The term homo sapiens. When did Homo sapiens appear and how does he differ from other species of people?

The question of how old the human race is: seven thousand, two hundred thousand, two million or a billion is still open. There are several versions. Let's look at the main ones.

Young “homo sapiens” (200-340 thousand years)

If we talk about the species homo sapiens, that is, “reasonable man,” he is relatively young. Official science gives it about 200 thousand years. This conclusion was made based on a study of mitochondrial DNA and famous skulls from Ethiopia. The latter were found in 1997 during excavations near the Ethiopian village of Herto. These were the remains of a man and a child, whose age was at least 160 thousand years. Today, these are the most ancient representatives of Homo sapiens known to us. Scientists have dubbed them homo sapiens idaltu, or "oldest intelligent man."

Around the same time, maybe a little earlier (200 thousand years ago), the ancestor of all modern people, “mitrogondrial Eve,” lived in the same place in Africa. Every living person has its mitochondria (a set of genes transmitted only through the female line). However, this does not mean that she was the first woman on earth. It’s just that in the course of evolution, it was her descendants who were most fortunate. By the way, “Adam,” whose Y chromosome is present in every man today, is comparatively younger than “Eve.” It is believed that he lived about 140 thousand years ago.

However, all this data is inaccurate and inconclusive. Science is based only on what it has, and more ancient representatives of homo sapiens have not yet been found. But Adam's age has recently been revised, which could add another 140 thousand years to the age of humanity. A recent study of the genes of one African-American man, Albert Perry, and 11 other villagers in Cameroon showed that they had a more “ancient” Y chromosome, which was once passed on to his descendants by a man who lived approximately 340 thousand years ago.

"Homo" – 2.5 million years

“Homo sapiens” is a young species, but the genus “Homo” itself, from which it comes, is much older. Not to mention their predecessors - Australopithecus, who were the first to stand on both legs and begin to use fire. But if the latter still had too many common features with monkeys, then the most ancient representatives of the genus “Homo” - homo habilis (handy man) were already similar to people.

Its representative, or rather its skull, was found in 1960 in the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania along with the bones of a saber-toothed tiger. Perhaps he fell victim to a predator. It was later established that the remains belonged to a teenager who lived about 2.5 million years ago. Its brain was more massive than that of typical australopithecines, its pelvis allowed it to move calmly on two legs, and its legs themselves were only suitable for walking upright.

Subsequently, the sensational discovery was complemented by an equally sensational discovery - homo habilis himself made tools for labor and hunting, carefully selecting materials for them, going to great distances from sites for them. This was found out due to the fact that all his weapons were made of quartz, which was not found near the places of residence of the first person. It was homo habilis who created the first - Olduvai archaeological culture, with which the Paleolithic or Stone Age began.

Scientific creationism (from 7500 years ago)

As you know, the theory of evolution is not considered fully proven. Its main competitor was and remains creationism, according to which both all life on Earth and the world as a whole were created by a Supreme Intelligence, the Creator or God. There is also scientific creationism, whose followers point to scientific confirmation of what is said in the Book of Genesis. They reject the long chain of evolution, arguing that there were no transitional links, all living forms on earth were created complete. And they lived together for a long time: people, dinosaurs, mammals. Until the flood, traces of which, according to them, we still find today - this is the great canyon in America, dinosaur bones and other fossils.

Creationists do not have a consensus on the age of humanity and the world, although they all rely on the first three chapters of the first Book of Genesis on this issue. So-called “young earth creationism” takes them literally, insisting that the entire world was created by God in 6 days, about 7,500 years ago. Followers of “Old Earth Creationism” believe that God’s activity cannot be measured by human standards. One “day” of creation may not mean a day, millions or even billions of years. Thus, it is almost impossible to determine the real age of the earth and humanity in particular. Relatively speaking, this is the period from 4.6 billion years (when, according to the scientific version, planet earth was born) to 7500 years ago.

Where did Homo sapiens come from?

We - people - are so different! Black, yellow and white, tall and short, brunettes and blondes, smart and not so smart... But the blue-eyed Scandinavian giant, the dark-skinned pygmy from the Andaman Islands, and the dark-skinned nomad from the African Sahara - they are all just part of one, single humanity. And this statement is not a poetic image, but a strictly established scientific fact, backed by the latest data molecular biology. But where to look for the sources of this multifaceted living ocean? Where, when and how did the first human being appear on the planet? It’s amazing, but even in our enlightened times, almost half of the US population and a significant proportion of Europeans give their votes to the divine act of creation, and among the remaining there are many supporters of alien intervention, which, in fact, is not much different from God’s providence. However, even standing on solid scientific evolutionary positions, it is impossible to answer this question unequivocally.

"A man has no reason to be ashamed
ape-like ancestors. I'd rather be ashamed
come from a vain and talkative person,
who, not content with dubious success
in his own activities, interferes
into scientific disputes about which there is no
representation".

T. Huxley (1869)

Not everyone knows that the roots of a version of the origin of man, different from the biblical one, in European science go back to the foggy 1600s, when the works of the Italian philosopher L. Vanini and the English lord, lawyer and theologian M. Hale with the eloquent titles “O the original origin of man" (1615) and "The original origin of the human race, considered and tested according to the light of nature" (1671).

The baton of thinkers who recognized the kinship of humans and animals such as monkeys in the 18th century. was picked up by the French diplomat B. De Mallieu, and then by D. Burnett, Lord Monboddo, who proposed the idea of ​​a common origin of all anthropoids, including humans and chimpanzees. And the French naturalist J.-L. Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, in his multi-volume “Natural History of Animals,” published a century before Charles Darwin’s scientific bestseller “The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection” (1871), directly stated that man descended from the ape.

