Polish fracture (blank spots in Polish history of the 20th century). Brief history of Poland

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Socialist camp, a term that, after the Second World War 1939-1945. in the USSR, states were designated that followed the path of building socialism. It included the USSR and the states of Eastern Europe, in which the Communists established themselves in power, China after the completion civil war(1949), then North Korea and North Vietnam. The confrontation between the two camps (socialism and capitalism) was seen as the most important feature of world development. Socialist camp The term "socialist camp" gradually fell into disuse, especially after the deterioration of Soviet-Chinese and Soviet-Albanian relations. It was replaced by the terms "socialist commonwealth", "world socialist system". The socialist countries included Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, East Germany, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia.

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As a result of World War II, Poland lost almost 40% of its national wealth and more than 6 million people. From the late 1940s to the late 1980s, the Polish economy was organized along the Soviet model, characterized by central planning and state ownership of the means of production. Economic growth in the first years after the Second World War, despite the significant depletion of resources, took place at an accelerated pace. The government limited individual consumption in order to maintain a high level of capital investment. Unlike the Soviet Union and other countries of Eastern Europe, there was no general collectivization in Poland. Agriculture was the main source of livelihood for 35% of the population. Gradually, the importance of the manufacturing and extractive industries increased, and in the late 1970s, these industries accounted for half of the country's national income and a third of all jobs. The position of Poland after World War II

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Political figures August Zaleski. He served as President of Poland from June 7, 1947 to April 7, 1972. He was proclaimed president-in-exile. When 7 years of rule came to an end, Zaleski extended his powers indefinitely. Because of this, many politicians in Poland stopped their contacts with him. Shortly before his death, Zalesky appointed Stanislav Ostrovsky as his successor. Stanislav Ostrovsky - President of Poland in exile. He served at the post from April 8, 1972 to April 8, 1979. After his term ended, he appointed Edward Rachinsky as his successor. Edward Rachinsky served as president for 7 years from April 8, 1972 to April 8, 1979.

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Crisis in Poland in the 1980s In the 1980s, the government loosened control over the activities of enterprises. At the same time, enterprises continued to insist on state subsidies and other forms of support. The authorities, unable to finance higher levels of spending through tax revenues, were forced to resort to emission. As a result, the government of T. Mazowiecki, which came to power in September 1989, faced a huge budget deficit and rapidly growing inflation. In the 80s of the 20th century, the countries of Eastern Europe, including Poland, experienced an economic crisis. The Government of Poland began to take action Minister of Economy L. Balcerowicz developed a strategy for economic reforms, which consisted of two stages. During the first phase, implemented in the fall of 1989, the government took control of the budget and corrected some price imbalances, created an unemployment benefit system, and developed the legal basis for bankruptcy proceedings. The second phase began on January 1, 1990 and included a sharp reduction in the budget deficit

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Revolutions in Poland In 1980, the NDP was seized by a new, longest and most acute political crisis. In the summer, a wave of strikes swept the country, workers in port cities moved to create \"free \", trade unions. The Independent Trade Union \"Solidarity \", headed by an electrician, became the most massive LVA-Lance. Cells \"Solidarity \" began to form throughout the country. Already in the fall of 1980, the number of its members exceeded 9 million people. PUWP regime. Another change in the party leadership did not stabilize the situation in the country. The Soviet leadership, frightened by the prospect of democratic forces coming to power in Poland, threatened military intervention in Polish affairs according to the Czechoslovak scenario of 1968. On December 13, 1981, martial law was introduced in Poland: the activities of all opposition organizations were banned

POLAND - State in the center of Europe.

Gra-ni-chit on the se-ve-ro-vos-to-ke with Ros-si-she (Ka-li-nin-grad-skaya region) and Lithuania, on the east-ke - from Be- lo-rus-si-ey and Uk-rai-noy, in the south - with Slo-va-ki-ey and Che-khi-ey, on the za-pa-de - with Ger-ma-ni-ey. On the se-ve-re ohms-va-et-sya Baltic sea-rem. The area is 312.7 thousand km2. Population 38.3 million (2014). Sto-li-tsa - Var-sha-va. De-nezh-naya one-ni-tsa - Polish evil. The official language is Polish. Administrative-territorial division: 16 voivodships (table).

Is-to-ri-che-sky essay

Ter-ri-to-ria Pol-shi in antiquity and on-cha-le Sred-ne-ve-ko-vya.

To the ancient-shim pa-myat-ni-kam of the che-lo-ve-che-sky deed-tel-no-sti on the ter-ri-to-rii of Poland from-no-syat-sya on-hod-ki from Tsheb-ni-tsy and Rus-ko (Lower Si-le-Zia), yes-ti-rue-my about 500 and 440-370 thousand years ago. On-hod-ki, co-from-but-si-mye with Ashe-lem, from-west in Si-le-zia, Kra-ko-ve and its ok-rest-no-ties. For an hour of pa-myat-nik-kov of the middle-pa-leo-li-ta pre-stand-le-on in-du-str-ria Mi-kok, for more-shin-st-ve - Mustier. For the early part of the upper pa-leo-li-ta from the West of Se-let, Aurin-yak, Gra-vette. After re-re-ry-va in for-se-le-nii, connected-zan-no-go with mak-si-mu-mom ole-de-non-nia, appeared-we-were pa-mint -ni-ki cul-tour Mad-len, epi-gra-vet-ta, then Hamburg-sky (see Mei-en-dorf), Ling-bi and continuing her tra- divisions of Ahrens-burg culture-tu-ra, sweder-cult-tu-ra, as well as single pa-myat-ni-ki, cul-tu-ra someone -rykh on the east is connected with the basin of the Des-na river. In the early me-zo-li-te ras-pro-country-nya-et-sya ko-mor-nits-kaya kul-tu-ra (in the za-pa-de, similar traditions before -go-dyat to the British Isles, then join-nyon-nyh with ma-te-ri-com; look at Star-Carr), then - hoi-nits-ko-stumps -skaya cul-tu-ra (near Mag-le-mo-ze), in the old me-zo-li-te - yani-sla-vits-kaya cul-tu-ra. On the se-ve-ro-vos-to-ke once-vi-va-las kul-tu-ra Kun-da.

