What is the verb sequential actions. The concept of the mode of verbal action
(way verb action, feasibility, Aktionsart), a type of modification of the verbal action, expressed by certain word-building means (prefixes, suffixes, a combination of a prefix and a suffix or a prefix and a postfix). Yes, the verb make a noise represents an initiatory mode of action denoted by the verb make noise, walk around- multiple mode of action from the verb walk, cough- intermittent softening mode of action from the verb cough, a cough- a single mode of action from the same verb, etc.
The mode category is closely related to the view category. According to A.V. Isachenko, the type and mode of action are different manifestations of the same phenomenon, which are in additional distribution. Therefore, the verb associated with some original verb of the opposite form is either its aspectual correlate or its regular semantic modification, i.e. way of action. Thereby, hallmark ways of verbal action it turns out that they have no specific correlates. This point of view is shared, however, not by all aspectologists. The most compelling argument against including the feature of aspectual disparity in the definition of the mode of action is the fact that the ban on the formation of the secondary imperfective in Russian is almost always not absolute: for example, the forms buy up or fade(inconsistent to buy and bloom) are simply normative, and forms like sit out keep watch, get sick or get loose do not contradict Russian morphological system and constantly appear in speech.
At present, the approach is more accepted, according to which the type and mode of action are considered as phenomena different order, although they belong to the same conceptual sphere. Namely, the view is grammatical category, and the mode of action is derivational. At the same time, since the content side of both categories is largely common (the internal structure and the way the action flows in time), in principle, one and the same verb can turn out to be at the same time a specific correlate to some verb of the opposite kind, and one of its modes of action - if it simultaneously satisfies the functional criterion of species correlativity ( cm. VIEW) and in addition, in its form and meaning, it corresponds to one of the modes of action. So, for example, the verb please is also a species correlate to like and its initiatory mode of action - unlike the verb fall in love, which is only a mode of action, but not a species correlate to be in love. Type verbs jump, throw or bite are at the same time a single mode of action to jump, throw and bite and their species correlates. In other words, the content side of the aspect category and the content side of the mode category are very close; the difference between them concerns the functional side and ultimately boils down to the fact that belonging to one of the two types is obligatory for any Russian verb, but belonging to one of the modes of action is not. Yes, we can say He often visited me(multiple mode of action) - if we want to specifically express the idea of \u200b\u200bmultipleness in the verb. But we can describe the same situation with the words He often visited me, leaving this idea unexpressed in the verb.
Most modes of action are derived from verbs imperfect form: by adding a prefix, the process indicated by the original imperfective verb is limited in a certain way - quantitatively or qualitatively (cf. start talking"stop talking" dissuade= "stop talking", speak out all evening, talk about weather, slander nonsense reach an agreement to the point of absurdity, etc.); such methods of action themselves refer to the perfect form - with the exception of those that include the perfective suffix in their formal indicator ( walk willow be, on smatr willow th, at dance ywa t). On the other hand, there are some modes of action formed from perfective verbs ( come up with stories; all the trees in the garden frozen).
The main modes of action of the Russian verb include the following.
Introductory modes of action, which include inchoative and aggressive. An inchoative mode of action is formed using the prefix behind- and belongs to the most productive; it is regularly formed from the designations of homogeneous situations that have neither an initial nor a final phase other than the middle one, for example: make a noise, ring out, meow, whistle, mumble, whisper, drum, stink;fade, fade, get excited, doubt, be capricious, put on airs; come in around the room, run in, dance, breathe etc. Inchoative verbs seem to "cut out" initial segment situation by which the whole situation can be identified. Therefore, the verbs from which this mode of action is derived must describe relatively "simple" situations - those that can be identified in this small segment of their course. Yes, you can say The telephone rang, but not * She called on the phone, - since the action “to call the phone”, in contrast to just “to call”, is not homogeneous: it consists of a sequence of heterogeneous actions united by some goal and comprehended through it. Therefore, most verbs with inchoative behind- denote phenomena perceived by the senses. An important feature verbs of the inchoative mode of action is the absence of secondary imperfectives in them. Inchoative verbs adjoin a number of verbs that could be called improperly inchoative: get sick, bloom, smoke, start talking, sing, catch fire, boil, - having, in contrast to proper inchoative verbs, correlative forms of the imperfective form (respectively: get sick, bloom, smoke, start talking, sing along, catch fire, boil); these correlative imperfective verbs have the meaning of the process of passing the initial phase. The productivity of the inchoative mode of action is manifested in the abundance of neoplasms made according to this model; compare: to respect, to despise, to have, get together home, request walk, sob etc.
Another type of initial meaning is represented by the ingressive mode of action, which includes verbs with the prefix on- . This includes two groups of verbs. On the one hand, these are verbs denoting directed movement; combined with attachment on- they mark the beginning of the corresponding movement (as well as the action as a whole): go, run, fly, ride, jump, rush, blow(about the wind) water(about the rain) knock down(about snow) crumble etc. At the same time, if the inchoative mode of action allows one to “see” the described action, to imagine the mode of flow characteristic of it, the aggressive mode of action only indicates the fact that the action has begun and, thus, is most likely to be carried out. On the other hand, a number of verbs with the prefix on- formed from the verbs of perception and internal state: to seem, to feel, to feel, to imagine, to think, to love, to like. However, all these verbs (with the exception of fall in love) also describe not only the beginning of the state, but also the very fact of its presence.
Delimitative(= restrictive) mode of action is formed from verbs denoting non-limiting processes, using the prefix on- ; Verbs this method actions describe some "portion" of an action, estimated as small and limited by the time during which it was performed, for example: take a walk, ride, live, to play, fly, wave, shut up, work and many others. etc. Verbs of a delimitative mode of action tend to turn into a specific correlate. Yes, the verb eat, depending on the circumstances, can act in both functions, cf .: Eat my ice cream(delimitative mode of action) and Have you already eaten? (used as the aspective correlate of the verb there is). Delimitative verbs never undergo secondary imperfectification; type verbs cough, smoke, walk, which can be taken as secondary imperfectives to cough, smoke, walk, they are not: they represent a different mode of action, namely, intermittent softening, the formal indicator of which is the combination of the prefix on- with suffix - willow-.
perdurative(= long-term-restrictive) mode of action is formed by the prefix pro- and denotes an action that seems to completely "fill" a certain period of time. If we say that a person worked for thirty years at the factory, been idle for three years, lay in bed all day or talked on the phone for an hour and a half, we report that the named period of time has passed and he was completely occupied with this activity. Verbs of perdurative mode of action sit out, lie down, stand still undergo secondary imperfectification, cf.: He every day sits out ten hours at the computer, lies before dinner in bed, idle three hours in line. From other verbs of the perdurative mode of action, the formation of the secondary imperfective is difficult.
Finitive mode of action is formed using the prefix from- and denotes the cessation of some activity or state, emphasizing that the situation has not only ceased to take place, but will no longer take place, cannot continue: Dissuaded a golden grove; faded chrysanthemums have been in the garden for a long time.
Finitive verbs are characterized by compatibility with the word his, introducing into consideration the idea of a certain amount of action, "measured" by fate this person or object, cf.: The car drove off(it doesn’t matter if she had an accident or rotted in a garage, the main thing is that she won’t ride anymore); The clock has gone(broken and impossible to fix); The ship sailed its; I worked mine, off duty, won back, fell out of love, unlearned, exhausted etc. Finitive verbs have some expressive coloring and often contain an evaluative component, moreover, with a non-fixed evaluation sign. Yes, proposal I worked mine can express both regret and pleasure that the speaker will no longer have to work. This mode of action is very productive. It is freely formed from almost any verb denoting unlimited homogeneous processes or states. (Joining the verbs denoting limiting processes, the prefix from- has a completely different meaning, namely, the resultant, presented in a variety of verbs like repair, chip off, scold, rehearse, adjust etc.)
Cumulative(= accumulative) mode of action is formed by the prefix on the- and denotes the "accumulation of the result" of the action: buy(lots of) things put on(lots of) mistakes; file firewood, tune houses, weld jam, promise with three boxes mess up troubles, invent ; piled up , attacked etc. This mode of action is sometimes also formed from not transitive verbs: to mischief, to mischief, to inhale, to spray The verbs of the cumulative mode of action, built on the basis of intransitive verbs of indefinite motion, have an object with the value of time or distance: run into, run into, find(many hours or kilometers). Many cumulative mode verbs contain a slight negative evaluation: not just "a lot", but perhaps "too much". This introduces into the meaning of the verbs of this mode of action a shade of condemnation, sometimes barely noticeable, and sometimes pronounced, - cf. characteristic combinations with a figurative estimated value of the type break firewood. The cumulative mode of action can be formed from both perfective and imperfective verbs: buy(owl) ® buy; break(inn.) ® mess up; come up with(owl) ® come up with; invent(inn.) ® invent. The prefix can be attached to the verbs of the cumulative mode of action on-, forming a verb of a cumulative-distributive mode of action, the meaning of which sometimes includes an additional shade of the variety of accumulated objects: pick up / recruit , fill up/stuff. The verbs of the cumulative-distributive mode of action contain the same disparaging connotation as the proper distributive ones - moreover, this connotation is even intensified, cf.: set up, to open, to invent ,give birth , make mistakes in dictation>, name,to coach etc.
saturative mode of action is formed by attaching the prefix on the- simultaneously with the return particle (postfix) -sya and indicates that the action was carried out until full saturation or even satiety: run into, work up, roll, swim, eat up, gorge, get drunk, get high etc. Verbs of this mode of action are often accompanied by words like enough, relish, satiety, to the point of exhaustion, to waste, blue in the face, to the point of insanity etc. In its content, this mode of action is close to cumulative (and is sometimes interpreted as its special case) - with the difference that the subject itself is in the center of attention. Some of the saturative verbs are used predominantly with negation, cf. He couldn't stop looking at her(see enough); I look I don't look; don't bother with him etc.
Various intensively productive modes of action are formed using a combination of prefixes before-, after-, times- with postfix -sya: get through,play too much, talk.
Achieving mode of action ( to-…-sya ) indicates bringing the action to the desired result by applying great efforts, with difficulty, overcoming obstacles, etc., cf .: get through to someone on the phone, dig down to the truth shout out, get through up to someone wait someone or something, etc. However, the same model can also be used to express, in a certain sense, the opposite idea, denoting bringing an action to an undesirable and not intended result, cf. buy more to pneumonia, drink up to delirium tremens / to green devils, finish smoking to the point of nausea improve to a nervous breakdown, etc.
Circumfix Verbs for-…-sya form a mode of action, which is sometimes called excessively long and which indicates that the action exceeded a certain measure in its continuation, which most likely happened regardless of the will of the subject (because he was too carried away by this action) and, possibly, led to some some negative consequences. For example: stay too long away, start talking, play too much, read out, take a walk, philosophize, make money in this world stale. Verbs adjoining this mode of action ponder, take a look, stare, listen to, daydream. They differ in that they primarily express the idea of enthusiasm, “immersion” in a certain state and do not emphasize the idea of excessive duration.