So, by the end of the 19th century. the idea of ​​man as a product of a long evolution of more primitive humanoid creatures was fully formed and matured. Moreover, in 1863, the German evolutionary biologist E. Haeckel even christened a hypothetical creature that should serve as an intermediate link between man and ape, Pithecanthropus alatus, i.e., an ape-man deprived of speech (from the Greek pithekos - monkey and anthropos - man). All that remained was to discover this Pithecanthropus “in the flesh,” which was done in the early 1890s. Dutch anthropologist E. Dubois, who found on the island. Java remains of a primitive hominin.

From that moment on, primitive man received an “official residence permit” on planet Earth, and the question of geographic centers and the course of anthropogenesis came onto the agenda - no less acute and controversial than the very origin of man from ape-like ancestors. And thanks to the amazing discoveries of recent decades, made jointly by archaeologists, anthropologists and paleogeneticists, the problem of human formation modern type again, as in the time of Darwin, it received enormous public resonance, going beyond the scope of ordinary scientific discussion.

African cradle

The history of the search for the ancestral home of modern man, full of amazing discoveries and unexpected plot twists, at the initial stages was a chronicle of anthropological finds. The attention of natural scientists was primarily drawn to the Asian continent, including Southeast Asia, where Dubois discovered the bone remains of the first hominin, later named Homo erectus (homo erectus). Then in the 1920-1930s. in Central Asia, in the Zhoukoudian cave in Northern China, numerous fragments of skeletons of 44 individuals that lived there 460-230 thousand years ago were found. These people named synanthropes, at one time considered the oldest link in the human family tree.

However, Africa gradually emerged as the “cradle of humanity.” In 1925, fossil remains of a hominin called Australopithecus, and over the next 80 years, hundreds of similar remains “age” from 1.5 to 7 million years were discovered in the south and east of this continent.

In the area of ​​the East African Rift, stretching in the meridional direction from the depression Dead Sea through the Red Sea and further through the territory of Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, the most ancient sites with stone products of the Olduvai type (choppers, choppers, roughly retouched flakes, etc.) were also found. Including in the river basin. More than 3 thousand primitive stone tools, created by the first representative of the genus, were extracted from under a layer of tuff 2.6 million years old in Kada Gona Homo- a skilled person Homo habilis.

Humanity has sharply “aged”: it became obvious that no later than 6-7 million years ago the common evolutionary trunk was divided into two separate “branches” - apes and australopithecines, the latter of which marked the beginning of a new, “intelligent” path of development. There, in Africa, the earliest fossil remains of people of a modern anatomical type were discovered - Homo sapiens, which appeared about 200-150 thousand years ago. Thus, by the 1990s. the theory of the “African” origin of man, supported by the results of genetic studies of different human populations, is becoming generally accepted.

However, between the two extreme points of reference - the most ancient ancestors of man and modern humanity - there are at least six million years, during which man not only acquired his modern appearance, but also occupied almost the entire habitable territory of the planet. And if Homo sapiens appeared at first only in the African part of the world, then when and how did it populate other continents?

Three outcomes

About 1.8-2.0 million years ago, the distant ancestor of modern humans - Homo erectus Homo erectus or someone close to him Homo ergaster For the first time he left Africa and began to conquer Eurasia. This was the beginning of the first Great Migration - a long and gradual process that took hundreds of millennia, which can be traced by the finds of fossil remains and typical tools of the archaic stone industry.

In the first migration flow of the oldest hominin populations, two main directions can be outlined - to the north and to the east. The first direction went through the Middle East and the Iranian plateau to the Caucasus (and possibly Asia Minor) and further to Europe. Evidence of this is the oldest Paleolithic sites in Dmanisi (Eastern Georgia) and Atapuerca (Spain), dating back to 1.7-1.6 and 1.2-1.1 million years old, respectively.

To the east, early evidence of human presence - pebble tools dating back 1.65-1.35 million years - were found in caves in South Arabia. Further to the east of Asia, the ancient people moved in two ways: the northern one went to Central Asia, the southern one went to East and Southeast Asia through the territory of modern Pakistan and India. Judging by the dating of quartzite tool sites in Pakistan (1.9 Ma) and China (1.8-1.5 Ma), as well as anthropological finds in Indonesia (1.8-1.6 Ma), early hominins settled space of South, Southeast and East Asia no later than 1.5 million years ago. And on the border of Central and Northern Asia, in Southern Siberia on the territory of Altai, the Early Paleolithic site of Karama was discovered, in the sediments of which four layers with an archaic pebble industry 800-600 thousand years old were identified.

At all the oldest sites in Eurasia, left by migrants of the first wave, pebble tools were discovered, characteristic of the most archaic Olduvai stone industry. At about the same time or somewhat later, representatives of other early hominins came from Africa to Eurasia - carriers of the microlithic stone industry, characterized by the predominance of small-sized products, which moved in almost the same ways as their predecessors. These two ancient technological traditions of stone processing played a key role in the development of the tool activity of primitive humanity.

A second global wave of migrants from Africa spread to the Middle East around 1.5 million years ago. Who were the new migrants? Probably, Homo heidelbergensis (the man of Heidelberg) - a new species of people, combining both Neanderthaloid and sapiens traits. These “new Africans” can be distinguished by their stone tools Acheulean industry, made using more advanced stone processing technologies - the so-called Levallois splitting technique and techniques of double-sided stone processing. Moving east, this migration wave met in many areas with the descendants of the first wave of hominins, which was accompanied by a mixture of two industrial traditions - pebble and late Acheulean.

At the turn of 600 thousand years ago, these immigrants from Africa reached Europe, where Neanderthals subsequently formed - the species closest to modern humans. About 450-350 thousand years ago, bearers of the Acheulean traditions penetrated into the east of Eurasia, reaching India and Central Mongolia, but never reached the eastern and southeastern regions of Asia.