Not-oli-ti-for-tion, including the appearance of a pro-from-in-dya-shche-ho-zyay-st-va, on the territory of Poland, the for-on with the races-pro-country-not-ni-em around 5400-5300 BC li-ney-no-len-toch-noy ke-ra-mi-ki cul-tu-ry and sl-alive -she-sya on her os-no-ve kul-tu-ry with ke-ra-mi-koy, uk-ra-shen-noy in-lo-sa-mi from na-ko-lov from-stu-pay -shtam-pom. Around the year 4600, yes-ti-ru-yut appears-le-ni-cult-tu-ry Len-d-yel. With her, co-su-sche-st-vo-va-la ma-lits-kaya cul-tu-ra (complexed with the participation of len-d-el-sky traditions or groups with on-kol-cha-toy ke-ra-mi-koy), the influence of a swarm of oh-va-you-va-lo a significant part of the territory of Poland. Ene-o-lit represented by va-ri-an-ta-mi in-ron-ko-vid-nyh cups of cul-tu-ry, sha-ro-vid-ny am-for cul-tu -ry, shnu-ro-howl ke-ra-mi-ki cul-tour-but-is-to-ri-che-community (see also Lad-e-vid-nyh-po -ditch kul-tu-ra). The development of meso-lytic traditions, is-py-you-vav-shih influence of the earth-le-del-che-sko-sko-vodka cultures, about -follow-wa-et-sya in the cul-tu-re Er-te-bel-le (on the territory of Northern Poland), non-Man-sky cul-tu-re (Central and North -Eastern Poland), Narva cul-tu-re (North-Eastern Poland).

To the end of ene-o-li-ta - na-cha-lu bron-zo-vo-go-ve-ka on the territory of Poland from-no-sit-sya appearance-le-nie pa- mint-no-kov-ko-lo-ko-lo-species cups of culture-tu-ry, its traditions follow-follow-wa-yut-sya in the un-tits-coy culture tu-re, are-al-ko-to-swarm included the western lands of Poland. Tra-di-tion culture-tour shnu-ro-how ke-ra-mi-ki on the ter-ri-to-rii of the south-east of Poland vice-coy and stshy-zhov-sky kul-tu-rah, on the se-ve-ro-vos-to-ke - weakly studied-chen-ny-mi group-pa-mi, connected-by mi with cul-tu-ra-mi of North-Eastern Europe. On this basis, with the participation of the cul-tour Po-du-na-vya (a circle of chickens-gan-nyh in-gre-be-ny ​​cul-tu-ry) on the pas-de warehouse -dy-va-et-sya the so-called pre-Luzhits-kaya kul-tu-ra, on the east-ke - tshi-nets-kaya kul-tu-ra, teaching-st-vo-vav-shie in the for-mi-ro-va-nii of the lu-zhits-koy kul-tu-ry, are-al-ko-to-swarm included almost the entire territory of Poland in the late bron- zo-vom ve-ke and na-cha-le wound-not-go-lez-no-go ve-ka.

Within the framework of the luzhits-coy cul-tu-ra, the maritime cul-tu-ra developed, having occupied the main part of the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe pre-she- st-ven-ni-tsy in the borders of Poland. Small groups of Celts, but-si-te-lei kul-tu-ry La-ten, appeared at the beginning of the 4th century BC on the territory of Si- le-zii, at the beginning of the 3rd century BC - in the upper reaches of the Vis-la (you-net-kai group-pa) and San-na. Not-big-shay zone-on-con-centr-tra-tion of la-ten-sky on-ho-doc fic-si-ru-et-sya in Kuya-viya. In the process of la-te-ni-za-tion in the sea cul-tu-ru, change-or-whether Pshe-vor-skaya cul-tu-ra and Ok-syv-skaya cul-tu- ra, becoming a sub-stratum of the Vel-bar culture. Part of the territory of North-Western Poland at the end of the pre-Roman period (mostly syn-chron-but La-te-nu) for-ni-ma-li group -py, connected with the tradition of Yas-peat culture; groups close to cul-tu-rams on the territory of Ger-ma-nia, su-sche-st-vo-va-li here and in Roman times (mid-1st - 4th centuries ad). A number of pa-myat-ni-kov late part of the pre-Roman and early part of the Roman time in the Northern Pri-kar-pa-tje from-no-sit-sya to the pu-hov-sky cul-tu-re (the main are-al in the pre-mountain Slo-va-kiya). On the extreme east of the ter-ri-to-rii of Poland from the west of pa-myat-ni-ki with tra-di-tion-mi for-ru-bi-net-koy kul-tu- ry and more later groups associated with cul-tu-ra-mi bass-sei-on the Dnieper. Part of the northeastern lands of Poland enters-di-la into the are-al kul-tu-ry of the Western-Baltic kur-ga-nov; in Roman times, there were cultural groups here Western Balts.

Ras-pad of the Pshe-Vor-Skoy and Vel-Bar-Kul-Tour are connected with the departure of Van-Da-Lov, Goths, Ge-Pidovs, and other Germans and connected with no-mi on-se-le-nia to the borders and on the territory of the Roman Empire at the end of the 4th - 1st half of the 5th centuries ad. From the 2nd half of the fifth century these lands are races-about-country-nya-is-prague-sky kul-tu-ra, co-from-not-se-something with glory-vya-na-mi not you-zy -va-et with-me-niy (for other theories in-yav-le-niya slav-vyan on the ter-ri-to-rii of Poland, see the article Slav-vya-ne). Pa-myat-ni-ki ti-pa Sukov - Dzed-zi-tse pain-shin-st-in modern ar-heo-log-gov consider-ta-yut her lo-cal-noy mo-di-fi-ka -qi-ey. Not-large ankh-la-you before-she-st-vuyu-shchih cul-tour yes-ti-ru-yut-sya within the framework of the 2nd half of the 5th century - 520s, their but- si-te-whether you-tes-not-ny or as-si-mi-li-ro-va-ny but-si-te-la-mi sob-st-ven-but Prague-sky and jo -dzits-kih tra-di-tsy. On this basis, a number of Slavic cultural groups of the 4th quarter of the 1st millennium, for-no-mav-shih ter-ri-to-ryu of Poland, for is-key-che-ni-em of its northeastern part, where the Baltic traditions (Prussians, yat-vya-gi and others) developed.

Literature: Prahistoria ziem polskich. Wroclaw i.i., 1975-1981. T. 1-5; Kozëowski J.K., Kaczano-wski P. Najdawniejsze dzieje ziem polskich. Kra-k9ow, 1998; Archeologia o poc-zat-kach Slo-wian / Red. P. Kaczanowski, M. Parczewski. Krak9ow, 2005.

Poland-sha from the emergence of the state-su-dar-st-va to the station-nov-le-niya of the "shlya-khet-de-mo-kra-tii" (XIX-XIV centuries) .