There is also a group of verbs of an evolutive mode of action with a circumfix times-…-sya , denoting the final phase of a gradual increase in the intensity of the action and, as a result, the achievement of a high degree of realization of a certain state: get sick, get lazy, rage, talk, flare up etc.
Single(= one-act, semelfactive) mode of action is formed by adding the suffix -well- or -anu- and denotes one "quantum" of the activity described by the original verb. Wed with suffix -well- : to swallow - to swallow, to look - to look, move - move, to yawn - to yawn, to swing - to swing, throw - throw, prick - prick, shout - shout, scold - scold, sparkle - sparkle, toss - toss, to pinch - to pinch etc. A single mode of action is formed from verbs denoting simple physical actions, as well as acoustic and optical phenomena. At the same time, the situation described by the original verb can either already consist of these “quanta” (i.e., for example, blink is a repetition of an action. blink; such verbs are called polyphasic or multi-act), or be homogeneous (cf. blow, look, to scold, frighten, go on a spree). In the latter case, the quantification is created by the suffix itself -well-, cf. blow, look, swear, scare, hang out. Verbs on -well- formed from verbs denoting homogeneous processes (such as smear or look), are usually stylistically colored: the components "quickly" and "strongly" contained in the meaning of this mode of action, transforming on the pragmatic plane into the idea of "brute force" and at the same time presenting the action as being performed as if "similarly", create a shade of some cynical swagger, deliberate vulgarity - cf. especially neoplasms of the type smoke, speculate criticize communicate. Beyond the suffix -well- to form a single mode of action, the suffix is also used -anu- , less frequent and with a more pronounced expressive-colloquial or even vernacular coloring, cf. thrash, thrash, say, smear, freak out, shove, rattle, brag etc. All such verbs denote a single action performed sharply, forcefully and rudely, but at the same time it is spoken of with some irony, the speaker treats it as if “not seriously”.
Emollient(= attenuative) mode of action is formed by adding prefixes on- , under- and at- from perfective verbs already containing a prefix: get used to, warm up, have some fun, reflect, dry off, calm down; to forget, get drunk, fed up, save up of money; ponder, lie down, slightly open, open a crack, suspend, lower flag etc. The verbs of the mitigating mode of action mean "to do something lightly, without effort, for a short time" and express a somewhat condescending (but rather benevolent) attitude towards the action itself or towards its subject on the part of the speaker. Verbs of softening mode of action for the most part have a distinctly colloquial connotation.
Multiple(= iterative, frequent) mode of action is formed with the help of suffixes -yva- /-willow-, -wa- , -á- , - the same ones that are used in imperfectivization, but attached to imperfective verbs: to walk - walk, sit - sit, to speak - to speak, hear - hear and hear, to see - see and see, eat - eat, drink - beer, live - live, to know - to know, to be - to be(cf. with imperfectification: rewrite - rewrite, open - open, start - start). AT literary language 19th century there were significantly more multiple verbs. Although almost all of the existing modern language verbs of this type have an archaic coloring, it cannot be said that this model is unproductive. In speech, it is quite common to find frequentatives formed with the help of the suffix -yva-/-willow-, For example: read - read, to lie down - to lie down, stand melt, play - play, ride - ride etc.
intermittent softening mode of action is formed by adding the prefix on- , under- or at- combined with suffix -yva-/-willow- and mean "to do something from time to time and little by little". The most productive model with a prefix on- : smoke, drink, take a walk, cough, ache, walk around, pinch weed, pee poems, fool around, beat wife, etc.
Verbs formed according to this model are of two types. Some denote actions that are identifiable only over large intervals. In response to a question What is he doing now? you can say: Drinking wine and smoking; Sitting at the table and writing an article; Lies in bed and reads a book. But you can't: drinking and smoking; sitting and peeing; lie down and respect. Other verbs, on the contrary, denote actual actions and states: cough, gleam, snuffle, wiggle. Some verbs have both types of usage, cf.: The referee is already looking at the stopwatch and Our son is already looking at women. Slightly less common prefixes under- and at- : steal, laugh, play a joke, plow, haggle, limp. Verbs of the intermittent softening mode of action are imperfective. At the same time, it should be emphasized that they are single species, i.e. are not imperfective correlates to verbs of the delimitative mode of action: take a walk does not form a pair take a walk, sit around- to sit etc.
Distributive(= distributive) mode of action is formed by adding a prefix re- or on- ; prerequisite realization of this meaning is the plurality of the object or subject (depending on the transitivity of the verb). The verbs of the distributive mode of action denote an action affecting all objects from the set called the direct object for transitive verbs and the subject for intransitive ones; accordingly, two subtypes are distinguished within the distributive mode of action - object ( interrupt all the dishes rewash all underwear stay at all resorts; transplant to the prisons of all bandits; quarrel with all friends; kiss again all girls; lock up all doors, throw away all rubbish, etc.) and subjective (All the old people in the village died; All her friends by that time already came out married). It is also possible to use both prefixes at once (All animals in the zoo rested; All apple trees for the winter frozen). Verbs of this class often contain a slight shade of cynicism, connected with the fact that the participants in the event are considered as a kind of undivided multitude, and the event itself is considered as something ordinary. From the point of view of their morphological structure, the verbs of the distributive mode of action have the peculiarity that the prefix that forms this mode of action can be attached to the verb of both the perfect and imperfect form, cf .: All old men died/died; All doors locked up/locked up.
The variety of nuances relating to the way the action proceeds and the speaker's attitude towards it, expressed by word-formation means, is no less striking feature of the Russian verbal system than the presence of the grammatical category of aspect in it. As A.V. Isachenko writes, “from the point of view specific gravity means of expression of the Slavic verb, it is the accomplishment, with its unusually rich palette of subtle and subtle shades of meaning, that gives the Slavic verb that versatility and flexibility that knows no parallel in the circle of European languages.
Isachenko A.V. The grammatical structure of the Russian language in comparison with Slovak, vol. II. Bratislava, 1960
Avilova N.S. Verb aspect and verb word semantics. M., 1976
Bondarko A.V. and etc. The theory of functional grammar. Aspectuality. Temporal localization. Taxis. L., 1987
Zaliznyak A.A., Shmelev A.D. Introduction to Russian Aspectology. M., 2000
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The study of the features of the form of verbs different in semantics led to the allocation of lexical and grammatical categories, which are commonly called modes of verbal action. These are groups of verbs that are combined on the basis of the common nature of the course of the action.
For example, such semantically different verbs as scream, swim, etc., have a common semantic component of meaning - the meaning of the beginning of the action.
Ways of verbal action are divided into characterized and uncharacterized. In the characterized general meaning is transmitted with the help of special morphemes, and in uncharacterized ones it is contained in the very root.
Verbs expressing various modes of verbal action are most often of the same kind.
CHARACTERIZED ACTIVITIES
One-dimensional perfective verbs
1. Initial way. Verbs indicate the beginning of an action. For example: In the morning the ray of the morning light will flash, And a clear day will play (P.). This is a large group (in modern Russian, according to dictionaries, there are about 900 of them).
The value of initiative is expressed by prefixes. So, the prefix is attached to the verbs of speech and sound (make noise, meow, laugh); to verbs of movement in space (walk, run) \ to verbs denoting feelings (to worry, to yearn), and to some other groups of verbs.
The initial meaning is also expressed by the prefix po-, which is attached to the verbs of unidirectional movement (swim, run, fly, etc.).
A small group of initial verbs has a prefix vz- (sun-, voz-, voe-): scream, rebel, dream (obsolete), etc.
Verbs of the initiatory mode of action rarely form an aspect pair (for example, sing-sing).
2. Restrictive mode of action. Such verbs denote an action limited to a relatively short period of time. For example: Circumstances once brought us closer, and I now intend to talk about it with a kind reader (P.); I love you with my soul, and I would be glad sometimes to sit with you (P.).
Most often, these verbs also have the meaning of an action limited in the fullness of its manifestation.
The restrictive meaning is expressed by the prefix in y, which, as a rule, is attached to intransitive verbs of state, feelings, speech, movement in space, etc. (cry, have fun, talk, ride, etc.), it attaches the same meaning to verbs movement in a transitional sense (to lead, drive a friend around the city, etc.). These are unpaired verbs.
Most of the verbs of the restrictive mode of action are colloquial vocabulary.
3. Long-term restrictive mode of action. The general meaning of such verbs is actions covering a certain period of time. For example: Jumper Dragonfly sang red summer (Kr.) '> You will understand this when you live here a few more times (P).
These verbs are formed by adding the prefix pro- to the verbs of state, movement, feeling, speech, etc. (run, hold out, oversleep, say the whole break, etc.).
This is a group of single aspect verbs: only in rare cases is it possible to form aspect pairs (sit - sit, stand - stand idle).
As a rule, these verbs belong to colloquial vocabulary.
4. Softening mode of action. The general meaning is actions softened in their intensity. For example: And you are with me, O Lyra, depressed (P.); I heard that you became adept at war in technology (Maltz).
The meaning is expressed by prefixes. So, the prefix is usually attached to prefixed verbs (to spend, to wear out, to hold back, etc.). earn extra money, etc.).
Some verbs of this mode of action form aspectual pairs (to earn extra money - to earn extra money, to raise - to raise, etc.).
As a rule, these verbs function in colloquial speech.
5. Efficient way of acting. "The verbs of this group have a common meaning: the meaning of actually achieving a result or focusing on achieving a result. For example: We just had time to rest and dine when we heard gunshots (P.); Mikhail Averyanych soon got to know everyone (Ch.).
The general value of performance includes several particular ones: completeness (dine, spend the night), distribution (cover, quarrel), intensity (wait, run, swear), accumulation (weld, fly thousands of kilometers).
The verbs of this group are formed with the help of prefixes about- (The clock struck midnight), from- (to have dinner), re- (to reacquaint), to- (to close), to- (to weld, to say), as well as in the prefix-postfix way (to wander, wait, avoid).
As a rule, these are verbs of the same kind. Used primarily in colloquial speech; some of them are colloquial (reach out).
6. Single mode of action. The general meaning of the verbs of this mode of action is the meaning of the action performed at one time, once.
For example: The dog will jump, squeal (P.); The car in which Dasha was traveling remained on the rails, but they cut it with a machine gun (A. "N. T.). They are formed from many verbs denoting specific actions (sip, swing), from verbs of speech, sound (gasp, creak), from the verbs of visual perception (flicker, sparkle).
The way of forming verbs is suffixal, they are formed with the help of the suffix -nu-.
For the most part, these are verbs related to neutral vocabulary.
Some verbs of a single mode of action are formed using the suffix -anu-, which gives the meaning of an intense single action (pull, chop, cut): For example: Ours shook them here, scratched them so much ... (Pol.) The sphere of use of such verbs is - vernacular.