The third exodus from Africa is already associated with a person of a modern anatomical species, who appeared there on the evolutionary arena, as mentioned above, 200-150 thousand years ago. It is assumed that approximately 80-60 thousand years ago Homo sapiens, traditionally considered the bearer of the cultural traditions of the Upper Paleolithic, began to populate other continents: first the eastern part of Eurasia and Australia, later Central Asia and Europe.

And here we come to the most dramatic and controversial part of our history. As genetic research has proven, today's humanity consists entirely of representatives of one species Homo sapiens, if you do not take into account creatures like the mythical yeti. But what happened to the ancient human populations - the descendants of the first and second migration waves from the African continent, who lived in the territories of Eurasia for tens, or even hundreds of thousands of years? Did they leave their mark on the evolutionary history of our species, and if so, how great was their contribution to modern humanity?

Based on the answer to this question, researchers can be divided into two different groups - monocentrists And polycentrists.

Two models of anthropogenesis

At the end of the last century, a monocentric point of view on the process of emergence finally prevailed in anthropogenesis. Homo sapiens– the hypothesis of the “African exodus”, according to which the only ancestral home of Homo sapiens is the “dark continent”, from where he settled throughout the world. Based on the results of studying genetic variability in modern people, its proponents suggest that 80-60 thousand years ago a demographic explosion occurred in Africa, and as a result of a sharp population growth and lack of food resources, another migration wave “splashed out” into Eurasia. Unable to withstand competition with a more evolutionarily advanced species, other contemporary hominins, such as Neanderthals, left the evolutionary distance about 30-25 thousand years ago.

The views of the monocentrists themselves on the course of this process differ. Some believe that new human populations exterminated or forced the indigenous ones into less convenient areas, where their mortality rate increased, especially child mortality, and the birth rate decreased. Others do not exclude the possibility in some cases of long-term coexistence of Neanderthals with humans modern look(for example, in the south of the Pyrenees), which could result in the diffusion of cultures and sometimes hybridization. Finally, according to the third point of view, a process of acculturation and assimilation took place, as a result of which the indigenous population simply dissolved into the newcomers.

It is difficult to fully accept all these conclusions without convincing archaeological and anthropological evidence. Even if we agree with the controversial assumption about rapid growth population, it still remains unclear why this migration flow first went not to neighboring territories, but far to the east, all the way to Australia. By the way, although on this path a reasonable person had to cover a distance of over 10 thousand km, no archaeological evidence of this has yet been found. Moreover, judging by archaeological data, during the period 80-30 thousand years ago, no changes occurred in the appearance of the local stone industries of South, Southeast and East Asia, which inevitably had to happen if the indigenous population was replaced by newcomers.

This lack of “road” evidence led to the version that Homo sapiens moved from Africa to eastern Asia along the sea coast, which by our time was under water along with all the Paleolithic traces. But with this development of events, the African stone industry should have appeared almost unchanged on the islands South-East Asia, however, archaeological materials 60-30 thousand years old do not confirm this.

The monocentric hypothesis has not yet given satisfactory answers to many other questions. In particular, why did a person of a modern physical type arose at least 150 thousand years ago, and the culture of the Upper Paleolithic, which is traditionally associated only with Homo sapiens, 100 thousand years later? Why is this culture, which appeared almost simultaneously in very distant regions of Eurasia, not as homogeneous as would be expected in the case of a single carrier?

Another, polycentric concept is taken to explain the “dark spots” in human history. According to this hypothesis of interregional human evolution, the formation Homo sapiens could go with equal success both in Africa and in the vast territories of Eurasia, inhabited at one time Homo erectus. It is the continuous development ancient population in each region explains, according to polycentricists, the fact that the cultures of the early Upper Paleolithic in Africa, Europe, East Asia and Australia are so significantly different from each other. And although from the point of view modern biology The formation of the same species (in the strict sense of the word) in such different, geographically distant territories is an unlikely event; there could have been an independent, parallel process of evolution of primitive man towards homo sapiens with his developed material and spiritual culture.

Below we present a number of archaeological, anthropological and genetic evidence in favor of this thesis related to the evolution of the primitive population of Eurasia.

Oriental man

Judging by numerous archaeological finds, in East and Southeast Asia the development of the stone industry about 1.5 million years ago went in a fundamentally different direction than in the rest of Eurasia and Africa. Surprisingly, for more than a million years, the technology of making tools in the Sino-Malay zone has not undergone significant changes. Moreover, as mentioned above, in this stone industry for the period 80-30 thousand years ago, when people of a modern anatomical type should have appeared here, no radical innovations have been identified - neither new stone processing technologies, nor new types of tools.

In terms of anthropological evidence, the largest number of known skeletal remains Homo erectus was found in China and Indonesia. Despite some differences, they form a fairly homogeneous group. Particularly noteworthy is the volume of the brain (1152-1123 cm 3) Homo erectus, found in Yunxian County, China. The significant advancement of the morphology and culture of these ancient people, who lived about 1 million years ago, is demonstrated by the stone tools discovered next to them.

The next link in the evolution of Asian Homo erectus found in Northern China, in the caves of Zhoukoudian. This hominin, similar to Javan Pithecanthropus, was included in the genus Homo as a subspecies Homo erectus pekinensis. According to some anthropologists, all these fossil remains of early and later forms of primitive people line up in a fairly continuous evolutionary series, almost to Homo sapiens.

Thus, it can be considered proven that in East and Southeast Asia, for more than a million years, there was an independent evolutionary development of the Asian form Homo erectus. Which, by the way, does not exclude the possibility of migration of small populations from neighboring regions here and, accordingly, the possibility of gene exchange. At the same time, due to the process of divergence, these primitive people themselves could have developed pronounced differences in morphology. An example is paleoanthropological finds from the island. Java, which differ from similar Chinese finds of the same time: while maintaining the basic features Homo erectus, in a number of characteristics they are close to Homo sapiens.