According to the measure of growth-ta on-se-le-niya ras-shi-ryal-sya are-al about-ra-ba-you-vae-my lands, us-false-nya-las so-qi- al-naya or-ga-ni-za-tion, the leading role in the adoption of decisions in degree-pen-but with-about-re-ta-whether the chapters about -shchin (zhu-pa-ny), tribal princes and their ok-ru-zhe-nie, o-so-lying-shie-sya in sa-mo-stand-yately so-qi-al -th group. The appearance of things common to the tribe, especially those related to providing security (so-der- zha-nie gr-dov, forest-nyh for-seks, not-se-ing in-in-service), led to the emergence of sys-te-we-wine -no-stay.

You-de-le-ni tribal nobility and appear-le-ni in-sti-tu-ta princely power sti-mu-li-ro-va-li about -the process of combining small kindred tribes into large tribes and tribal associations. According to “Ba-var-sko-mu geo-gra-fu” (pe-re-chen people of Central and Eastern Europe of the 2nd half of the 9th century), in Poland there was there were about 50 large and small tribes, including vis-la-ne, land-zya-ne, glo-zha-ne (identified with the western ones na-mi), go-p-la-not, slen-for-not, ma-zov-sha-not, in mo-rya-not. The process of creating the state of the head-vi-whether in-la-ne, united princes-i-mi ma-lo-go ice-nice-ko-gnez-nin-sko th tribe from the di-na-stia Pyas-tov. Their efforts-to-le-niyu-so-st-in-va-whether you-a-year-strategic-lo-s-same (in-la-wouldn’t-ok-ru-same genus-st-ven-ny-mi and near-ki-mi according to the level of development-vi-tia and si-le ple-me-na-mi), co-medium-to-that-che-nie in the Nest -but tor-gov-whether so-lew (to-would-wa-las in Kuya-vii). According to the voice-but Gal-lu Ano-ni-mu, prince-I-mi in-liang after-to-va-tel-but would Ze-mo-vit, someone count -is the son of le-gen-dar-no-go Pyas-ta, under-chi-niv-shiy all tribe-me-na-lyan and, perhaps, go-p-lyan ( Kuya-via); Le-shek (Les-tek), throughout the whole ve-ro-yat-no-sti attached to his state ma-zov-shan (Ma-zo-via) and land-zyan ; Ze-mo-thought, father of Mesh-ko I, the first dos-that-ver-but from the west prince. According to G. La-bu-dy, the name "Poland" appeared at the turn of the IX-X centuries and -le". After the fact that Poland began to call the whole state of Pias-tov, their initial power with the center in Gnez-no-lu-chi-lo the name Ve-li-kai Poland-sha (VP; that is, the elder-shai, main, Latin Polonia Maior), and later ter-ri-to-rii vis-lyan and Lend-Zyan - Ma-laya Pol-sha (MP; that is, the youngest, Latin Polo-nia Minor).

Around 960, Mesh-ko I occupied the princely pre-table. in-mo-ryan on-talk-well-moose on the pro-ti-vo-dei-st-vie of the christian-an-roman empire (in the 12th century it was called lu-chi-la Holy Roman Empire). By this time, on the ter-ri-to-riyu of Poland, everything is shi-re na-cha-lo pro-no-kat hri-sti-an-st-vo. In 965, Mesh-ko I married the Czech princess Do-b-ra-ve (Dub-rov-ke, Dom-bruv-ke), together with her to Poland in 965 would-la group-pa-priest-no-kov-mis-sio-ne-ditch, os-no-vav-shih in Po-know-no mis-sio-ner-skoe episcop-st-vo. In 966, the prince, together with the court, took christi-an-st-vo (it is considered the year of the baptism of Poland).

Po-li-ti-ku con-so-li-da-tion and center-tra-li-for-tion of the state, as well as its further-she-go ter-ri-to-ri-al- the son of Mesh-ko I Bo-le-glory I the Brave-ry continued. At the congress with Emperor Ot-to-nom III in Gnez-no in 1000, he received confirmation of his su-ve-re-ni-te-ta, and so- so-gla-this on the account of the under-chi-nya-shche-scha Ri-mu of the Gnez-nen-sky mi-tro-po-lie with the bishop-st-va-mi in Po-zna-ni, Kra-ko-ve, Wroc-la-ve and Ko-lob-same-ge. At the end of the 10th century, Bo-le-slav I included Kra-kov with the Kra-kow land and Si-le-ziyu in the composition of Poland, on-ho-diving under the rule Czech Republic; during the time to-ho-yes to Ki-ev in 1018-1019 to help his son-in-law Holy half-ku Vla-di-mi-ro-vi-chu with-soe- di-nil Cher-Viennese cities-ro-da, time-men-but ov-la-del Lu-zhi-tsey, part of the Mi-shen-mark-ki on the pas-de (see Bu -di-shin-sky peace of 1018), not-for-long-to-take (1003) the Czech pre-table, attached-di-nil Mo-ra-via and part of Slo-va-kiya, but did not manage to hold on to the Western Sea (see the article Seaside). In 1025, Bo-le-slav I accepted the king's ko-ro-nu. Under his successor Mesh-ko II (1025-1034), we-ha-las uso-bi-tsa, os-la-biv-shay the Polish state and led-shay to ut-ra-te Si- lesia and Cher-Viennese cities; emperor Kon-rad II li-shil Mesh-ko II ko-ro-leo-go ti-tu-la. The son of Mesh-ko II Ka-zi-mir I Vos-sta-no-vi-tel (1034-1037, 1038 or 1039-1058) restored his power over Ma-zo-vi-ey, under -chi-nil East Sea and Si-le-ziyu. The further-nee-neck of the strengthening of Poland-shi pro-isosh-lo at Bol-le-slav-ve II Smel-crowbar. In the struggle for in-ve-sti-tu-ru, he-stepped-drank on the hundred-ro-not Ri-ma, which made it easier-chi-lo in-lu-che-so-gla-siya pa-py on co-ro-na-tion in 1076. One-on-ko revolt on-bi-raw-shey si-lu op-po-zi-tion can-nov-lad-tsev (the highest layer of the military-en-no-drug-zhin-noy ari-sto- kra-tii) for-sta-vil Bo-le-slav-va II in 1079 to run to Hungary. His brother and pre-em-nick Vla-di-slav I Her-man (1079-1102) co-glas-strength in 1097 you-de-pour your sons-nov-yam Zbig-ne-woo and Bo-le-slav-vu sa-mo-sto-yatelnye-ly (VP - first-in-mu, MP with Si-le-zi-she - second-ro-mu), and se-be as a principle -tsep-su os-ta-vil Ma-zo-viyu and the city-ro-da Kra-kov, San-do-mir (San-do-inter) and Wroc-lav.