1. Verbs of a long o-p intermittent mode of action. The general meaning is the meaning of the irregular dissection of a non-intense action. For example: The imp was dumbfounded, the Tail was tucked up, completely subdued, He looks sideways at his brother (P.); The general's wife laughed, without ceasing. General Tooise laughed (Ch.).
The method of formation is suffix-prefix, primarily from verbs of a specific action or state of animated subjects (ache, be afraid, glance, cough, walk, etc.). In dictionaries, they are given most often with the mark "colloquial".
2. Verbs of the accompanying mode of action. They denote an action performed together with others and somewhat weakened in intensity. For example: And the queen laugh, And shrug her shoulders, And wink her eyes, And snap her fingers ... (P.); It was my father's brother... at that time, a starving student at Moscow Higher Technical School, who lived on the edge of Moscow (A. Sharov).
The method of formation is prefix-suffixal: prefixes at-, sub- and suffix -iva- (-yva-, -va-) (stomp, hum, sing along).
The group is small. Scope of use - colloquial speech.
3. Verbs in za and m and o-d of a long mode of action. Shared value - the value of the action exchanged between the subjects. For example: I proudly looked at the officials who were whispering among themselves (P.); When the admiral appeared at the market, the merchants usually laughed (Staniuk.).
The way of formation is prefixal-suffixal-postfixal (corresponding, talking, looking at each other).
These are stylistically neutral or verbal verbs.
4. Verbs of multiple mode of action. The total value is the value of the repeated action. For example: Glinka sang this ballad willingly and quite often (V. Serov); Having finished with the usual daily chores, Margarita Nikolaevna sat silently in the front garden until dusk (Koch.).
The method of education is suffixal (know, walk, read, speak, etc.).
It should be noted that these are verbs of an incomplete paradigm: they are used in the forms of the infinitive, the past tense of the indicative mood (mainly), less often participles.
In modern language, the group is unproductive. Scope of use - colloquial.
NON-CHARACTER RIZO BA II AND S E METHODS OF ACTION
This includes verbs of unidirectional and multidirectional mode of action. These verbs are paired according to the method of the verb action: run - run, carry - carry, lead - drive, drive - drive, chase - chase, ride - ride, go - walk, roll - roll, roll - roll, climb - climb, fly - fly, carry - wear, rush - rush, swim - swim, crawl - crawl, drag - drag, drag - drag.
Verbs unidirectional denote an action that takes place in one direction, continuous and in certain moment. For example: Finally he saw that he was going in the wrong direction (P.).
The semantics of multidirectional verbs is more diverse. So, they can denote repetitive actions: She (mother) knew that he goes to the city, goes to the theater there (M. G.); long-term action: I walked around the park, staying away from home (Ch.); an action that has two directions, back and forth: He went on a business trip; indicate the ability to perform an action: The child is already walking. It can also be verbs - characteristics by action. For example: Birds fly. The fish are swimming.
These verbs do not form aspectual pairs, however, they relate to the aspect category in different ways: verbs of unidirectional action, when combined with prefixes, form a new verb of the perfect form (run - run away, run across, run away, etc.), while verbs of multidirectional action when combined with a prefix can retain the meaning of an imperfect form (run - run away, run, run away, etc.).
Methodological note. The concept of the form in the course of the Russian language elementary school is not given, but children are already preparing for the study of this category: general characteristics the verb as a part of speech and when studying tenses, attention is drawn to the difference in questions (what to do? what to do? what I do?
The foundations of the theory of methods of verbal action were laid in the works of A.Kh. Vostokova, A.A. Potebni, A.A. Shakhmatova, V.V. Vinogradov, the founder of the Leningrad Aspectological School Yu.S. Maslova; their study was continued by E.V. Petrukhina, E.N. Remchukova and other scientists.
In modern linguistics, there are two main points of view on this issue: 1) in the narrow sense of the term, actional (that is, relating to some aspect of the action) includes only verbs that have special prefixes and suffixes and characterize the course of the action (N.S. Avilova , A.N. Tikhonov and others); 2) in the broad sense of the term, the action sphere includes all verbal vocabulary (Yu.S. Maslov, A.V. Bondarko, M.A. Shelyakin, etc.). As a working one, we use the second point of view.
There is no generally accepted classification of the ways of verbal action in the science of language. The number of selected methods is quite large: 40–50. They are combined into 2 groups: temporary and quantitative - or into 3 groups: temporary, quantitative and effective. The last classification is considered in the textbook by E.N. Remchukova "Morphology of the modern Russian language. category of the aspect of the verb. – M.: Flinta, Nauka, 2004. – S. 102–134.
We list the main ways of verbal action.
- Verbs initiatory way indicate the beginning of the action: sing, make noise, knock, go, drag and etc.
- Verbs long-term restrictive methods show that the action takes place within a certain time and is limited to this interval: run, run, visit, work, work out etc.
- Verbs finite the way of action is the termination of the process, bringing it to the end or stopping in its course: to dine, win back, take a walk and under.
- Verbs multiple Methods denote an action that is repeated many times: sat, ate, talked, sang, walked etc.
- Verbs one-act method is called an action performed once: jump, knock, butt, clap, wave and etc.
- Verbs multi-act Methods denote an action consisting of several homogeneous acts: wave, flicker, sigh, crow, clap and under.
- Verbs emollient method (incomplete action) is called the action is weakened, moderate, diminutive, limited in the fullness of manifestation: get up, melt, eat, cry, have fun etc.
- Verbs distributive (distributive) ways indicate the dismemberment of the action, the successive achievement of the result: to break, to break, to throw, to drive out and etc.
- Verbs final ways are considered in the system of effective verbs in terms of achieving the result: to read, to write, to finish and under.
All modes of action are closely related to the view category. “Any pair of single-root verbs connected by the relation of the type or mode of action can be called aspectual couple, which has two varieties in Russian: “pure species pair”, expressing the categorical ratio of members of the species opposition ( decide - decide and do - do), and an actional pair, in which the opposition of verbs is carried out both in form and in the mode of action ( sing - sing, jump - jump) or sometimes - only by the mode of action ( to walk - walk)” [Remchukova E.N. Morphology of the modern Russian language. Verb aspect category: Tutorial. – M.: Flint, Nauka. - 2004. - S. 130].
Verbs of quantitative-temporal modes of action, meaning duration or repeated repetition, in the "Russian Grammar" are divided into verbs of multiple, intermittent softening, long-term softening, long-distributive, accompanying, complicated-intensive and long-distributive-reciprocal modes of action.
Verbs of multiple mode of action with the meaning of repeated repetition in the modern Russian literary language make up a very small, ever-decreasing group of verbs. They are formed by adding suffixes - willow-/-va-/-a- to a limited circle of stems of some imperfective verbs with the meaning of non-unidirectional movement, perception, speech, existence and change of position in space, a specific physical action: walk, sew, ride and ride), run, sing, talk, sit, see, hear. These verbs are called multiple or long-past forms, since they are used mainly in the past tense form. “The use of multiple non-prefixed formations mainly in the form of the past tense has been noted by researchers of the Russian language since M.V. Lomonosov". (15, p. 82). Type forms sat, walked have somewhat complicated semantics. They denote not only an action repeated in the (remote) past, but also emphasize that this repeated action at the moment of speech is no longer repeated. E.N. Prokopovich in the book "Stylistics of Parts of Speech" (p. 78) distinguishes multiple non-prefixed forms with suffixes in the system of expressive forms of the past tense - a-/-va-/-iva-(-iva) type spoke, ate, knew, wrote, which are bearers of special meanings: repeated (multiple) repetition of action and duration of action in the past.
A.V. Isachenko (7, pp. 430-432) argues that the past tense forms of multiple verbs have the meaning of the past tense. The long past tense expresses processes that took place in the past (in relation to "at the moment of speech"), but at the present time (at the "moment of speech") are no longer repeated. Relation of processes expressed by forms walked, wrote, to the "long past" follows from the general meaning of the forms of the past tense of the imperfective form. Any form of the past tense of the imperfect form indicates the disunity of this process with the moment of speech.
Rather widely considered forms were common in the literary language of the eighteenth century. They are found in Novikov's satirical magazines, in Fonvizin's comedies, in satirical poems Maikov and other works of Russian literature, closely related in their language and style to the popular spoken language of that time. In the first half of the nineteenth century, multiple non-prefixed forms were quite widely used in the works of Russian fiction of that time: in Krylov's fables, in Griboedov's comedy "Woe from Wit", in the poetry and prose of Zhukovsky, Pushkin, Lermontov.
In his work, E.N. Prokopovich (15, p. 79) notes that a turning point in the use of the forms under consideration occurs in the Russian literary language of the second half of the nineteenth century. They become unproductive, their use is sharply reduced. "As a result historical development outside the living system of species relations, losing their use in a living language, multiple non-prefixed forms still remain in it. At the same time, they receive a new assignment and perform new functions, entering the arsenal visual means language of Russian fiction". (15, p. 78). Multiple verbs serve as a means of style archaization, they are used mainly in the depiction of folk life.
“The range of multiple forms used in the language with negation becomes even narrower. not and meaning the strongest denial". (15, p. 102). Multiple verbs in the form of the past tense with negation have an expressive-amplifying character.
Verbs of multiple mode of action are also formed from prefixed verbs of movement of the imperfect form ( to come, to lead, to lead, to fly in) with the help of morphs willow- and - va-: seeing off, dropping by, grafting, flying in. All of them are stylistic. This ability of prefixed verbs of motion of the imperfect form to form multiple prefixed verbs of motion with the meaning of incorrect repetition of action, with the meaning "to act from time to time" was noted by V.V. Vinogradov. (1, pp. 296-297).
Verbs of intermittent-softening mode of action mean a long and weakened action in its manifestation, carried out from time to time. Such verbs are formed from imperfective verbs using the prefix on- and iterative suffixes - willow- / -yva- / -va- / -a -: walk around, whistle, talk, look, glance, joke, praise, live, rub, ache, call, laugh. Prefix on- indicates discontinuity and incompleteness of the action, introduces a shade of mitigating action, and the suffix indicates duration or repeated repetition. N.S. Avilova (1, p. 296) notes that the verbs of this mode of action are formed from imperfective verbs with different values: from verbs sensual and visual perceptions ( look, look); from state verbs ( to be afraid, to swear); from verbs with the meaning of position in space (sit, lie down, stand up); from polyphasic verbs (tap, jump); from verbs expressing the phenomena of color, smell (shine, sizzle); from verbs of existence (live); from transitive active verbs directed at an object (searching, searching). The formation of verbs of intermittent-softening mode of action from transitive verbs of active action is unproductive. All verbs of this mode of action are colloquial in color and are usually given with the mark " colloquial". “This is correct in the sense that verbs of this type are rarely found in book (scientific, journalistic) genres, but the language of the best Russian prose writers is replete with verbs of this mode of action, not only in dialogic passages, but also in the author’s speech.” (7, pp. 282-283).