As a result, at the beginning of the Upper Pleistocene in East and Southeast Asia, on the basis of the local form of erecti, a hominin was formed, anatomically close to humans of the modern physical type. This can be confirmed by new dating obtained for Chinese paleoanthropological finds with the features of “sapiens”, according to which people of modern appearance could have lived in this region already 100 thousand years ago.

Return of the Neanderthal

The first representative of archaic people who became known to science, is a Neanderthal Homo neanderthalensis. Neanderthals lived primarily in Europe, but traces of their presence were also found in the Middle East, Western and Central Asia, and southern Siberia. These short, stocky people, who had great physical strength and were well adapted to the harsh climatic conditions of northern latitudes, were not inferior in brain volume (1400 cm 3) to people of modern physical type.

Over the century and a half that has passed since the discovery of the first remains of Neanderthals, hundreds of their sites, settlements and burials have been studied. It turned out that these archaic people not only created very advanced tools, but also demonstrated elements of behavior characteristic of Homo sapiens. Thus, the famous archaeologist A. P. Okladnikov in 1949 discovered a Neanderthal burial with possible traces of a funeral rite in the Teshik-Tash cave (Uzbekistan).

Until the beginning of the 21st century. Many anthropologists considered Neanderthals to be the ancestral form of modern humans, but after analysis of mitochondrial DNA from their remains, they began to be viewed as a dead-end branch. It was believed that Neanderthals were displaced and replaced by modern humans - a native of Africa. However, further anthropological and genetic studies showed that the relationship between Neanderthal and Homo sapiens was far from simple. According to recent data, up to 4 % of the genome of modern humans (non-Africans) was borrowed from Homo neanderthalensis. There is now no doubt that in the border areas inhabited by these human populations, not only cultural diffusion occurred, but also hybridization and assimilation.

Today, the Neanderthal is already classified as a sister group to modern humans, restoring its status as a “human ancestor.”

In the rest of Eurasia, the formation of the Upper Paleolithic followed a different scenario. Let us trace this process using the example of the Altai region, which is associated with sensational results obtained through paleogenetic analysis of anthropological finds from the Denisov and Okladnikov caves.

Our regiment has arrived!

As mentioned above, the initial human settlement of the Altai territory occurred no later than 800 thousand years ago during the first migration wave from Africa. The uppermost culture-containing horizon of sediments of the oldest Paleolithic site in the Asian part of Russia, Karama, in the valley of the river. Anui was formed about 600 thousand years ago, and then there was a long break in the development of Paleolithic culture in this territory. However, about 280 thousand years ago, carriers of more than progressive techniques stone processing, and from that time, as field research shows, there was a continuous development of the culture of Paleolithic man here.

Over the last quarter of a century, about 20 sites in caves and on the slopes of mountain valleys have been explored in this region, and over 70 cultural horizons of the Early, Middle and Upper Paleolithic have been studied. For example, in Denisova Cave alone, 13 Paleolithic layers have been identified. The most ancient finds dating back to the early stage of the Middle Paleolithic were found in a layer aged 282-170 thousand years, to the Middle Paleolithic - 155-50 thousand years, to the upper - 50-20 thousand years. Such a long and “continuous” chronicle makes it possible to trace the dynamics of changes in stone implements over many tens of thousands of years. And it turned out that this process went quite smoothly, through gradual evolution, without external “disturbances” - innovations.

Archaeological data indicate that already 50-45 thousand years ago the Upper Paleolithic began in Altai, and the origins of the Upper Paleolithic cultural traditions can be clearly traced to the final stage of the Middle Paleolithic. Evidence of this is provided by miniature bone needles with a drilled eye, pendants, beads and other non-utilitarian objects made of bone, ornamental stone and mollusk shells, as well as truly unique finds - fragments of a bracelet and a stone ring with traces of grinding, polishing and drilling.

Unfortunately, Paleolithic sites in Altai are relatively poor in anthropological finds. The most significant of them - teeth and skeletal fragments from two caves, Okladnikov and Denisova, were studied at the Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology. Max Planck (Leipzig, Germany) by an international team of geneticists under the leadership of Professor S. Paabo.

Paleogenetic studies have confirmed that the remains of Neanderthals were discovered in Okladnikov Cave. But the results of decoding mitochondrial and then nuclear DNA from bone samples found in the Denisova Cave in the cultural layer of the initial stage of the Upper Paleolithic gave the researchers a surprise. It turned out that we are talking about a new fossil hominin unknown to science, which was named after the place of its discovery Altai man Homo sapiens altaiensis, or Denisovan.

The Denisovan genome differs from the reference genome of a modern African by 11.7 %; for the Neanderthal from Vindija Cave in Croatia, this figure was 12.2 %. This similarity suggests that Neanderthals and Denisovans are sister groups with a common ancestor that separated from the main human evolutionary trunk. These two groups diverged about 640 thousand years ago, embarking on a path of independent development. This is evidenced by the fact that Neanderthals share common genetic variants with modern people of Eurasia, while part of the genetic material of Denisovans was borrowed by Melanesians and indigenous people of Australia, who stand apart from other non-African human populations.

Judging by archaeological data, in the northwestern part of Altai, 50-40 thousand years ago, two different groups primitive people - Denisovans and the easternmost population of Neanderthals, who came here around the same time, most likely from the territory of modern Uzbekistan. And the roots of the culture, the carriers of which were the Denisovans, as already mentioned, can be traced in the ancient horizons of the Denisova Cave. At the same time, judging by the many archaeological finds reflecting the development of the Upper Paleolithic culture, the Denisovans were not only not inferior, but in some respects even superior to the man of modern physical appearance who lived at the same time in other territories.

So, in Eurasia during the late Pleistocene, in addition to Homo sapiens There were at least two more forms of hominins: Neanderthal - in the western part of the continent, and in the east - Denisovan. Taking into account the drift of genes from Neanderthals to Eurasians, and from Denisovans to Melanesians, we can assume that both of these groups took part in the formation of a person of the modern anatomical type.