After the death of Vla-di-sla-va I Ger-ma-on the me-f-du of his sons-new-I-mi once-ver-well-was a struggle for power, for-completed-shiv -shay-sya in a be-doy Bo-le-slav-va III Kri-vo-us-to-go. By 1123, he ov-la-did the Eastern (Gdansk) Sea and the Lu-bush land, then under-chi-nil se-be and in 1122-1128 he cre-styled Western Sea. On them there would be a race-pro-country-not-on the juris-dictation of the Gnez-nen-sky mi-tro-po-lea.

By the middle of the 12th century, the Polish state represented-la-lo-so-battle dos-ta-precise-but once-with-that in-sti-there, led by a single-but-personal-but right-viv-shim mo-nar-hom. The prince (king-role) opi-ral-sya on the branch-branched administrative apparatus. In the administrative-territorial ot-no-she-nii, Poland was de-lissed into the provinces (Si-les-skaya, Krakow-skaya, San-do-mir-skaya, Ma-zo-vets- Kuyu, Ku-Yav-skaya, Se-radz-sko-Len-chits-kuyu and Po-sea with the East Sea), city ok-ru-ga (headed-la-fox kash-te-la-na-mi, osu-sche-st-in-lav-shi-mi secular and military power) and opo-lya (ob-e-di-non-niya not-several kih-se-le-ni-po-lei). This structure was dub-li-ro-va-las co-from-vet-st-vuu-shche church-or-ha-no-for-qi-her. According to the requirements of the prince, his ad-mi-ni-st-ra-tion, in-en-but-serve-zhi-lo-go and spirit-hov-no-go co-words obes-pe-chi-wa-lis with the help of on-tu-ral-nyh payments and wine-no-stays in favor of the state. In a degree-pen-but raz-vi-va-elk de-delicate ob-ra-sche-nie, in my hryvnia, dos-that-accurate-but long-use-pol- zo-va-lis foreign mo-not-you and for-me-no-te-whether de-neg. The so-tsi-al-naya structure-tu-ra on-se-le-niya was set up (the number of people by the beginning of the 12th century was about 1.5 million people). The basis of its new mass, having become-la-whether personal-but-free-cres-st-I-not, work-div-shie-sya on earth, the supreme -st-ven-no-one was a prince; su-sche-st-in-va-whether it’s the same group-py for-vi-si-my kre-st-yan. On-a-row with them for-mi-ro-va-lis co-words of re-mes-len-ni-kov, can-but-owners, knights-rei. Pain-shin-st-in front of a hundred-vi-te-lei of the two following groups (with the exception of those living in Ma-zo-via ) dos-ta-toch-but ra-but og-ra-ni-chi-li dos-stupid in their ranks, forming the so-called heral-dical clans. Can-new-lad-tsy and ry-tsa-ri are also active, but half-nya-whether the upper layers of the spirit-ho-ven-st-va. Pro-me-zhu-accurate group-pu me-zh-du ry-tsa-rya-mi and cross-st-I-on-mi comp-stav-la-whether vlo-dy-ki - per-rio -di-che-ski pri-zy-vae-mye for the military service-bu kre-st-I-not. Christ-stia-ni-za-tion of Poland s-so-st-in-va-la de-v-tiyu its cul-tu-ry on the os-no-ve European dos-ti-same-niy, one hundred -new-le-niu sis-te-we are about-ra-zo-va-niya in Latin. At the beginning of the 12th century, there was-la-na-pi-sa-na the first Polish chronicle Gal-la Ano-ni-ma.

After the death of Bo-le-sla-va III (1138) in Poland, almost a 200-year period of specific division began. According to his request (sta-tu-tu), the Polish state was once-de-le-but in 4 districts. The eldest in the pra-vya-shchy ro-du became the grand duke-earth and got better, in my own-st-ve-no-go, ve-li-ko - princely inheritance (consisted of the MP with Kra-kov-vom and, according to many researchers, the eastern part of the VP with Gnez- but also Ka-li-shem, as well as Se-radz-sko-Len-chits-coy earth). The eldest of the brothers, Vla-di-slav II Iz-gnan-nik (1138-1146), aspired to uk-re-p-le-tion of the central power, but collided-zero- Xia with pro-ti-vo-dei-st-vi-em brother-ev and can-nov-lad-tsev. In the course of the beginning of the inter-communal war, he endured sang in the same way, fled from the country and without-us-on foot was-cal for help at the Holy Roman Empire. Behind that, the Krakow pre-table for-no-ma-li brothers Vla-di-sla-va II, Bo-le-slav IV Kud-rya-vy (1146-1173) and Mesh-ko III Old (1173-1177, 1191, 1198-1202 (with a re-ry)). In 1177, in re-zul-ta-te bun-ta mozh-nov-lad-tsev, Mesh-ko was overthrown from the ve-li-ko-prince-same-sto-la, and on his me - one hundred ma-lo-pol-sky mozh-nov-lad-tsy and du-ho-ven-st-vo from bra-whether the youngest of the brothers, Ka-zi-mi-ra II Spra -wed-whether-in-go, and after his death in 1194 - 8-year-old son-on Ka-zi-mi-ra, Le-she-ka Be-lo-go. From-blood-vein-noe on-ru-she-nie for-things Bo-le-sla-va III yes-lo push a new uso-bi-tse, lasting from pe-re-ry-va-mi until the end of the 13th century. As a result of the di-na-stic de-le-niy, the co-li-che-st-in the specific principalities increased-li-chi-moose (especially ben-but in Xi-le -zii).

The specific division of the non-ga-tiv-but affected the Polish state. In 1226, the ma-zo-vec-ky prince Kon-rad brought the Tev-ton-order-den to help in protecting his lot from the on-be-gov Prus -owls and yat-vya-govs, their christia-ni-za-tion and with-about-re-te-nii of new vla-de-ny. However, as a result, the state was created by the or-de-nome on the Prussian lands, not-in-middle-st-veins-but under-chi-nyav-pa-pe Rome -sko-mu, included in its composition the Hel-Min land, and in 1308-1309 - the Eastern Sea with Gdansk. In 1252, Lu-bush-land went to Bran-den-bur-g, ras-lo-wife in the middle of Od-ry, and created given by his right-wi-te-la-mi New mark (Neu-mark) by 1270 from de la Western Sea from the VP. In 1241, the MP and Si-le-zia were subjected to a devastating mon-go-lo-ta-tar-mu-on-she-st-viu (new second-time about -isosh-whether in 1259-1260, 1287-1288).