Verbs of a long-term softening mode of action mean a long and at the same time weakened action. Such verbs are formed by adding morphs - iva-, -iva- and -va- and prefixes at-, under- and obviously re-, on-, vz- to stems of imperfective verbs with different meanings: from verbs with the meaning “to be busy with what” (to swindle, to joke, to steal, to snap, to bargain); from verbs of sound and speech (howl); from relationship verbs (love, tease); from state verbs (sick); outward manifestations of feelings (play the fool). Here, obviously, one should also include verbs in the same sense of the weakening of a long multiple action, formed with the prefix re-: to call back, to shake; with prefix on the-: hum, sing, whistle, whisper, play; with prefix vz- mainly from bases with a multiple multi-act value: to lick, to flash, to flare, to flinch, to buck, to wave, to flare, to flare.
Verbs of a long-distributive mode of action mean a leisurely flowing action, doing something. N.S. Avilova points out that the long-distributive mode of action gives the verbs the meaning of "spread the action in different directions" or "spend time doing something with a touch of leisure in doing it." (1, p. 298). The verbs of this mode of action are formed using the prefix once- and morphs - iva-, -iva- and - wa- from some verbs of non-unidirectional movement and close to them: walk around, roam; from polyphasic verbs: swing; from verbs meaning "to be busy with what" smoke; from verbs of speech and sound phenomena: sing, talk. Verb speak weakened this meaning in modern language.
The verbs of the accompanying mode of action mean that the named action, somewhat weakened in its course, accompanies another action. Such verbs are formed using prefixes at- and under- and morphs - willow-, -yva- and - wa- from verbs of sound and speech and polyphasic verbs: to snap, to stomp, to say, to whistle, to dance, to hum, to sing along, to echo, to howl, to whistle, to hum. A.V. Isachenko (7, p. 284) notes that “some verbs formed by means of prefixes at- or under- in combination with suffixes, in Russian they have such a shade of meaning: action, expressed by verb, should not be considered the main, main action, but only a secondary one, performed together with another action and, therefore, somewhat weakened in the intensity of its manifestation. All of them have a colloquial coloration, belong to an imperfect species and do not form species pairs.
Verbs of a complicated-intensive mode of action in Russian are presented weakly and not very clearly. The verbs of this mode of action mean that the action is carried out intensively, with repetition and isolation of its individual components. They are formed using prefixes you-, from-, on- and morphs - willow-,-yva- and - wa- from verbs of sound: to call out, to click out, to call out, to whistle, to call; from verbs with the meaning "to be busy with what": make, dance, whip, dance, chip off (numbers), extort, play up. They are also conversational.
Verbs of a multiply-distributive-reciprocal mode of action mean an action that consists of many acts and takes place between several subjects. A.V. Isachenko (7, pp. 285-286) believes that the semantics of these verbs can be revealed in the following way: "to exchange certain actions." Such verbs are formed with three morphemes: prefix re-, postfix - Xia and suffixes - iva- / yva- / -va- / -a-: to talk, to laugh, to exchange fire, to exchange glances, to wink, to cross, to call to each other, to correspond, to quarrel, to forward. The repeatedly-distributive-reciprocal mode of action constitutes a comparatively small group of verbs. The verbs of this mode of action are reflexive and have the meaning of an imperfect form.
Verbs of the multiple-distributive-reciprocal mode of action can be considered as opposed in meaning to verbs of the diminutive-softening variety of the type to whisper, to whisper, to exchange: with a general meaning of reciprocity, the latter express the one-act and weakened action.
The above about the quantitative-temporal modes of action of verbs, meaning duration or repeated repetition, can be represented in the form of the following table:
Quantitative-temporal modes of action of verbs, meaning duration or repeated repetition.
|
Modes of action verbs |
Semantics |
Education |
|
Multiple verbs mode of action |
repeated repeatability |
-iva-/-va-/-a- |
|
Intermittent verbs Emollient mode of action |
Long and weakened in its manifestation action taken occasionally |
po- + -iva-/-va-/-a- |
|
Verbs long- Emollient mode of action |
Long and weakened action |
vz-, at-, under-, re-, on- + -willow-/-va- |
|
Verbs long- distribution mode of action |
Leisurely running action, doing something |
race- (raz-) + -willow-/-va- |
|
accompanying mode of action |
Action, multiple weakened in its flow and accompanying other action |
at-, under- + -willow-/-va- |
|
Complicated verbs intensive mode of action |
Action is being done strenuously, with repetition and highlighting individual its components |
you-, from-, on-, + -iva-/-va- |
|
Verbs repeatedly
actions |
Consolidated from many acts of action, carried out several entities |
re-, + -willow-/-va-/-a + -sya |
The very nature of the semantics of this variety of quantitative-temporal modes of action is determined by the fact that they include only non-correlative imperfective verbs.
Verbs of quantitative-temporal modes of action, meaning duration or repeated repetition, in the modern Russian literary language have a very limited scope. Many of them have lost their use in the living language and are found mainly in works of fiction. Verbs of quantitative-temporal modes of action, meaning duration or repeated repetition, are used by writers who include forms of oral folk speech in their works. Most of the verbs under consideration are characteristic of the colloquial style. Some of them are characterized by a tendency to vernacular.
The lexico-grammatical category of the verb interacts with the grammatical category of aspect, expressing the modes of verbal action, i.e. those meanings that are associated with the process of action (any moment of its implementation, the intensity of manifestation, internal dissection, etc.). The main meanings associated with the expression of the mode of verbal action:
1) the meaning of initiation in perfective verbs formed with the help of prefixes voz-, vz-, za-, po-, for example: ignite, ignite, wave, scream, walk, rattle, run, blow;
2) the meaning of limiting the action in time, in the fullness of manifestation in perfective verbs formed with a prefix in - or several prefixes, for example: lie down, dream, sit, hold back, think;
3) the meaning of effectiveness (completion of the action, completion of the process) for perfective verbs formed with prefixes pro-, from-, y-, from-, for example: sleep, lie down (hand), ship, get tired, get wet, write;
4) distributive (distributive) meaning for perfective verbs with prefixes re-, over- and several prefixes, for example: whitewash, wash, bite, close;
5) the value of the intensity of the beginning of the action in perfective verbs formed with the suffix -well-, for example: burst, gush;
6) the meaning of the discontinuity of action in imperfective verbs with a prefix in - and a suffix -iv (a) -, for example: ache, cough, tap;
7) the accompanying meaning of imperfective verbs formed with the help of prefixes at-, sub- and suffixes -iv(a)-, -yv(a)-, for example: to sentence, trample, wink, jump.
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This textbook is intended primarily for students of philological specialties of higher educational institutions. But it is also designed for use in educational process across a wide range of humanities
The concept of vocabulary and lexical system
Vocabulary is the whole set of words of the language, its vocabulary. The section of linguistics that studies vocabulary is called lexicology (gr. lexikos - dictionary + logos - teaching). Differ vocabulary
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Long and double consonants
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Sound law in the field of vowels
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Sound alternation
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The concept of phonetic transcription
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Phonetic transcription of text
Another d "ên" / in "eu" t "Λ pΛzha r" b / raz "n" yes "las pfs" ie
The concept of a phoneme
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Sound changes in the modern Russian literary language
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The concept of strong and weak phoneme
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The concept of the phonemic series
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The system of consonant phonemes of the modern Russian literary language
Composition of consonant phonemes. In position before vowels<а>, <о>, <у>, <и>consonant phonemes are pronounced most definitely, i.e. differentiate as much as possible.
The concept of orthoepy
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Pronunciation of vowels in all pre-stressed syllables except the first
In the second and third prestressed syllables, the vowels undergo a more significant reduction than in the first syllable. The degree of reduction of vowels in these syllables practically does not differ. Sounds pronounced by
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The pronunciation of vowels in post-stressed syllables is basically similar to the pronunciation of vowels in all pre-stressed syllables except the first. Reduced sounds pronounced in stressed syllables are not of high quality.
Pronunciation of vowels at the beginning of a word
1. In place of the letters a, o at the beginning of the word (if the syllable is not stressed), the sound [Λ] is pronounced. For example: agent, sedge, shell, founder - [Λgent], [Λjuice], [ΛbΛlochk], [Λs
Transition(s) to(s)
In the place of the letter and at the beginning of the word, when the pronunciation of this word merges with the previous one, which ends in a solid consonant, as well as in the place of the union and under certain conditions, the voice is pronounced
Pronunciation of unstressed vowel combinations
Combinations of unstressed vowels are formed during the continuous pronunciation of the functional word and the subsequent significant one, as well as at the junction of morphemes. Literary pronunciation does not allow the contraction of op.
Pronunciation of voiced and voiceless consonants
In the speech stream, the consonant sounds of the modern Russian literary language, paired in sonority-deafness, change in their quality depending on their position in the word. Differ
Pronunciation of hard and soft consonants
The distinction in the pronunciation of consonants, paired in hardness-softness, has a phonemic meaning, since in Russian hard and soft consonants distinguish the sound shells of words (cf. was - would
Pronunciation of consonant combinations
With regard to literary pronunciation, some combinations of consonants are distinguished, strictly defined in their composition. Such combinations are found at the morphological junctions of words (final agree
Silent consonants
When pronouncing words, some morphemes (usually roots) in certain combinations with other morphemes lose one or another sound. As a result, in the spelling of words there are letters devoid of sound
Pronunciation of consonants marked with two identical letters
In Russian words, combinations of two identical consonants are usually found between vowels at the junction of the morphological parts of the word: prefix and root, root and suffix. In foreign words, double agree
Pronunciation of individual sounds
1. The sound [g] before vowels, voiced consonants and sonorants is pronounced as a voiced consonant explosive: mountain, where, hail; before deaf consonants and at the end of the word - like [k]: burned, burned [Λzh"
Pronunciation of individual grammatical forms
1. Unstressed ending of the nominative case singular. h. masculine adjectives -th, -th are pronounced according to the spelling: [kind
Features of the pronunciation of foreign words
Many words of foreign origin are firmly assimilated by the Russian literary language, entered the national language and are pronounced in accordance with the existing orthoepic norms. less significant
The concept of graphics
Writing arose as a means of communication, complementary to oral speech. A letter associated with the use of graphic signs (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. Modern writing
Russian alphabet and letter names
Aa a Bb bae Vv ve Gg ge Dd de Her e yoyo zhzh zhe zz ze
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The composition of modern Russian graphics is an alphabet invented for Slavic writing and carefully developed for the Old Church Slavonic language, which about a thousand years ago was a literary language.
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As a result of a long development, Russian writing, gradually adapting to the linguistic system, has developed into a certain system that functions in the form of graphics and spelling, which are in close proximity.