Taking into account all the archaeological, anthropological and genetic materials available today from the most ancient locations of Africa and Eurasia, it can be assumed that there were several zones on the globe in which an independent process of population evolution took place Homo erectus and development of stone processing technologies. Accordingly, each of these zones developed its own cultural traditions, its own models of transition from the Middle to Upper Paleolithic.

Thus, at the basis of the entire evolutionary sequence, the crown of which was man of the modern anatomical type, lies the ancestral form Homo erectus sensu lato*. Probably, in the late Pleistocene, the human species of modern anatomical and genetic appearance was ultimately formed from it Homo sapiens, which included four forms that can be called Homo sapiens africaniensis(Eastern and Southern Africa), Homo sapiens neanderthalensis(Europe), Homo sapiens orientalensis(Southeast and East Asia) and Homo sapiens altaiensis(North and Central Asia). Most likely, a proposal to unite all these primitive people into a single species Homo sapiens will cause doubts and objections among many researchers, but it is based on a large volume of analytical material, only a small part of which is given above.

Obviously, not all of these subspecies made an equal contribution to the formation of man of the modern anatomical type: the greatest genetic diversity had Homo sapiens africaniensis, and it was he who became the basis of modern man. However, the latest data from paleogenetic studies regarding the presence of Neanderthal and Denisovan genes in the gene pool of modern humanity show that other groups of ancient people did not remain aloof from this process.

Today, archaeologists, anthropologists, geneticists and other specialists dealing with the problem of human origins have accumulated a huge amount of new data, on the basis of which they can put forward different hypotheses, sometimes diametrically opposed. The time has come to discuss them in detail under one indispensable condition: the problem of human origin is multidisciplinary, and new ideas should be based on a comprehensive analysis of the results obtained by specialists from various sciences. Only this path will one day lead us to a solution to one of the most controversial issues that has troubled the minds of people for centuries - the formation of reason. After all, according to the same Huxley, “each of our strongest beliefs can be overthrown or, in any case, changed by further advances of knowledge.”

*Homo erectus sensu lato - Homo erectus in the broadest sense

Literature

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Derevianko A. P. The transition from the Middle to Upper Paleolithic and the problem of the formation of Homo sapiens sapiens in East, Central and North Asia. Novosibirsk: IAET SB RAS, 2009.

Derevianko A. P. Upper Paleolithic in Africa and Eurasia and the formation of a modern anatomical type of man. Novosibirsk: IAET SB RAS, 2011.

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Human life on Earth appeared approximately 3.2 million years ago. Until now, humanity does not know for sure how it originated human life. There are a number of theories that provide their own options for the origin of man.

The most famous of these theories are religious, biological and cosmic. There is also an archaeological periodization of the life of ancient people, which is based on what material tools were made from at different times.

Paleolithic era - the appearance of the first man

The appearance of man is associated with the Paleolithic era - the Stone Age (from the Greek “paleos” - ancient, “lithos” - stone). The first people lived in small herds, their economic activity consisted of gathering and hunting. The only tool was a stone chopper. Language was replaced by gestures; man was guided solely by his own instincts of self-preservation and was in many ways similar to an animal.

In the Late Paleolithic era, the mental and physical formation of modern man, lat. Homo sapiens, Homo sapiens.

Features of Homo sapiens: anatomy, speech, tools

Homo sapiens differs from his predecessors in his ability to think abstractly and express his thoughts in articulate speech form. Homo sapiens learned to build the first, albeit rather primitive, dwellings.

Primitive man had a number of anatomical differences from homo sapiens. The brain part of the skull was significantly smaller compared to the facial part. Since Homo sapiens was more mentally developed, his skull structure changes completely: the facial part becomes smaller, a flat forehead appears, and a chin protrusion appears. The arms of Homo sapiens are significantly shortened: after all, he no longer needs to engage in gathering, farming comes to replace it.

Homo sapiens significantly improves tools; there are already more than 100 types of them. The primitive herd is already being replaced by a formed clan community: Homo sapiens clearly identifies its relatives among many people. Thanks to the ability to analyze, he begins to fill the surrounding objects and phenomena with spiritual meaning - this is how the first religious beliefs are born.

Homo sapiens no longer depends so much on nature: hunting is replaced by cattle breeding; he can also independently grow vegetables and fruits without resorting to gathering. Thanks to the fact that man was able to adapt to environment and deal with natural disasters, its average life expectancy increases by about 5 years.

Later, with the improvement of the tools of labor, Homo sapiens will create a class society, which speaks, first of all, of material superiority and the ability to create personal property. Homo sapiens inherently believes in the spirits of dead ancestors, who supposedly help and patronize him.

Looking at the evolutionary development of humanity, the soul is filled with admiration for its willpower and ability to deal with various obstacles along the way. Thanks to this, man was able not only to leave the cave, but also to independently build modern skyscrapers, to realize himself in science and art, completely subjugating nature.

Today there is a prevailing hostility in science towards the very idea of ​​"gods", but in reality this is simply a matter of terminology and religious convention. A striking example is the cult of airplanes. After all, oddly enough, the best confirmation of the theory of the Creator-God is himself Man - Homo sapiens. Moreover, according to the latest research, the idea of ​​God is embedded in humans at the biological level.

Since Charles Darwin shocked the scientists and theologians of his time with evidence of the existence of evolution, man has been considered to be the final link in a long evolutionary chain, at the other end of which are the simplest forms of life, from which life has evolved over billions of years since the emergence of life on our planet. vertebrates, then mammals, primates and Man himself.

Of course, a person can be considered as a set of elements, but even then, if we assume that life arose as a result of random chemical reactions, then why did all living organisms on Earth develop from a single source, and not from many random ones? Why is only a small percentage of organic matter included? chemical elements, available in abundance on Earth, and a large number of elements rarely found on our planet and our life balances on a razor's edge? Does this mean that life was brought to our planet from another world, for example by meteorites?