In the pe-ri-od times-fraction-len-no-sti we-ko-ri-were pro-cesses of the feo-yes-li-for-tions of the society-st-va, it was a hundred-now-le -tion of the main co-words - large lands-le-vlad-del-tsev and kre-st-yan, someone would be obligated to pay for-lo-gi ( more and more often in a de-gentle form) and non-something in wine-no-sti not-in-medium-st-ven-but in favor of feo-yes -loving, ry-king-st-va and du-ho-ven-st-va (later on, both-co-bi-moose into a separate co-word). Na-cha-moose in a step-pe-noe at-cre-p-le-nie kre-st-yan to the ground, sleep-cha-la in the vla-de-ni-yah of churches, and then secular feo-yes-loving. In re-zul-ta-te shi-ro-ko-go race-pro-country-non-practice-ti-ki specific co-br-ra-ni with the participation of princes, feo -yes-loving, knights-tsars-st-va, and sometimes kre-st-yan, co-bi-equal-shih-sya for solving important eco-no-mic, lytic and su-deb-tions, destinies turned into their own-im-different so-word-states. In the XII-XIII centuries, there were significant mi-gra-ci-on-ny processes. To the Polish lands, especially to Si-le-ziyu, Po-morye and VP, did you come from Western Europe, mainly German tsy, bringing their own right-in-the-new norms, new tech-no-logies, on-you-ki and skills. Also, ak-ti-vi-zi-ro-wa-lased internal-ren-nya ko-lo-ni-za-tion (in the 13th century, there were 230 cities, having had German law, some of them would have been os-no-va-na for-no-vo). Raz-vi-va-lis cultural contacts with Western Europe, which manifested itself in a change of ro-man-sko-go-style go-ti-koy in the thirteenth century. The Polish chronicle Kad-lu-be-ka and “Ve-li-kai hro-ni-ka” appeared.

The first attempts to restore a united Polish state would have been before-pri-nya-you back in the 1st half of the 13th century. I am especially active in pro-yav-la-whether the Si-lesian and Ve-li-ko-Polish princes. One of them, Pshe-mysl II, in 1295, yes, ko-ro-no-val-sya in Gnez-no, but was soon killed. After this, ini-tsia-ti-va re-went into the hands of the Czech co-ro-la Vac-la-va II. In 1291, he sub-chi-nil se-be Kra-kov, entered into marriage with the daughter of Pshe-mys-la II Rik-soy (Ryk-soy) and ras-pro-country-nil sa-mym their power in the VP, in 1300, ko-ro-no-val-sya in the Gnez-no Polish ko-ro-noy. With the pre-se-che-ni-em of the Czech dy-na-stia Przhe-we-slo-vi-chey (1306), a new stage of the struggle for the Polish co-ro-well began, be-du on someone-rum commanded by Vla-di-slav I Lo-ke-tek. In 1320, with the consent of the papa of Rome, he co-ro-but-val-sya in Kra-ko-ve. A significant us-pe-ha in the con-so-li-da-tion of the Polish state dos-tig Ka-zi-mir III Ve-li-ki. Ma-zo-via recognized his su-ve-re-ni-tet, with the help of the papa of Rome, it was possible to return Kuya-via and Dob-zhinskaya earth-lu (ra-her for-hva-che-na Tev-ton-skim or-de-nom), at Bran-den-bur-ha, would Vskhov-skaya and Va- let's-kai earth-whether. In the 1340s, would there be a soe-di-ne-ny Ga-lits-something and part of the Vla-di-mi-ro-Vo-lyn-go-go principality, as well as Po-do-lie to the Dniester River, in the re-zul-ta-te of what, Poland is not-re-sta-la to be a mo-no-na-tsio-nal-ny and mo-no-confessional state . Ka-zi-mir III achieved the strengthening of the ko-ro-left power; uni-fi-ci-ro-val state app-para-rat (in the center - ko-ro-lev-kan-ce-la-ria and ko-ro-lev-sky council, for the month tah - on-know-tea-my ko-ro-lyom old-growth); oz-do-ro-vil fi-nan-sy, na-la-div sys-te-mu collection of tax-logs and trading duties and increase-li-chiv to-ho- dy from Ko-ro-leva-sky vla-de-ny and state so-la-nyh co-pies; introduced a penny into circulation, ko-di-fi-qi-ro-val right (see Vis-li-ts-ko-Pet-ro-kov-sky sta-tu-you 1346-1347 years). Under the Ko-ro-left re-zi-den-tion, the highest court was created for the affairs of the cities; the inner co-lo-ni-za-tion was po-osh-rya; ev-re-yam, go-no-mym in Western Europe, raz-re-shi-whether to sit in Poland and for-no-mother of economic activity-tel-but- Stu, especially-ben-but tor-gov-lei. In 1364, in Kra-ko-ve, there was-la uch-re-zh-de-na Aka-de-miya, from whom-swarm is leading its history of Yagel-lon-sky uni-ver -si-tet.

Since Ka-zi-mir III didn’t leave a trail-no-man’s-la, the Polish throne, according to-the-voice-but to-go-in-ryon-but -sti of 1339 with the Hungarian king Charles I Robert, occupied Lai-osh I We-li-ki (in Poland, he had-no-val-sya Lu-do-vi-com Wenger-skim). This is oz-na-cha-lo the end of the rights-le-ning in Poland of the Pyas-tov dynasty. Lu-do-wik didn’t care about the return of the lost Polish lands, more than that, Ga-lit-kaya Russia would have been -becoming-le-on under the control of the Hungarian old-growth. For the purpose of keeping the thread behind one of their do-che-rei, the Polish co-ro-well Lu-do-wik, who did not have a trace of a male in-la, from-gave Ko-shits-ki pri-vi-lei of 1374, someone-ry su-sche-st-ven-but og-ra-ni-chil power and fi-nan-so-vye Possibility of the Polish co-ro-la and lo-lived on-cha-lo about the process-su of the mills in Poland ti. To designate the new-in-ha-rak-te-ra of the state, it began to use the use of the “Ko-ro-on the Polish Ko-ro-lion -st-va" or simply "Ko-ro-na". In 1384, the 11-year-old daughter Lu-do-wi-ka Yad-wi-ga ascended the throne. According to the Polish-Lithuanian do-go-vo-ryon-no-sti (see the Krev-sky union of 1385), her husband and the Polish king under the name of Vla- di-slav-va II (1386-1434) became the Grand Duke of Lithuania Yagai-lo (Yagel-lo). In Polish history, the era of Yagel-lo-nov began.

Poland in the XV-XVIII centuries.