Morphological character of Russian spelling
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Phonetic spellings
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Traditional and differentiating spellings
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Brief information about the history of Russian graphics and spelling
Modern Russian graphics represent a slightly modified graphics of the Old Slavonic language, the so-called Cyrillic alphabet. Old Slavonic graphics were compiled in the 9th century. brothers in Bulgaria
Word composition
The words of the Russian language, from the point of view of the morphological structure, are divided into words that have forms of inflection and those that do not have forms of inflection. The words of the first group are divided into two parts: the stem and
Productivity of word-forming and formative affixes
The affixes with the help of which new words are formed are called word-forming, and the affixes that form forms of the same word are called formative. Using affixes for
Non-derivative and derived bases
The words of the Russian language differ in the structure of the stem, or morphological composition. The bases of all significant words are divided into two groups according to their morphological composition:
Semantic and phonetic weakening of the non-derivative stem
Word-formation processes in some cases weaken the non-derivative basis in the semantic and phonetic terms and even lead to the complete disappearance of the original basis, to the replacement of its other basis.
Production base
A generating stem is not a particular kind of stem found in a language; There are only two such varieties - derivative and non-derivative. The term generating (or forming) the basis of decrees
Correlation between derivative and generating bases
The correlation of the derivative and generating stems is expressed primarily in the presence of a given derived stem and the alleged generating of common semantic-grammatical properties. For example
Changes in the morphological composition of the word
In modern Russian, the main organizing element of word formation is the basis (non-derivative and derivative). In the process of the historical development of the language, the way of images changed
Lexico-syntactic word formation
Lexico-syntactic word formation takes place in cases of the formation of words from phrases combined into one word in the process of use in the language, for example: crazy (crazy), t
Morphological word formation
The most productive in enriching the vocabulary of the modern Russian language is morphological word formation, i.e. creation of new words on the basis of the building material available in the language by means of
Subject of morphology
Morphology is one of the divisions of grammar. The term "grammar" is used in linguistics in a double sense: in the meaning of the grammatical structure of the language and in the meaning of the doctrine of grammatical structure.
Grammatical categories, grammatical meanings and grammatical forms
Morphology, being the study of the grammatical nature of a word and its forms, primarily deals with such concepts as grammatical category, grammatical meaning and grammatical form.
Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology, there are different ways of expressing grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed. With the synthetic method
The interaction of lexical and grammatical meanings in a word
As vocabulary and grammar, being different sides of the language, are connected with each other, so the lexical and grammatical meanings in a word are in interaction. This is manifested, for example, in
General characteristics of the parts of speech of the modern Russian language
Depending on the lexical meaning, on the nature of morphological features and syntactic function, all words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexico-grammatical categories, called h
Transitional phenomena in the field of parts of speech
In the process of language development, words from one lexico-grammatical category can move to another. If a word belonging to a certain part of speech loses (or changes) its basic
Composition of parts of speech
In modern Russian, parts of speech are independent and official. In a special group of words, modal words, interjections and onomatopoeic words are distinguished. independent
The meaning of a noun, its morphological features and syntactic functions
Words that serve as the name of an object in a broad sense, i.e. have the meaning of objectivity are called nouns. Nouns as part of speech can be names
Common nouns and proper nouns
Nouns can be common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns are generalized names of homogeneous objects, actions, states (spruce, tree
Animate and inanimate nouns
All nouns are divided into animate and inanimate. Animated nouns include the names of people, animals, insects, etc., i.e. Living creatures. To the inanimate
Nouns associated with specific concepts
Nouns used to refer to objects of reality or persons are called concrete (table, wall, notebook, friend, sister, etc.). Grammatically specific nouns
Nouns with concrete real meaning
Among common nouns, a group of words stands out, which are used to refer to homogeneous substances that can be divided, measured (but not counted, i.e. uncountable
Nouns associated with abstract concepts
Nouns used to denote abstract concepts of quality, action and state are called abstract, or abstract (whiteness, beauty, mowing, shooting, development, enthusiasm
Nouns Meaning Singularity
Specific common nouns used to refer to persons or objects isolated from the mass of a substance or from among homogeneous ones are called singular or singulatives (lat.
Collective nouns
Nouns used to refer to a set of homogeneous persons or objects as some kind of indivisible whole, as a collective unity, are called collective (peasantry, uch
gender of nouns
The most characteristic morphological feature of a noun is the category of gender. All nouns, with minor exceptions, belong to one of three genders: masculine,
Hesitation in the gender of nouns
In determining the gender of some nouns (comparatively few), fluctuations are sometimes observed. So, individual nouns, used, as a rule, in the form of the masculine gender, sometimes
Gender of indeclinable nouns
According to the existing rules, all indeclinable nouns of foreign origin, denoting inanimate objects, most often belong to the middle gender: communique, taxi, metro, cinema, sconce,
Number of nouns
Most nouns denote countable things and can be combined with cardinal numbers. Such nouns have correlative forms of the singular
Nouns with only singular forms
Nouns denoting objects that are not countable and are not combined with cardinal numbers do not have plural forms. This group includes: 1) creature names
Nouns with only plural forms
The following groups mainly belong to nouns that do not have a singular: 1) the names of paired or complex (compound) objects: sleigh, droshki, scissors, pincers, gates, glasses,
Case of nouns
The noun, depending on the functions it performs in the sentence, changes in cases. Case is that grammatical category that shows the syntactic role of a noun.
Basic meanings of cases
The nominative case form is the original case form of the word. In this form, the noun is used for the name, name of a person, object, phenomenon. In this case there is always a subject
The role of prepositions in the expression of case meanings
Prepositions play a significant role in the expression of case meanings. By joining nouns in various case forms, prepositions help to reveal and clarify the meanings of cases. T
The main types of declension of nouns
Declension types of nouns differ in modern Russian only in case forms of the singular. In the plural, these differences are almost non-existent. In modern
Singular
Genitive. Along with the ending of the genitive case of the singular -а, -я, inanimate masculine nouns have the ending -у, -ю, which introduces the meaning of the case d
Plural
Nominative case 1. Masculine nouns usually end in -ы, -и (tables, rudders). However, in many words there is an ending -a, -ya (stressed): sides, eyes
Singular
1. In the genitive, dative and prepositional cases, a small group of words in -iya has a special ending -i: (about) lightning, (about) Mary, (about) the army, on the river Biya (instead of the usual -e: (about) claw) .
Plural
1. In the genitive case, most of the words of the second declension have a zero ending: walls, herbs, drops; some nouns with stems in hissing and in l, n (softened) end in -ey:
Features of the third declension of nouns
1. The noun sazhen in the genitive plural, along with the form of sazhens, also has the form of sazhens. 2. In the instrumental case of the plural, along with the usual ending
Inflected nouns
Among the variously declinable nouns are ten nouns per -mya: burden, time, udder, banner, name, flame, tribe, seed, stirrup, crown, which are inclined in a special way. 1. During
Indeclinable nouns
Indeclinable nouns include those that do not change in cases. Most of the indeclinable nouns are foreign borrowings. In the group we do not decline
Stress in declension of nouns
All nouns in relation to stress can be divided into two main groups: 1) nouns with constant stress (the place of which in all cases remains unchanged); 2) im
Productive ways of forming nouns
Nouns are formed in modern Russian in different ways (see § 100-103). So, a significant number of new nouns appeared as a result of rethinking the
Suffixal, suffixal-prefixed and non-suffixal word formation
Among word-building suffixes, unproductive ones are distinguished, with the help of which new words are not currently formed (for example, the suffix -n is unproductive: pain-zn, life; suffix -uh: p
Formation of nouns by adding stems
The addition of stems is a type of morphological word formation when, as a result of the addition of two or more stems, a new word is formed. This method is widely used in modern Russian.
Transition of words of other parts of speech into nouns
The transition to the category of nouns of words of other parts of speech is called substantiation (from Latin substantivum - noun). Adjectives most often turn into nouns (mainly
Transition of nouns to other parts of speech
Nouns in the process of language development can move into other parts of speech. It is not uncommon to use nouns, such as brother, sister, deed, as pronouns. Wed: T
The meaning of the adjective, its morphological features and syntactic functions
Words that denote a constant attribute of objects are called adjectives. The semantic basis of the adjective is the designation of quality, attribute, belonging
Ranks of adjectives by meaning
The sign of an object is denoted by an adjective or directly by the lexical meaning of its base (yellow, crimson, cheerful), or through the relation of the object to other objects (brick house,
Quality adjectives
Qualitative adjectives are called such adjectives that denote signs, properties and qualities of objects that we perceive primarily directly, i.e. are direct
Relative adjectives
Relative adjectives are those adjectives that denote a feature not directly, but through its relation to another object, phenomenon or action, i.e. indirectly. They designate
The transition of relative adjectives into qualitative ones
Qualitative and relative adjectives in modern Russian are not closed groups. The grammatical boundary between them is mobile, since the semantic features that allow distinguishing
Possessive adjectives
Possessive adjectives indicate that an object belongs to a certain person or (less often) to an animal: fathers, sisters, Lizin, Koshkin, etc. The semantic basis of possessive adjectives
Short forms of adjectives
Only qualitative adjectives have a short form. Short adjectives differ from full adjectives in certain morphological features (they do not change by case, they have only the form of gender and number).
The concept of degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives
In modern Russian, qualitative adjectives have two degrees of comparison: comparative and superlative. As for the so-called positive degree, it is the original form
Ways of forming forms of comparative degree
In modern Russian, there are two main ways of forming a comparative degree: 1) using the suffixes -ee (-s) and -e, for example: Somehow everything is friendlier and stricter, somehow everything is dearer to you.
Ways of forming superlatives
Superlative forms of qualitative adjectives are also synthetic and analytic. The synthetic form of the superlative degree is formed using the suffixes -eysh-, -a
Declension types of adjectives
The declension of adjectives, in comparison with the declension of nouns, is more unified. In the nominative case of the singular, adjectives have a gender difference: case endings
Ways of forming adjectives
Adjectives in modern Russian are formed in a lexical-syntactic way (advance, stunning, etc.) and with the help of a morphological-syntactic way (exquisite blue
Suffixal way of forming adjectives
The suffixal way of forming adjectives is the most productive in modern Russian. The derivational suffixes of qualitative and relative names are attached
Prefixed way of forming adjectives
The prefixal method of formation is less productive. The following productive prefixes are used: 1) not-, not without-: unsportsmanlike, not loud, unusual, notorious, not unsuccessful, etc .;
Prefix-suffix way of forming adjectives
The prefix-suffix method of forming adjectives in modern Russian is becoming more and more widespread. The following groups of productive consoles are distinguished and
Forming adjectives by adding stems
Compounding as a way of forming adjectives is used in modern Russian more and more often. This is a very productive way of forming words. Most words created
Transition of words from other parts of speech into adjectives
The use of different parts of speech as adjectives is called adjective (Latin adjectivum - adjective). A significant number of participles pass into the category of adjectives,
Transition of adjectives to other parts of speech
Adjectives (most often relative) can sometimes pass into the category of nouns, i.e. able to substantiate. Moving into the class of nouns, the adjective
The meaning of numerals, their morphological features and syntactic functions
Numeral name - a category of words that serve as the names of abstract numbers (two plus three - five), or a certain number of homogeneous objects, expressed in whole or fractional numbers (two rubles
Cardinal numbers
Quantitative numbers include numbers that denote in whole units an abstract number (ten divided by two) or a certain number of homogeneous objects (six books).
