to trade Russian market, although some are already starting to implement production projects (Novartis, Roche, Swatch Group, etc.). Leading banking and insurance companies (UBS, Credit Suisse, Zurich) are also very active. Swiss capital is preparing for large-scale development of the promising Russian market.

Science and culture of Switzerland

There are many universities in the country, in almost every major canton, the oldest of which is located in Basel (since 1460). Switzerland has always had a reputation as a promising developer of innovative technologies, but in their development it is clearly inferior to other countries. To overcome this shortcoming, a special fund “Swiss Network of Innovation” (SNI - RSI) was created.

Two well-known Federal Higher Schools of Technology were chosen as the main locomotives: in Zurich (ETH) and Lausanne (EPFL). They prepare approx. 18-20 thousand students to work at Swiss high-tech firms, as well as at the Center for Electronics and Microelectronics (CSEM), an IBM research laboratory (near Zurich).

The activities of, for example, the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) are based on the principle that “a breakthrough in science and technology occurs, as a rule, at the intersection of traditional disciplines.” Therefore, 12 faculties were merged into 5 larger ones, and many interdisciplinary centers emerged. This higher school has approx. 5.5 thousand listeners, incl. 800 postgraduate candidates, 400 people. receive a second education. The teaching staff is 210 professors and 2.4 thousand specialists, entrepreneurs and administrators (3/4 of them receive their basic salary from external sources). Particular emphasis is placed on medical engineering, biotechnology, digital modeling, information and telecommunications systems. Switzerland confers big hopes on the success of the implementation of such a model. By number Nobel laureates per capita the country ranks 1st in the world.

Among the outstanding personalities who lived and worked in Switzerland, one can highlight, first of all, prominent religious figures of the Protestant movement: W. Zwingli and J. Calvin. The leading philosopher of the Enlightenment era is considered to be the Genevan J.-J. Rousseau. The famous Swiss architect J.-E. Corbusier remains iconic figure in modern urban planning.