The reign of Vla-di-slav II Yagel-lo had two consequences for Poland. Together with the Great Prince of Li-tov-sky (ON), it was possible to beat the Tev-ton order-den, although he was not full-but- stu raz-thunder-len (see "Ve-li-kai war" 1409-1411). At the same time, the union in-vle-ka-la Pol-shu in the fight-boo with on-bi-equal-shim si-lu Mo-s-kov-sky ve-li-kim prince-same-st-vom , pre-ten-do-vav-shim on the lands of the Old Russian state, eye-manager in co-hundred ON; she also met a strong co-op-against-le-the Lithuanian elites, following something more than once fak-ti-che-ski re-re-sta-va -la action. Yes, after the Go-ro-del-sky union of 1413, mustache-ta-no-viv-shey in a row from the marriage of the Polish king and the Grand Duke of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and also mutually-mo-from-but-she-niya me-zh-du-ni-mi, op-po-zi-tion co-stored. In an effort to ensure the selection of his sons to the Polish throne, Vla-di-Slav II went to the distribution of lands from the Ko-ro-lion- soon-to-me-on the magician-on-there, as well as pre-dos-tav-le-ne-shlyakh-those with-vi-le-giy that created-yes-va-lo os-no- woo for her next-blowing pre-ob-la-da-niya in the state. He, in part, confirmed the former shlya-het-sky rights and freedoms, ga-ran-ti-ro-val of the Polish gentry-te ex-cl - a valid right to take on duties in Poland (Kor-chinsky pre-vi-lei of 1386), recognized im-st-ven-ny and personal not -at-kos-but-vein-ness of the way-you, to-ru-sew someone-ruyu can-but only on the basis of-no-va-nii su-deb-no-go-re- she-nia, for-cre-drank the times-de-le-nie of the su-deb-noy and executive power (1422, 1433). Under Vla-di-slav-ve II, the international au-to-ri-tet of Poland grew: the lazy for-vis-si-bridge from it recognized Moldavian prince-same-st-vo (1387), eldest son of Vla-di-sla-va II, Polish king Vla-di-slav III Var-nen-chik, in 1440 he also took the Hungarian throne. In the period of the rights of the youngest son of Vla-di-sla-va II, Ka-zi-mi-ra IV Yagel-lon-chi-ka, Poland succeeded in carried the final re-ra-tion of the Tev-ton-sko-mu or-de-nu in the course of the Three-on-tsa-ty-year-old war of 1454-1466. According to the conditions-lo-vi-yams under-pi-san-no-go, according to its over-the-top of the 2nd To-run-th world of Poland, would the Eastern Po -marie, Khel-min-sky and Mi-kha-lov-sky lands, would it be possible to bring us right-in-be-region Po-vis-lie with the cities of Mal-bork and Elb-long, as well as Var-mia, some-rye with-hundred-vi-whether the province of Ko-ro-left Prussia. The os-tal part of the vl-de-niy Tev-ton-sko-go-or-de-na with a hundred faces in Kö-nigs-berg-ge (Polish Kru-le-wetz, now not the city of Ka -li-ning-grad, RF) has become a Polish len, but its right-wi-te-whether is not os-ta-vi-whether there are hopes for a re-review of the world-no-tho- go-in-ra. In the inner-li-ti-ke, Ka-zi-mir IV op-ral-sya on the way-to, taking support from its side once-yes-whose-ro -left lands and pri-vi-le-gia-mi, some of which he spread to the Lithuanian gentry. Ka-zh-daya new pri-vi-le-gia og-ra-ni-chi-wa-la the power of ko-ro-la, and ras-shi-re-nie circle-ga in-pro-owls, for some reason, not-about-ho-di-mo would-lo-for-ru-chat-sya under-support-which way-you, with-in-di-lo to new-you with-vi-le -gi-yam. In re-zul-ta-te power in step-pen-but pe-re-ho-di-la to this-mu, for-mi-ro-vav-she-mu-xia on the basis of lo-kal -nyh so-b-ra-ny. In the Ne-shav-sky sta-tu-tah of 1454, Kazi-mir IV obligated not to call in the future the shlya-khet-skoe army and not og-la- to sew new ones for-to-nov without co-glas-this shlya-khet-skih this-mi-kov. The need for you-work-bot-ke of this-mi-ka-mi co-co-co-opted in-zi-tion ob-slo-vi-la voz-nick-no-ve-ne-gen-sche- Polish-go (val-no-go) this-ma. One-time-men-but-ko-ro-left-council, co-hundred of the highest obligatory persons of the state and the Church, at-above-le - zhav-shih to the old-rin-nym rods and vla-dev-shih krup-ney-shi-mi ze-mel-ny-mi vla-de-niya-mi, trans-for-mi-ro-val -sya in se-nat. The first co-together for-se-da-ing of these two institutions of power was in 1493 in Pet-rko-ve (now-not Pet-rkuv -Try-bu-nal-ski); in 1496 it was-lo us-ta-nov-le-but, which, in my-mo-salt way, from-to and se-na-ta, a separate “from-battle” is-la-et-sya also king role. Trans-for-ma-tion in-sti-tu-tov of power-sti the Seim for-kre-drank with-nya-ti-em Ra-dom-skoy con-sti-tu-tion 1505 (con-sti-tu -tion "Nihil novi" - "nothing new"). After the death of Ka-zi-mi-ra IV, the Polish-Lithuanian union went through another crisis (Jan Olb-racht was elected to the Polish throne , and on the Lithuanian ve-li-ko-prince-same pre-table - his younger brother Alexander), Russian-Lithuanian war-for 1500-1503 (see Russian-li -tov-sky wars) for-sta-vi-la-lithuan nobility go to uk-re-p-le-nie from-no-she-ny with Poland. As a result, in 1501, Alexander Yagel-lon-chik also took the Polish throne (until 1506). Teach-you-vaya that the third son of Ka-zi-mi-ra IV, Vla-di-slav II, for-no-small the Czech and Hungarian throne, under the rule of Yagel-lo-nov eye-for- there was a significant part of Central and Eastern Europe.

In the 2nd half of the 15th - 16th centuries, the eco-no-mi-ka of Poland developed-vi-va-las us-pesh-but: spread-shi-ryal-sya are-al ob-ra-ba-ty-vae- of our lands and introduced progressive methods of ve-de-agriculture, the demand and prices for agricultural products in the country grew not on foreign markets either (go-to-howl export of bread grew more than 6 times over the 16th century, reaching almost 200 thousand tons); os-but-you-va-lis new cities-ro-da (in the 15th century - about 200, in the 16th century - more than 130), increased-li-chi-va-elk them on-se-le -tion. With the turbulent development of agriculture, the gentry-tu and magna-na-tov are no longer set-rai-wa-whether fik-si-roved de-gentle-pla-te-zh (chinsh) with kre-st-yan, they would-lo you-a-year-it-to-la-dit that-var-noe production of bread and raw materials in their own names (fol-var-kah). First-you-mi victims-va-mi sta-nov-le-niya fol-va-roch-noy sis-te-we became the owner-owner-st-va so-lty-owls, ori-en-ti -ro-van-nye for that-var-noe production: according to the Wart-sko-sta-tu-tu of 1423, the shlyah-ta in-lu-chi-la right to their forced you -kup. The process of the so-called secondary-rich-no-go for-cre-for-the-cre-st-yan was observed (see the article Kre-st-yan-st-in). You-so-do-ho-dy increase-li-chi-wa-li ma-te-ri-al-nuyu not-for-vi-si-bridge way-you, allowing her to be active -less teaching in a political life.