Morphological features of cardinal numbers
Morphological features of cardinal numbers are related to their lexical meaning. Quantitative numerals are not peculiar to the category of number, since they lexically express the meaning of the number
Declension of cardinal numbers
The numeral one (one, one) is declined as a pronoun this (this, this). The numerals two, three, four have peculiar endings in the nominative and instrumental cases (two, three, four
Syntactic features of cardinal numbers
The numeral one (one, one) agrees with the noun in gender, number and case (cf.: one day, one day, one week, etc.). Numerals two, three, four in the nominative form
Collective numbers
Numerals two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, etc. stand out in a special category of collective numerals. In modern Russian, collective numbers
Fractional numbers
Fractional numbers denote fractional quantities, i.e. the number of certain parts of the unit, and represent a combination of them. case of a quantitative numeral (number of parts - numerator of a fraction
Numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred
The numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred are designations for quantities consisting of a whole and its half. The derivation of these words (from "half a second", "half a second", "half a second hundred") in the present
Indefinite-quantitative words
A group of words with the meaning of an indefinite amount (large or small) can also be conditionally attributed to indefinite-quantitative numerals: a lot, a little, a little, a lot, a lot and a few.
Ordinals
Ordinal numbers are words that indicate the order of homogeneous objects when they are counted (first ticket, third question, etc.). Ordinal numbers, like adjectives, appear in
The meaning of pronouns. Correlation of pronouns with other parts of speech
Pronouns include words that, without naming objects or signs, point to them. The specific lexical meaning of the pronoun is obtained only in the context. For example, the pronoun you is either
Pronoun ranks by meaning
By their meaning, as well as by their syntactic role, all pronouns are divided into the following categories: 1. Personal pronouns, we (1 person); you, you (2 person); he, (she, it), they (3rd person) are
Transition of pronouns to other parts of speech
Some pronouns under certain conditions may lose their demonstrative functions and acquire features of other parts of speech. So, the pronouns are mine, ours, myself, draw, that, this and others can
Using other parts of speech as pronouns
The use of different parts of speech as pronouns is called pronominalization (lat. pronomen - pronoun). The following words functionally pass into the category of pronouns: nouns
Meaning, morphological features and syntactic functions of the verb
A verb is a category of words that denote an action or state of an object as a process. The word "process" in this usage has a broad meaning; this word means work
Conjugated and non-conjugated forms of the verb and their syntactic role
Changing the verb by moods, and inside moods by tenses (only in the indicative mood), by persons (in the indicative and partly in the imperative mood) and by numbers, as well as by gender
The indefinite form of the verb, its meaning, formation and syntactic use
The indefinite form (infinitive) is included in the system of verb forms, although it has a very peculiar structure. The semantically indefinite form is similar to the nominative case of the entity's name
Two verb stems
All verb forms, with the exception of the future complex and subjunctive mood, are formed by means of formative suffixes and endings attached to the stem. By education, verbs
From the history of the issue
The aspect category in the Russian language took shape relatively late (at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century), and already in the 17th century. it was reflected in the grammars of M. Smotrytsky and Y. Krizhanich. Category View
The concept of a species category
The aspect category is inherent in all forms of the verb. The verbs decided and decided denote the same action, but differ grammatically. The verb decided is perfective, it denotes an action that
Species formation
When forming forms of a verb, the original form, with a few exceptions, is a verb with the meaning of an imperfect aspect. Perfective verbs are usually formed from verbs n
Aspective pairs of the verb
When forming verbs of one kind from another by means of prefixes, two results are possible:
Verbs that do not have paired forms of another form
Unpaired imperfective verbs include: a) non-prefixed verbs with the suffix -yva- (-iva-) with the meaning of multiplicity. In the modern literary language, such verbs are used
Two aspect verbs
Verbs that combine the meanings of the perfect and imperfect form are two-species, but in the conditions of the context they can act with a meaning characteristic of one form. These are verbs with suffixes -ova
From the history of the issue
The category of voice has been and still remains the subject of close attention of many linguists. “...Different grammarians understood the scope and grammatical content of the category hall in different ways.
Verbs transitive and intransitive
Transitive and intransitive verbs differ in meaning. The basis of such a distinction is the attitude towards the object of the action expressed by the verb. Transitive verbs are those with the meaning of action.
The concept of the category of pledge
According to the currently most common theory, the category of voice is associated with the division of verbs into transitive and intransitive. The grammatical category of the voice is called the verbal cathe
Basic pledges and their formation
Grammatical means of expressing voice meanings can be morphological and syntactic. Morphological means in the formation of voices are: a) affix -sya attached to the verb
The concept of the category of inclination
The facts of reality and their connections, being the content of the statement, can be thought of by the speaker as a reality, as a possibility or desirability, as an obligation or a necessity. Dialect score
Verb moods
The indicative mood expresses an action conceived by the speaker as quite real, actually taking place in time (present, past and future): the Urals serve well, have served and will serve on
The concept of the category of time
The category of time in the traditional sense expresses the ratio of the tense of the verb to the moment of speech. The present tense shows that the action expressed by the verb coincides with the moment p
Basic meanings and use of forms of time
Present tense. The forms of the present tense have the following varieties of meaning and use: a) the meaning of a specific action that is carried out at the moment of speech and has a limited value
Person category
The category of person indicates the subject of the action expressed by the verb: the speaker (first person), the speaker's interlocutor (second person), a person or object not participating in speech (third person). Forms 1st and
Impersonal verbs
Impersonal verbs are those that express actions and states that occur on their own, without their producer (subject). With such verbs, the use of the subject is impossible: it is getting dark, dawn
Verb conjugation types
Changing verbs in the present and future simple tenses according to persons and numbers is called conjugation (in the narrow sense of the word), for conjugation in the broad sense, see § 173. Two types of conjugation - the first
Ways of forming verbs
In the formation of verbs, three morphological ways of word formation are productive to varying degrees: prefixal, suffixal and suffixal-prefixal. Prefix way
Participle as a form of mixed verb-nominal formation
A participle is a non-conjugated form of a verb that defines a subject like an adjective. It denotes a sign of an object, flowing in time, as an action that produces an object.
Participle forms and their formation
The participle in modern Russian has several varieties, which are determined by the grammatical meanings of the verb inherent in the participle: participles are real, reflexive and passive
Transition of participles into adjectives
The presence of signs in participles that are common with adjectives contributes to the transition of participles into adjectives. This transition, observed in previous periods of the history of the Russian language,
The gerund as a form of verb-adverbial formation
A gerund is an unconjugated form of a verb that combines the grammatical properties of a verb and an adverb: Waves rush, thundering and sparkling (Tyutch.). The participles rattling and sparkling denote additional
The category of tense in adverbs
Participles, as invariable forms of the verb, are deprived of the opportunity to express morphologically temporary meanings. Participles are characterized only by the relative designation of time. The gerund is incompetent
Transition of gerunds into adverbs
The immutability of the participle and its syntactic role (circumstance) are the basis on which the transition of participles into adverbs takes place. This transition is facilitated by the lack of
The meaning of the adverb, its morphological features and syntactic role
Adverbs include invariable words denoting a sign of an action, state, quality of an object or other sign For example: He wanted to hug and kiss Streltsov, but suddenly his throat
Adverb ranks by meaning
Depending on their meaning, adverbs are divided into two groups - attributive adverbs and circumstantial adverbs. Definitive adverbs characterize an action or attribute in terms of its quality, quantity
Classes of adverbs by education
The correlation of adverbs with other parts of speech indicates their origin and method of formation. Adverbs are correlative with names, pronouns and verbs. Replenishing at the expense of others
Ways of forming adverbs
The formation of adverbs took place and is taking place in various ways. The most characteristic of them are the following: 1) separation of one of the nominal forms from the inflection system with simultaneous
Adverbs formed from adjectives and participles
The most productive group of adverbs formed from adjectives and participles. Without prefixes, adverbs are formed from quality adjectives with the help of suffixes -o, -e: bad, ho
Adverbs formed from nouns
Among the adverbs formed from nouns, non-prepositional formations and prepositional ones stand out. Of the non-prepositional formations, the most productive group of adverbs is the
Adverbs formed from nouns
Adverbs formed from numerals are relatively few in number. Adverbs are formed from quantitative numerals: 1) with the help of the suffix -zhdy: twice, thrice, four times; 2) way
Adverbs formed from pronouns
Among the adverbs of pronominal origin, there are, firstly, adverbs of ancient origin, which have lost living connections with pronominal words in the modern language: where, where, from where, from there, when
Adverbs derived from verbs
Adverbs of verbal formation represent a relatively small group. They occur, as a rule, from gerunds, which, turning into adverbs, lose their aspectual-temporal and voice
Transition of adverbs to other parts of speech
Along with the process of adverbialization (transition to the category of adverbs), which is very active and wide, the opposite process is carried out in the Russian language - the process of transition of adverbs to other lexico-grammars.
Semantic, morphological and syntactic features of impersonal predicative words
Impersonally predicative words, or the category of state, are significant unchangeable nominal and adverbial words that denote a state and are used in the function of a predicate impersonal sentence
Ranks of impersonal predicative words by meaning
The following groups of impersonal predicative words are distinguished by meaning: 1. Impersonal predicative words denoting the mental and physical state of living beings, the state of nature, the environment
Ranks of impersonal predicative words by education
Impersonally predicative words are by origin associated with adjectives, correlative adverbs, and partly nouns. This transition is carried out on the basis of a complex interweaving of St.
The question of impersonal-predicative words in grammatical literature
Impersonal predicative words, as words intermediate between nouns and verbs, began to stand out in Russian grammars from the first third of the 19th century. When highlighting these words, the usual
Characteristic features of service words
Functional words include particles, prepositions, conjunctions and connectives. Functional words, in contrast to significant ones, do not have a nominative function, i.e. are not subject names
Particles and their functions in speech
Particles are auxiliary words that express additional semantic shades of sentences, phrases and individual words. So, for example, does a particle relate to a whole sentence and give it a character?