What caused the Great Sexual Revolution? And in general, there are many interesting things in a person - sensory organs, memory mechanisms, brain rhythms, mysteries of human physiology, a second signaling system, but the main topic of this article will be a more fundamental mystery - the position of man in the evolutionary chain.

It is now believed that the ancestor of man, the ape, appeared on Earth approximately 25 million years ago! Discoveries in East Africa made it possible to establish that the transition to the type of ape (hominid) took place about 14,000,000 years ago. The genes of humans and chimpanzees split from a common ancestral trunk 5 - 7 million years ago. Even closer to us were the bonobos pygmy chimpanzees, which separated from chimpanzees about 3 million years ago.

Sex occupies a huge place in human relationships, and bonobos, unlike other monkeys, often copulate in a face-to-face position, and their sex life such that it overshadows the licentiousness of the inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorrah! So it is likely that our common ancestors with apes behaved more like bonobos than like chimpanzees. But sex is a topic for a separate discussion, and we will continue.

Among the skeletons found, there are only three contenders for the title of the first fully bipedal primate. All of them were discovered in East Africa, in the Rift Valley, cutting through the territories of Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania.

About 1.5 million years ago, Homo erectus (upright man) appeared. This primate had a much larger cranium than its predecessors, and it was already beginning to create and use more complex stone tools. The wide range of skeletons found suggests that between 1,000,000 and 700,000 years ago, Homo erectus left Africa and settled in China, Australasia and Europe, but disappeared altogether between about 300,000 and 200,000 years ago for unknown reasons.

Around the same time, the first primitive man appeared on the scene, dubbed by scientists a Neanderthal, after the name of the area where his remains were first discovered.

The remains were found by Johann Karl Fuhlrott in 1856 in the Feldhofer Cave near Düsseldorf in Germany. This cave is located in the Neandertal Valley. In 1863, the English anthropologist and anatomist W. King proposed the name for the find Homo neanderthalensis. Neanderthals inhabited Europe and Western Asia from 300 thousand to 28 thousand years ago. For some time they coexisted with anatomically modern humans, who settled in Europe about 40 thousand years ago. Previously, based on a morphological comparison of Neanderthals with modern humans, three hypotheses were proposed: Neanderthals are the direct ancestors of humans; they made some genetic contribution to the gene pool; they represented an independent branch that was completely supplanted by modern man. It is the latter hypothesis that is confirmed by modern genetic research. The existence of the last common ancestor of humans and Neanderthals is estimated at 500 thousand years before our time.

Recent discoveries have forced us to radically reconsider the assessment of Neanderthals. In particular, in the Kebara Cave on Mount Carmel in Israel, the skeleton of a Neanderthal man who lived 60 thousand years ago was found, whose hyoid bone was completely preserved, completely identical to the bone of a modern person. Since the ability to speak depends on the hyoid bone, scientists were forced to admit that the Neanderthal had this ability. And many scientists believe that speech is the key to unlocking the great leap in human development.

Nowadays, most anthropologists believe that the Neanderthal was a full-fledged man, and for a long time, in terms of his behavioral characteristics, he was quite equivalent to other representatives of this species. It is quite possible that the Neanderthal was no less intelligent and human-like than we are in our time. It has been suggested that the large, coarse lines of his skull are simply the result of some kind of genetic disorder, like acromegaly. These disturbances quickly dissipated into a limited, isolated population through interbreeding.

But, nevertheless, despite the huge period of time - more than two million years - separating the developed Australopithecus and the Neanderthal, both used similar tools - sharpened stones, and the features of their appearance (as we imagine them) were practically no different.

“If you put a hungry lion, a man, a chimpanzee, a baboon and a dog in a large cage, then it is clear that the person will be eaten first!”

African folk wisdom

The emergence of Homo sapiens is not just an incomprehensible mystery, it seems incredible. For millions of years there was only slight progress in the processing of stone tools; and suddenly, about 200 thousand years ago, it appeared with a cranial volume 50% larger than before, with the ability to speak and a body anatomy quite close to modern one. (According to a number of independent studies, this happened in Southeast Africa.)

In 1911, anthropologist Sir Arthur Kent compiled a list of the anatomical features inherent in each species of primate monkey that distinguishes them from each other. He called them "common features." As a result, he got the following indicators: gorilla - 75; chimpanzees - 109; orangutan - 113; gibbon - 116; humans - 312. How can one reconcile Sir Arthur Kent's research with the scientifically proven fact that the genetic similarity between humans and chimpanzees is 98%? I would reverse this relationship and ask the question - how does a 2% difference in DNA determine the striking difference between humans and their primate cousins?

We must somehow explain how a 2% difference in genes gives rise to so many new characteristics in a person - brain, speech, sexuality and much more. It is strange that a Homo sapiens cell contains only 46 chromosomes, while chimpanzees and gorillas have 48. Theory natural selection was unable to explain how such a major structural change could occur—the fusion of two chromosomes.

In the words of Steve Jones, “...we are the result of evolution—a series of successive mistakes. No one would argue that evolution has ever been so abrupt that an entire plan for the restructuring of an organism could be realized in one step.” Indeed, experts believe that the possibility of a successful large evolutionary leap, called macromutation, is extremely unlikely, since such a leap is likely to be harmful to the survival of species that are already well adapted to the environment, or in any case ambiguous, for example due to mechanism of action of the immune system, we have lost the ability to regenerate tissue like amphibians.

Catastrophe theory

Evolutionist Daniel Dennett describes the situation elegantly with a literary analogy: someone tries to improve a classic literary text by making only proofreading changes. While most editing—placing commas or correcting misspelled words—has little effect, significant text editing in almost all cases spoils the original text. Thus, everything seems to be stacked against genetic improvement, but a favorable mutation can occur in a small isolated population. Under other conditions, favorable mutations would have dissolved into the larger mass of “normal” individuals.