At the beginning of the 16th century, the gentry, not-to-freely usi-le-ni-em in-zi-tsy magna-na-tov, entered into a fight with them. She got to-be-las for-pre-ta for once-da-choo-ro-left-of-imu-shche-st-va without the consent of this ma, from me Mel- nit-to-go-pri-vi-lei of 1501, in-hundred-viv-she-go-li-ti-ku-ko-ro-la in for-vi-si-bridge from se-na-ta. In 1506, the ideologist of the gentry, Ya. -rye should lie in the basis of Polish law (the so-called sta-tut Las-ko-go). Si-giz-mund I the Old, having taken the throne, tried-to-re-drink the king's power, relying on the se-nat and magnates. He strayed from the political activity of Las-ko-go, took measures to increase the income-to- ro-left-imu-shche-st-va, p-trying to introduce a tax on shlya-het-sky estates, pre-la-gal create-give on-em- new army, fought from-ka-za from the principle-qi-pa “free-no-go-you-bo-ra” mo-nar-ha (in 1530 he was recognized as a next-no-one and co-ro-no-van his 9-year-old son Si-giz-mund, future king of Poland Si-giz-mund II August). One-to-the king-role collided with a strong movement-the same way-you, do-bi-vav-shim-os-lab-le-nia in-zi-tsy ari -hundred-kra-ties under the lo-zun-ga-mi of the return of the co-ro-left-to-imu-shche-st-va, po-lo-van-no-go or pe-re-dan-no-go in the holding after 1504 without the consent of this ma, and the restoration of the ru-shen-nyh magna -ta-mi rights and "public freedoms" (the so-called ek-ze-ku-tsio-ni-st-skoe movement). Under his dav-le-ni-em Si-giz-mund I, at the se-mahs of 1538 and 1539, I was obligated not to-ru-shat the existing ones for-to-new and not to mother of new ones without the approval of this-ma, re-establish a free-of-bring-of-ko-ro-la after the death of Si-giz-mun-da II , and the shlyakh-ta co-gla-si-lased on the pack-la-tu on-lo-ha from the names. Not-one-but-meaning-we-would-whether the total-gi and external-li-ti-ki Si-giz-mun-da I. Under him, in the composition of Poland, windows-cha-tel- but Ma-zo-via (1526, for-mal-but in 1529) entered, were we-ta-nov-le-we friendly relations with Gabs-bur- ga-mi (1515), made peace with Os-man-sky im-pe-ri-she (1533), the power of someone-swarm approached the Polish ru -be-zham. One-on-one in from-no-she-ni-yah with na-ho-div-she-sya in len-noy for-wee-si-mo-sti Prus-si-it is serious ez-nye pro-ble-we. According to the rezul-ta-tam of the war of 1519-1521 with the Tev-ton-sky or-de-n, Poland could not-la with-so-di-thread or-den-sky ter-ri-to-rii and accepted the plan of his se-ku-la-ri-za-tion, raz-ra-bo-tan-ny in the Holy Roman Empire. According to the world-no-mu to-go-to-ru in 1525, the or-den became the secular duke-st-vom Prus-sia (Prince-same Prussia-sia), his ruler under -carried you-sal-nuyu pri-sya-gu to the Polish co-ro-lu.

On the development of Poland in the period of the rule of Si-giz-mun-da II Av-gu-hundred serious influence of the eye-for-la Li-won-sky howl -for the years 1558-1583. Her na-cha-lo in-call-whether-lo way-te us-pesh-but pro-ti-vo-dey-st-vo-vat ko-ro-left-ko-mu kur-su in uk-re -p-le-tion of power with the support of the magnum-on-comrade. This-we 1562-1564 years pro-ve-whether in-en-no-fi-nan-so-vuyu re-form-mu, de-living the state and palace-tsovuyu kaz-well, us-ta -no-viving control over the ko-ro-lev-imu-shche-st-vom and about-lo-living it in a hundred-yan-ny on-log-gom, do-bi-lis-vra -shche-niya magician-na-ta-mi not-for-horse-by-zh-lo-va-ny and der-zh-ny. Under Si-giz-mun-de II in Poland, there would be a creation-da-na-a-sto-yan-naya army, together with a rei-st-ro-you-mi ka-for-ka-mi from-ra-zhav-shay on-be-gi of the Crimean Tatars. Were you-you-she-us-a-string-ny-tax and na-lo-gi on the city-ro-zhan. In 1569, the pro-isosh-lo ob-e-di-non-nie Ko-ro-left-Prussia with the Polish crowns-we-mi lands with the preservation of research institute of a special-bo-go sta-tu-sa Gdansk. Uk-re-drank-sya and reached the top of its own development, the system of the “shlya-khet-sky de-mo-kra-tii”: from the middle of the 16th century, more and more often became - change the principle of one-but-gla-siya when making decisions on this mah (li-be-room ve-to), that (along with vve-de-ni-em strict op-re-de-lyon-ny deadlines for-se-da-ny) at-in-di-lo to their frequent s-r-you. Nevertheless, according to the zi-tion of the magna-na-tov, would there be windows-cha-tel-but in-dor-va-ny.