Particle discharges by value
Particles by meaning are divided into three main groups: I. Particles expressing semantic shades of meanings. These particles include: a) indicative: here, out. Here is a bream,
Word-forming and formative particles
Word-forming particles form new words: 1) -something, -either, -something, some- serve to form indefinite pronouns and adverbs: something, somewhere, etc.; 2) neither forms negative pronouns
Morphological composition of prepositions
According to the morphological composition, non-derivative and derivative prepositions are distinguished. 1. Non-derivative, so-called primitive, prepositions cannot be correlated by education with any
Meanings of prepositions
The meanings of prepositions are very diverse and complex and are revealed only in combination with the case form. They can express: spatial relationships: relax in the Crimea and the Caucasus; temporal relationship: p
Conjunctions coordinating and subordinating
By syntactic functions, unions are divided into coordinating and subordinating. Coordinating conjunctions connect homogeneous members of a sentence, as well as parts of compound sentences. P
Unions single, repeated, double
By use, unions are of three varieties: 1) single, used once. Of the coordinating conjunctions, the union but is typical in this respect (subordinating conjunctions
Modal words as a special category of words in Russian
Modal words are words by means of which the speaker evaluates his statement as a whole or its individual parts from the point of view of their relation to objective reality. For example: This, ver
Modal word ranks by meaning
By meaning, two groups of modal words are distinguished: 1. Modal words expressing the logical assessment of the statement, the speaker’s confidence in the reality of the message: definitely, true, really
Correlation of modal words with other parts of speech
Modal words as a special lexical and grammatical category of words are correlated with various parts of speech, namely: a) with nouns: truth, fact, law. Wed: True eyes
Lexico-grammatical originality of modal words
Modal words differ from the significant ones, with which they are associated by origin, by the absence of a nominative function. Modal words are not the names of objects, features or processes, about
The concept of interjection
Interjections are words that directly express our feelings, experiences and wills, without naming them. Semantically, interjections differ from all significant parts of speech.
The role of interjections in the language
Syntactically, interjections also differ from significant parts of speech, because they, as a rule, are not members of a sentence, although intonationally they are usually associated with sentences to which they adjoin
Interjection ranks by meaning
Interjections in their lexical meaning are divided into two main categories: 1) interjections expressing various feelings (emotional interjections), and 2) interjections expressing will, order, etc.,
Groups of interjections according to the method of formation and origin
According to their formation, all interjections fall into two main groups: primary (primitive) and derivatives. 1. The first group includes primitive interjections, consisting of or from one
Verb interjections
In modern Russian, words are distinguished that, on the one hand, have the structure of interjections and their inherent expression, dynamism, and on the other hand, have verbal features (kind, tense). With
Onomatopoeic words
Words that, in their sound design, are a reproduction of exclamations, sounds, screams, are called onomatopoeic. In their syntactic functions, they are close to interjections. However
Phrase and sentence as basic syntactic units
Syntax as a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech includes two main parts: 1) the doctrine of the phrase and 2) the doctrine of the sentence. Of particular note is the section dealing with
The main features of the proposal
Most types of sentence, as mentioned above, correspond to a logical proposition. In a judgment, something is affirmed or denied about something, and in this the so-called prejudice finds its expression.
Brief history
The problem of phrases has long attracted the attention of Russian linguists. In the first grammatical works, the main content of syntax was the doctrine of "word composition", i.e. about connecting words
Types of phrases according to their structure
According to the structure, phrases are divided into simple (two-term) and complex (polynomial). In simple phrases, one word spreads to others with different semantic meanings.
Types of phrases depending on the lexical and grammatical properties of the main word
Depending on which word is the main word in the phrase, the main lexical and grammatical types of phrases differ. The classification on this basis has the following scheme:
Syntactic relations between the components of phrases
Words included in phrases are in different semantic-syntactic relationships with each other. In general, these relationships can be reduced to the main ones: a) attributive (for example: tetra
Ways of expressing syntactic relations in a phrase and in a sentence
The most important means of expressing the relationship between the members of the phrase (and the members of the sentence) is the form of the word. With the help of inflection, a connection is made between all the modified words that act as dependencies.
Types of syntactic connection in a phrase and in a sentence
There are two main types of syntactic connection in a sentence - composition and subordination. When composing, syntactically equal, independent of each other elements (members of the sentence
Sentences of real and unreal modality. Propositions affirmative and negative
The general meaning of objective modality conveyed in a sentence is differentiated as the meaning of temporal certainty and temporal indefiniteness. In the first case, the pre
Declarative, interrogative and imperative sentences
Depending on the purpose of the statement, sentences are declarative, interrogative and incentive. Narrative sentences are sentences that contain a message about what
exclamatory sentences
Exclamatory sentences are emotionally colored sentences, which are conveyed by a special exclamatory intonation. Emotional coloring can have different types of sentences:
Common and non-common suggestions
An uncommon sentence is a sentence consisting only of the main members - the subject and the predicate, for example: She did not answer and turned away (L.); He is young, good (L.); Several years have passed (P
Two-part and one-part sentences
The sentence consists of the main members - the subject and the predicate, and the secondary ones, of which some belong to the subject and together with it form the composition of the subject, others - to the predicate and the image
Simple and compound sentences
A simple sentence has one or two grammatical compositions and thus contains one predicative unit. For example: The morning was fresh and beautiful (L.); In the afternoon she started
The main members of a two-part sentence
A two-part sentence is a sentence that has two grammatical compositions: the composition of the subject and the composition of the predicate. The composition of the subject is the subject with or without words related to it.
Secondary members of the sentence, their syntactic function
The main members of the sentence can be explained by the members, which are called secondary, since they are grammatically dependent on other members of the sentence. The term "minor members of the sentence
Expressing the subject with different parts of speech
The most common form of expressing the subject is the nominative case of a noun. The subject meaning of the noun and the independent nominative case are most appropriate
Expressing the Subject in Phrases
The role of the subject can be phrases that are integral in meaning, lexically or syntactically indecomposable. These include: 1. Composite geographical names (Arctic
Verbal predicate, formally likened to the subject
In the role of the verbal predicate, the forms of the verb of any mood, tense and person act. For example: 1) a verb in the form of the indicative mood: The autumn wind brings sadness (N.); Pugachev m
Verbal predicate, formally dissimilar to the subject
The verbal predicate is expressed: 1) by the infinitive with the meaning of the energetic beginning of the action: Our brethren - to swear (Pomyal.); And new friends, well, hugging, well, kissing ... (Cr.); 2)
Complicated verbal predicate
Complicated forms of a simple verbal predicate include a combination of two verbs or a combination of a verb with different particles. This includes: 1. The combination of two verbs in the same form
Verbal predicate expressed by a phraseological phrase
Simple verbal predicates also include predicates expressed by phraseological combinations with varying degrees of cohesion of parts, since they have a single whole meaning (cf.
Compound verbal predicate with modal verb
This includes such verbs as want, wish, be able, be able, intend, try, try, refuse, hope, be afraid, etc. For example: I wanted to portray ordinary decent people in a new
Compound verbal predicate with predicative adjective
Along with modal verbs, predicative adjectives can be used as the first component of a compound verbal predicate (special short adjectives used as a ska
Predicate expressed by adverb, participle, interjection and phraseological combination
1. The predicate can be expressed by an adverb with or without a bunch, for example: At your age, I was married (L.T.); How inappropriate was this memory (Ch.); After all, I am somewhat akin to her (Gr.). 2
Types of compound predicate
A complex (trinomial, polynomial) is a predicate consisting of three or more parts (the term “complex predicate” is used here not in the sense in which it is sometimes used, see § 259
Form of the verb predicate
The verbal predicate is coordinated with the subject, expressed personal pronoun, in person and number, and in the past tense of the indicative mood and in the subjunctive mood - in gender and number. Nap
Bundle shape
The copula usually correlates with the subject (in the past tense - in gender and number), for example: My whole life has been a guarantee of a faithful date with you (P.). If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, then with
Brief history
The question of secondary members of a sentence in the history of Russian grammar has different solutions. However, two main directions in the doctrine of secondary members of the proposal stand out:
Definitions Agreed and Inconsistent
According to the nature of the syntactic connection of the definition with the word being defined, all definitions are divided into agreed and inconsistent. Agreed definitions are expressed by those parts of speech that
Ways of Expressing Complements
Complements are usually expressed by nouns (with and without prepositions) in oblique cases, as well as by words used in the meaning of nouns (pronominal nouns,
Types of add-ons and their meanings
By virtue of their main meaning - designation of the object of action or state - additions usually refer to sentence members expressed by verbs or impersonal predicative words, i.e. tale
Additions in real and passive turns
A real is a turnover with a direct object with a predicate expressed by a transitive verb. The subject in actual circulation denotes the acting person or object, and the object denotes the person
Ways of Expressing Circumstances
Circumstances can be expressed by adverbs, gerunds, nouns in the instrumental case without a preposition, nouns in oblique cases with prepositions, infinitive, phraseological
Types of circumstances by value
Denoting the qualitative characteristics of an action, state or sign, as well as the conditions that accompany them (an indication of the cause, time, place, etc.), the circumstances are divided into the circumstances of the image
Syntactic and actual division of a sentence
A sentence as a unit of syntax has in its composition members of a sentence that occupy certain syntactic positions. This division of the sentence in terms of its syntactic structure is
Communicative, syntactic and stylistic meaning of word order
The order of words in a sentence - the arrangement of word forms in it - can perform the following functions: 1) communicative (it is a means of actual division of a sentence and, more broadly, of any actualization);
The place of the subject and predicate in a simple sentence
In a declarative sentence, the subject is usually in front of the predicate (the latter is postpositive), for example: Marya Ivanovna went up the stairs with trepidation (P.); They entered the courtyard
The place of the complement in the sentence
The addition (verbal and adjectival) is usually postpositive, for example: I will send you ammunition and tobacco (A.N.T.); About a hundred workers were engaged in clearing warehouses and sites (Azh.). Pre
Place of definition in a sentence
The agreed definition is usually prepositive, for example: A deep gorge blackened to the left ... (Azh.); ... He took out his grief on your sides - the grief of his life (M. G.); It became terrifying in these silences
Place of circumstances in a sentence
The circumstances of the mode of action, expressed by adverbs in -o, -e, are usually prepositive, for example: One of the waves playfully rolls onto the shore, making a defiant noise, crawls to Rahim's head (M. G.). O
Definitely personal suggestions
Definitely-personal sentences are called, the main member of which is expressed in the form of the verb of the first or second person of the present and future tense. The verb in this case does not need a place
Indefinitely personal sentences
Indefinitely personal sentences are called such one-part sentences in which the main member is expressed by the verb in the form of the 3rd person plural of the present and future tenses or in fo
Generalized personal sentences
Generalized-personal are called one-part sentences, the main member of which is expressed by the verb of the 2nd person singular (present and future tense), and the action indicated by the verb in
impersonal proposals
One-part sentences are called impersonal sentences, the main member of which does not allow the designation of the subject of action in the form of the nominative case and names the process or state, regardless of the active
Infinitive sentences
The main member of a one-part sentence can be expressed by an infinitive that does not depend on any other word in the sentence, therefore, with it there can be neither an impersonal verb nor an impersonal
Nominative proposals
Nominative sentences are such one-part sentences, the main member of which is expressed by a noun or a substantiated part of speech in the nominative case. The main term can be expressed
Constructions that coincide in form with nominative sentences
Nominative sentences may coincide in form with some syntactic constructions that are not actually them. These are constructions that either do not contain the meaning of being,
Types of sentence words
Sentence words are divided into several groups depending on their function in speech. Affirmative sentence words: - It smells of sulfur. Is it so necessary? - Yes (Ch.). - St
Types of incomplete sentences
Incomplete sentences are divided into contextual and situational. Contextual are incomplete sentences with unnamed members of the sentence that were mentioned in the context: in the next
Incomplete sentences in dialogic speech
Incomplete sentences are especially typical for dialogic speech, which is a combination of replicas or a unity of questions and answers. The peculiarity of dialogic sentences is determined by the fact that in the
Elliptic sentences (sentences with zero predicate)
Elliptic are self-used sentences of a special type, the specific structure of which is the absence of a verbal predicate, moreover, a predicate not mentioned in the context
The concept of homogeneous members
Homogeneous members of a sentence are called members of the same name, connected to each other by a coordinative connection and performing the same syntactic function in the sentence, i.e. combined are the same
Unions with homogeneous members
To connect homogeneous members of a sentence, the following categories of coordinating unions are used: 1. Connecting unions: and, yes (in the meaning of “and”), neither ... nor, etc. The union and can be single and n
Homogeneous definitions
Homogeneous definitions are each directly connected with the word being defined and are in the same relationship to it. Between themselves, homogeneous definitions are connected by coordinating unions and list
Heterogeneous definitions
Definitions are heterogeneous if the preceding definition does not refer directly to the noun being defined, but to a combination of the subsequent definition and the noun being defined.