Thus, it becomes obvious that the most important factor in the splitting of species is their geographical separation to prevent mutual crossing. And as statistically unlikely as it may be for new species to arise, there are currently about 30 million different species on Earth. And earlier, according to calculations, there were another 3 billion, now extinct. This is only possible in the context of the catastrophic development of history on planet Earth - and this point of view is now becoming increasingly popular. However, it is impossible to give a single example (with the exception of microorganisms) where any species has recently (during the last half a million years) improved as a result of mutations or split into two different species.

Anthropologists have always sought to present the evolution from Homo erectus to as a gradual process, albeit with sharp leaps. However, their attempts to adjust archaeological data to the requirements of a given concept each time turned out to be untenable. For example, how can we explain the sharp increase in skull volume in Homo sapiens?

How did it happen that Homo sapiens gained intelligence and self-awareness, while its relative the ape spent the last 6 million years in a state of complete stagnation? Why has no other creature in the animal kingdom been able to advance to high level mental development?

The usual answer to this is that when a person rose to his feet, both hands were freed and he began to use tools. This advancement accelerated learning through the “ feedback", which, in turn, stimulated the process of mental development.

Recent scientific research suggests that in some cases, electrochemical processes in the brain can promote the growth of dendrites—tiny signal receptors that connect to neurons (nerve cells). Experiments with experimental rats have shown that if toys are placed in a cage with rats, the mass of brain tissue in rats begins to grow faster. Researchers Christopher A. Walsh and Anjen Chenn were even able to identify a protein, beta-catenin, that is responsible for why the human cerebral cortex is larger than that of other species. Walsh explained the results of their research: “The brain cortex of mice is normally smooth. In humans, it is very wrinkled due to the large volume of tissue and lack of space in the skull. It can be compared to putting a piece of paper in a ball. We found that mice with increased production of beta. Catenin’s cerebral cortex was much larger in volume, it was wrinkled in the same way as in humans. ”Which, however, did not add clarity. After all, in the animal kingdom there are a lot of species whose representatives use tools, but at the same time do not become intelligent.

Here are some examples: the Egyptian kite throws stones from above at ostrich eggs, trying to break their hard shells. The Galapagos woodpecker uses cactus twigs or needles in five different ways to pluck tree beetles and other insects from rotten trunks. A sea otter on the Pacific Coast of the United States uses one stone as a hammer and another as an anvil to break the shell to obtain its favorite delicacy, the bear's ear shell. Our closest relatives, chimpanzees, also make and use simple tools, but do they reach our level of intellectual development? Why did humans become intelligent, but chimpanzees not? We always read about the search for our earliest ape ancestors, but in reality it would be much more interesting to find the missing link of Homo super erectus.

But let's get back to the man. According to common sense, it should have taken another million years to move from stone tools to other materials, and perhaps another hundred million years to master mathematics, civil engineering and astronomy, but for inexplicable reasons man continued to live a primitive life using stone tools, Only within 160 thousand years, and about 40-50 thousand years ago, did something happen that caused the migration of mankind and the transition to modern forms of behavior. Most likely it was climate change, although the issue requires separate consideration.

A comparative analysis of the DNA of different populations of modern people suggested that even before leaving Africa, about 60-70 thousand years ago (when there was also a decrease in numbers, although not as significant as 135 thousand years ago), the ancestral population was divided at least into at least three groups, which gave rise to the African, Mongoloid and Caucasian races.

Some racial characteristics may have arisen later as an adaptation to living conditions. This applies at least to skin color, one of the most significant racial characteristics for most people. Pigmentation provides protection from solar radiation, but should not interfere with the formation, for example, of certain vitamins that prevent rickets and are necessary for normal fertility.

Since man came out of Africa, it would seem to go without saying that our distant African ancestors were similar to the modern inhabitants of this continent. However, some researchers believe that the first people who appeared in Africa were closer to the Mongoloids.

So: just 13 thousand years ago, Man settled almost throughout the entire globe. Over the next thousand years he learned to lead Agriculture, another 6 thousand years later created a great civilization with advanced astronomical science). And finally, after another 6 thousand years, man goes into the depths of the solar system!

We do not have the means of determining an accurate chronology for the periods where the carbon isotope method ends (about 35 thousand years before our time) and further into history throughout the middle Pliocene.

What reliable data do we have about Homo sapiens? At a conference held in 1992, the most reliable evidence obtained by that time was summed up. The dates given here are averages for a number of all specimens found in the area and are given with an accuracy of ±20%.

The most significant discovery, made in Kaftsekh in Israel, is 115 thousand years old. Other specimens, found in Skule and Mount Carmel in Israel, are 101 thousand-81 thousand years old.

Specimens found in Africa, in the lower layers of the Border Cave, are 128 thousand years old (and using ostrich egg shell dating, the age of the remains is confirmed to be at least 100 thousand years old).

In South Africa, at the mouth of the Klasis River, dates range from 130 thousand to 118 thousand years before the present (BP).
And finally, in Jebel Irhoud, in South Africa, specimens with the earliest dating were discovered - 190 thousand-105 thousand years ago.

From this we can conclude that Homo sapiens appeared on Earth less than 200 thousand years ago. And there is not the slightest evidence that there are earlier remains of modern or partially modern humans. All specimens are no different from their European counterparts - the Cro-Magnons, who settled throughout Europe about 35 thousand years ago. And if you dressed them in modern clothes, they would be practically no different from modern people. How did the ancestors of modern humans appear in Southeast Africa 150-300 thousand years ago, and not, say, two or three million years later, as the logic of evolution would suggest? Why did civilization begin in the first place? There is no obvious reason why we should be more civilized than the tribes in the Amazon jungle or the impenetrable forests of New Guinea, who are still at a primitive stage of development.

Civilization and Methods of Controlling Human Consciousness and Behavior

Summary

• The biochemical composition of terrestrial organisms indicates that they all developed from a “single source,” which, however, does not exclude either the hypothesis of “random spontaneous generation” or the version of “the introduction of the seeds of life.”
• Man is clearly out of the evolutionary chain. Despite the huge number of “distant ancestors,” the link that led to the creation of man has never been found. At the same time, the speed evolutionary development has no analogues in the animal world.
• It is surprising that modification of just 2% of the chimpanzee's genetic material caused such a radical difference between humans and their closest relatives, the apes.
• Features of the structure and sexual behavior of humans indicate a much longer period of peaceful evolution in a warm climate than determined from archaeological and genetic data.
• Genetic predisposition to speech and efficiency internal device brain, strongly points to two essential requirements of the evolutionary process - its incredibly long period, and vital necessity achieving the optimal level. The course of the supposed evolutionary development does not at all require such efficiency of thinking.
• Infants' skulls are disproportionately large for safe delivery. It is quite possible that we inherited the “skulls” from the “race of giants”, so often mentioned in ancient myths.
• The transition from gathering and hunting to agriculture and cattle breeding, which occurred in the Middle East about 13,000 years ago, created the preconditions for the accelerated development of human civilization. Interestingly, this coincides in time with the supposed Great Flood, which destroyed the mammoths. By the way, around that time the Ice Age ended.

For a long time in the Anthropocene, biological factors and patterns were gradually replaced by social ones, which finally ensured the appearance of a modern type of man in the Upper Paleolithic - Homo sapiens, or reasonable man. In 1868, five human skeletons were discovered in the Cro-Magnon cave in France, along with stone tools and drilled shells, which is why Homo sapiens are often called Cro-Magnons. Before Homo sapiens appeared on the planet, there was another humanoid species called Neanderthals. They populated almost the entire Earth and were distinguished by their large size and serious physical strength. Their brain volume was almost the same as that of a modern earthling - 1330 cm3.
Neanderthals lived during the Great Ice Age, so they had to wear clothes made from animal skins and hide from the cold in the depths of caves. Their only rival in natural conditions there could only be a saber-toothed tiger. Our ancestors had highly developed brow ridges; they had a powerful, forward jaw with large teeth. The remains found in the Palestinian cave of Es-Shoul, on Mount Carmel, clearly indicate that Neanderthals are the ancestors of modern humans. These remains combine both ancient Neanderthal features and features characteristic of modern humans.
It is assumed that the transition from Neanderthals to modern humans took place in the most climatically favorable regions globe, in particular, in the Mediterranean, Western and Central Asia, Crimea and the Caucasus. Recent studies show that Neanderthal man lived for some time even at the same time as Cro-Magnon man, the direct predecessor of modern man. Today, Neanderthals are considered to be a kind of side branch of the evolution of Homo sapiens.
Cro-Magnons appeared about 40 thousand years ago in East Africa. They populated Europe and, within a very short period, completely replaced the Neanderthals. Unlike their ancestors, Cro-Magnons were distinguished by a large active brain, thanks to which short period time have taken an unprecedented step forward.
Since Homo sapiens lived in many regions of the planet with different natural and climatic conditions, this left a certain imprint on his appearance. Already in the Upper Paleolithic era, the racial types of modern man began to develop: Negroid-Australoid, Euro-Asian and Asian-American, or Mongoloid. Representatives of different races differ in skin color, eye shape, hair color and type, skull length and shape, and body proportions.
Hunting became the most important activity for Cro-Magnons. They learned to make darts, tips and spears, invented bone needles, used them to sew the skins of foxes, arctic foxes and wolves, and also began to build dwellings from mammoth bones and other improvised materials.
For collective hunting, building houses and making tools, people began to live in clan communities, consisting of several large families. Women were considered the core of the clan and were housewives in common dwellings. The growth of the frontal lobes of a person contributed to the complexity of his social life and the variety of work activities, and ensured the further evolution of physiological functions, motor skills and associative thinking.

The technology for producing labor tools was gradually improved, and their range increased. Having learned to take advantage of his developed intellect, Homo sapiens became the sovereign master of all life on Earth. In addition to hunting mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, wild horses and bison, as well as gathering, Homo sapiens also mastered fishing. The way of life of people also changed - a gradual settlement of individual groups of hunters and gatherers began in forest-steppe areas rich in vegetation and game. Man learned to tame animals and domesticate some plants. This is how cattle breeding and agriculture appeared.
A sedentary lifestyle ensured the rapid development of production and culture, which led to the flourishing of housing and economic construction, the production of various tools, and the invention of spinning and weaving. A completely new type of economic management began to take shape, and people began to depend less on the vagaries of nature. This led to an increase in the birth rate and the spread of human civilization to new territories. The production of more advanced tools became possible thanks to the development of gold, copper, silver, tin and lead around the 4th millennium BC. There was a social division of labor and specialization of individual tribes in production activities, depending on certain natural and climatic conditions.
We draw conclusions: at the very beginning, human evolution occurred at a very slow pace. It took several million years since its inception ancient ancestors, so that a person reaches the stage of his development at which he learned to create the first cave paintings.
But with the appearance of Homo sapiens on the planet, all of his abilities began to develop rapidly, and in a relatively short period of time, man became the dominant form of life on Earth. Today our civilization has already reached 7 billion people and continues to grow. At the same time, the mechanisms of natural selection and evolution are still at work, but these processes are slow and rarely amenable to direct observation. The emergence of Homo sapiens and the subsequent rapid development of human civilization led to the fact that nature gradually began to be used by people to satisfy their own needs. The impact of people on the biosphere of the planet has produced significant changes in it - the species composition of the organic world in the environment and the nature of the Earth as a whole has changed.