The form of the predicate with homogeneous subjects
The form of the predicate with homogeneous subjects depends on a number of conditions: word order, the meaning of conjunctions, the lexical meaning of the subject or predicate, etc. 1. With subjects having the form m
Coordination of definitions with the word being defined
The question of agreement in number in the presence of definitions in sentences with homogeneous members arises in two cases: 1) if one definition refers to several homogeneous defined
Prepositions with homogeneous members
Prepositions can be repeated in front of all homogeneous members, for example: Death roams the fields, along the ditches, along the heights of the mountains ... (Kr.). It is possible to omit the same prepositions, but different prepositions are not allowed.
Generalizing words with homogeneous members of a sentence
A generalizing word is usually a grammatical form of expression of a generic concept that unites subordinate concepts on the basis of real proximity, the grammatical form of expression of which is
General concepts
Separation is the semantic and intonation separation of minor members in order to give them some independence in the sentence. Separate members of the sentence contain the element add
Separate agreed definitions
1. As a rule, common definitions are isolated, expressed by a participle or an adjective with words dependent on them and standing after the noun being defined, for example: Cloud, hanging
Separate inconsistent definitions
1. Inconsistent definitions, expressed by indirect cases of nouns, are isolated if it is necessary to emphasize the meaning they express, for example: Starosta, in boots and in an Armenian coat, with bu
Separate circumstances expressed by gerunds and participles
1. As a rule, adverbial phrases are separated, i.e. gerunds with explanatory words, acting as secondary predicates or circumstances with different meanings, for example: Pass
Separate circumstances expressed by nouns and adverbs
Depending on the semantic load, weak syntactic connection with the verb-predicate, the degree of prevalence of the turnover, its intentional allocation, the circumstances expressed by it can be isolated.
Separation of revolutions with the value of inclusion, exclusion, substitution
Case forms of nouns with prepositions or prepositional combinations can be isolated: except, instead of, besides, except, excluding, over, etc., with the meaning of inclusion, exclusion, beyond
Separation of clarifying, explanatory and connecting members of the sentence
Along with isolation in the proper sense of the word, i.e. the allocation of secondary members of the sentence, there is an intonation-semantic allocation in the sentence of words that can be not only secondary
Introductory words and phrases
Introductory words are words that are not grammatically related to the members of the sentence (i.e., not related to them by the method of agreement, control or adjunction), which are not members of the sentence and express
introductory sentences
The meanings inherent in introductory words and phrases can be expressed in whole sentences that retain the intonational features of introductory constructions. For example: Buran, it seemed to me, is still with
Plug-in structures
Plug-in words, phrases and sentences are called, which introduce additional information, incidental remarks, clarifications, explanations, amendments, etc. into the main sentence. Similar to
The concept of circulation
An address is a word or a combination of words that names the person (or object) to whom the speech is addressed. The appeal distributes the offer, but is not a member of it (i.e. does not perform the function of
Ways of expressing appeal
The natural form of expression of address is a noun in the nominative case, which performs a nominative function. In the Old Russian language, the vocative case was used for this purpose
Brief history
In the works of A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shcherby, V.V. Vinogradov highlights the special meaning of some unions - connecting (A.M. Peshkovsky speaks of composing and subordinating after a separating p
Essence of Attachment
Accession - as a kind of syntactic connection - differs from both composition and subordination. When composing, the elements of the utterance act as equal in syntactical terms.
Structural and grammatical types of connecting structures
In structural and grammatical terms, connecting constructions are not homogeneous. The following can join the main statement: 1) constructions with connecting unions and allied words
Allied connection structures
1. Attaching unions and allied combinations are usually formed by combining coordinating and subordinating unions, as well as some particles and pronominal adverbs with unions and, a. It is these with
Unionless connection structures
Unionless connecting structures, used only after a long pause, are divided into four groups according to their functions: 1) connecting structures that act as members
The concept of a complex sentence
A complex sentence is a sentence that has two or more predicative units in its composition, forming a single whole in a semantic, constructive and intonational sense. The difference between
Composition and submission in a complex sentence
By the way the parts are connected, allied and non-union complex sentences are distinguished. The former are divided into two types of complex sentences: 1) compound sentences and 2) complex subordinate sentences.
Means of expressing relationships between parts of a complex sentence
Semantic and syntactic relations between the parts of a complex sentence are expressed using the following means: a) conjunctions, b) relative words, c) intonation, d) order of parts. Unions unite
The structure of compound sentences
A compound sentence is a complex sentence, the parts of which are interconnected by coordinating unions. Communication according to the method of composing gives the parts of a compound sentence a well-known
Connecting relationships
In compound sentences expressing connecting relations, unions serve as a means of connecting parts of a single whole, and, yes, neither (repeating), also, too (the last two with a joining from
adversarial relationship
Compound sentences with opposing conjunctions (a, but, yes, however, but, the same, etc.) express the relationship of opposition or comparison, sometimes with various additional shades (not corresponding
Compound sentences expressing adjunctive relations
Some coordinating conjunctions are used in a compound sentence to express connecting relations, in which the content of the second part of the complex sentence is an additional
A brief history of the issue of a complex sentence
The question of a complex sentence in its history was practically reduced to the classification of subordinate clauses, or, as they were conditionally called, "subordinate clauses", which is closely connected before everything
Complex sentences with conditional and non-verbal dependence of parts
The most common structural indicator of a complex sentence is the verbal and non-verbal dependence of the subordinate clause. This feature is substantiated as follows. Relationship of the subordinate h
Grammatical means of connecting parts in a complex sentence
1. The main syntactic means of communication in a complex sentence are special connecting elements, formal indicators of the interconnectedness of parts. These are subordinating conjunctions
Semantic-structural types of complex sentences
Structural indicators of a complex sentence are, as it was found out, firstly, the nature of the connection between the subordinate clause and the main one (subscriptive and non-proprietary); secondly, grammatical means
Substantive attributive sentences
Substantive attributive sentences, depending on the function of the subordinate part, have two varieties. The function of the subordinate part depends on the extent to which the entity defined by it
Appropriative-defining sentences
Complicated sentences with a definitive clause relating to the pronoun (demonstrative or attributive) in the main are characterized by the following features: 1) the pronoun g
Explanatory clauses with allied subordination
Explanatory clauses are joined by unions that, as, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, so that, if, if, bye. Clauses with a union that contain a message about a real being
Explanatory clauses with relative subordination
As allied words that attach explanatory clauses, relative pronouns are used who, what, which, what, what, whose and pronominal adverbs where, where, where, when, how
The use of correlative words with explanatory clauses
Complex sentences with an explanatory clause may have correlative words in the main. The function of these words is not the same. They can be used to enhance, highlight,
Compound sentences with a simultaneity relation
Relations of simultaneity are expressed in sentences with subordinate, attached conjunctions when, bye, how, for now (archaic), while (colloquial), while usually with verbs in the main and adjectives
Compound sentences with a relationship of diversity
The relationship of diversity is expressed by unions when, while, for now, as long as, after, since, as soon as, just, just, just, only, just a little, as, barely, only, before
Complex sentences with comparative relations between parts
Complex sentences can consist of such parts, the content of which is compared. Formally, such sentences have a subordinate clause, since they contain subordinating conjunctions (or union
Complex sentences with explanatory relationships between parts
One of the parts of a complex sentence can explain another, concretizing its meaning or conveying it in other words. The explanatory part is attached to the one explained with the help of unions, that is, and
Complex sentences with several subordinate clauses
Complex sentences can have several subordinate clauses. In complex sentences with several subordinate clauses, two types of relations between the combined parts are possible.
Complex sentences with several main clauses and one subordinate clause
In complex sentences, there can be two (or more) main parts that have one common subordinate clause. The main parts in this case are interconnected by coordinating unions (possibly
Types of non-union complex sentences
There are two main varieties of non-union complex sentences: correlative with allied complex sentences and non-correlative with them. Sentences of the second type are found comparatively
Varieties of complex syntactic constructions
Depending on various combinations of types of connection between parts, the following types of complex syntactic constructions are possible: 1) with composition and subordination; 2) with an essay and unionless connection
Structural features of complex syntactic integers
Complex syntactic integers can be of homogeneous and non-homogeneous composition. Between homogeneous sentences as part of complex syntactic wholes, a parallel connection is found, between heterogeneous
Paragraph and complex syntactic integer
A paragraph and a complex syntactic whole are units of different levels of division, since the bases of their organization are different (a paragraph does not have a special syntactic design, unlike a complex syntactic
Paragraph in dialogic and monologue text
Paragraph division pursues one common goal - to highlight significant parts of the text. However, parts of the text can be highlighted with different specific targets. Accordingly, the fu
The concept of direct and indirect speech
The statements of other persons included in the author's presentation form the so-called someone else's speech. Depending on the lexico-syntactic means and methods of transmitting someone else's speech, direct speech is distinguished
Direct speech
Direct speech is characterized by the following features: 1) accurately reproduces someone else's statement; 2) is accompanied by the author's words. The purpose of the author's words is the establishment of the very fact of someone else's speech
Indirect speech
Indirect speech is the transmission of someone else's statement in the form of a subordinate clause. Compare: Direct speech Indirect speech Podosh
Improper direct speech
Someone else's speech can be transmitted in fiction by the technique of the so-called improperly direct speech. In this case, lexical and syntactic features are preserved to one degree or another.
Basics of Russian punctuation
Punctuation is a collection of punctuation rules, as well as the system of punctuation marks used in written speech. The main purpose of punctuation is to indicate
Basic Functions of Punctuation Marks
In the modern punctuation system of the Russian language, punctuation marks are functionally significant: they have generalized meanings assigned to them, fixing the patterns of their use. Functionality