Under Si-giz-mun-de II, pro-isosh-lo ra-di-kal-noe from-me-not-nie ha-rak-te-ra of the Polish state in re-zul-ta-te ob-e-di -not-niya him with ON according to the Lublin Union of 1569 and about-ra-zo-va-niya Re-chi Po-spo-li-toy (RP). The inclusion of the Ukraine and Pod-la-shya in the composition of the lands of the Ko-ro-na of the Polish ust-ra-ni-lo pre-gra-du for the ex-pan-si on their ter-ri-to-rii of the Polish gentry, us-ko-ril-sya process in-lo-ni-za-tion of the East Slavic and Lithuanian gentry and magnate-on-comrade. In the 16th century in Poland, pro-tes-tantism was ra-pro-country, mainly in the midst of the gentry, active-but raz-vi-wa-moose movement Re -formation. Among the German urban on-se-le-niya uk-re-pi-elk lu-te-ran-st-in, among the way-you - cal-vi-nism; appeared and the communities of the mo-rab-brothers, on-the-trace-ni-kov of the gu-sit-s-tra-di-tion. Pro-tes-tant-sky way-ta active-but teaching-st-vo-va-la in the ex-ze-ku-tsio-ni-st-skom movement. At the Petrkov Sey-me of 1562/1563, she went from-ka-za from you-pla-you an-nat Ri-mu (collection in favor of the papal treasury from the new about-la-da-te-lei of the va-kant-churches of the be-not-fi-qi-ev), from me-we de-sya-ti-na from hat -sky estates, half of the os-in-bo-zh-de-niya way-you from the church-juris-dictation, about-lo-zhe-of the church authorities -de-niy on-lo-gom on military wells. Following her, in a be-doy, pro-tes-tan-tov became the introduction of the so-called Warsaw con-fe-de-ra-tion of 1573, ga-ran-ti- ro-vav-shey ra-ven-st-in the rights of all-go-hat-co-co-words not-for-wee-si-mo from ve-ro-is-po-ve-yes- niya. In the last quarter of the 16th century, in the conditions of-lo-vi-yah on-chav-shey-sya Counter-re-for-ma-tion, the strike force of someone swarm was an order -zui-tov (appeared in Poland in 1564), shlyakh-ta began to lose in-te-res to pro-tes-tan-tiz-mu.

On the epoch-hu Yagel-lo-nov came the pe-ri-od of the so-called Polish Voz-ro-zh-de-niya. Restoration of a hundred-new-len-naya in 1400 Kra-kov-skaya aka-de-miya became a center of attraction for mo-lo-de-zhi from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Russian state, Si -le-zia, Hungary and even the countries of Western Europe-ro-py. In the 16th century, a university was opened in Kö-nigs-berg-ge and ie-zu-it-sky Aka-de-miya in Ville-no. A network of parish schools grew, con-ku-ren-ta-mi pro-tes-tant gymnasiums in the field of education-ra-zo-va-niya would be ie- Zu-it-skie colleges. Ras-pro-country-nya-elk book-go-pe-cha-ta-nie, pe-re-zhi-va-la ras-color science-ka, in-mi-mo as-tro-no-ma N Ko-per-no-ka, shi-ro-kuyu from-news-ness in-lu-chi-li me-dik Y. Strus, ma-te-ma-tic S. Grzeb-sky, is-to- ri-ki and geo-counts Mat-vey from Me-ho-va, M. Stryi-kov-sky, B. Vapov-sky and others. General-st-ven-but-po-lytic and right-in-vaya thought presenting-le-on-trak-ta-ta-mi A. Mod-zhev-sko-go. In the 16th century, along with la-ty-new usi-liya-mi M. Ray, Ya. races-pro-country-non-nie Polish literary language. Literature, arts and renaissance sciences kul-ti-vi-ro-va-lied not only at the Ko-ro-leva court, but also in vla-de-ni- yah of many secular and spiritual magnates, including Count Ya.

With the pre-se-che-ni-em di-na-stii Yagel-lo-nov (1572), a new stage began in the history of Poland, ha-rak-te-ri-zo- vav-shey-sya in degree-pen-nym-os-lab-le-ni-em of the Polish state-su-dar-st-ven-no-sti. In the so-called first demon-co-ro-le-viere (1572-1573), there was a decision about the personal participation of the whole shlyah-you in you-bo-ra ko-ro-la (you-bo-ry viritim - “alone-night-ke”). In 1573, the Polish king Hein-rich Wa-lua (see Hen-rich III) for the first time, under oath, was obligated to observe everything os-but-in-la-la- gaining right-va ways-you (the so-called Gen-ri-ho-you (Gen-ri-ko-you) ar-ti-ku-ly), with-gla-force-sya to control your own st-ven-noy external-not-po-lytic activity-tel-no-sti se-on-that and the creation of a hundred-yang-no-go co-ve-ta se-na- then-ditch-re-zi-den-tov. After the hidden departure of Gen-ri-ha to France and the period of the “second demon-ko-ro-le-vya”, the Polish throne was re-re -dan se-st-re Si-giz-mun-da II An-ne Yagel-lon-ke, the Trans-sil-van prince Stefan Ba-to-riy became the husband of someone. La-vi-ruya between the path and the magician-on-ta-mi, he tried to uk-re-drink the ko-ro-left power. Ho-cha in 1578, Ba-to-riy re-re-gave half-but-mo-chia of the supreme su-deb-noy power to ko-ron-no-mu three-bu-na-lu , with-becoming-len-no-mu from-bi-rai-my this-mi-ka-mi before-a-hundred-vi-te-lei way-you, he managed to restore -ti-ku connection of you-with-state duties in the same hands (usually they are for-no-ma-whether magician-on-you). For the years of rule, Ba-to-riya also came for-making the pe-ri-od of the Livonian war. Po-li-ti-ku strenghtening the power of co-ro-la continued to live the first representative of the di-na-stii Va-za in the Polish pre-hundred-le Si-giz-mund III, yav-lying-side-by-no-no-one of the ab-so-lu-ti-st-right-le-tion when relying on near-wives- nyh magicians and higher spirit-ho-ven-st-vo. His main opponent-no-one was Ya. sti. The middle way-that would-la-li-ti-che-ski dez-ori-en-ti-ro-va-na, easily went under-yes-va-las on lo-zun-gi for- shields of "golden freedoms", pro-proclaimers of the magician-on-ta-mi. Not-some-personal gentry in the conditions-lo-vi-yah -tic life. The Sejm, in which the fight-ba was now fought not between the shlyakh-that and the magician-on-ta-mi, but between the various groups of magnates, those -ryal sign in favor of se-na-ta and this-mi-kov. From-ve-to to torture Si-giz-mun-da III, increase the army and half-thread kaz-well became ro-kosh (mya-tezh) Mi-ko-laya (Ni-ko-laya) Zeb-zhi-dov-sko-go (1606- 1607, windows-cha-tel-but pre-kra-shchen in 1609), supported by many magicians-on-ta-mi and shlyakh-toy and re-growing into a civil war -well. One-on-one, after his in-growth, the sign-of-my-th-effort-of-power of co-ro-la did not pro-go. In Poland, in a degree-pen-but ofor-mil-sya mag-nat-sko-ko-ro-lev-sky union, the role of mo-nar-ha in some-rum op-re-de-la -las his personal-we-mi-s-s-but-sty-mi and external-not-po-ly-tic conditions-lo-via-mi. Us-toy-chi-howl ten-den-qi-ey became a breakdown of this-mo-y for-se-da-ny, especially at the end of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th century. Additional labor-no-sti in relations with the Russian state created-yes-la Bre-st-sky union of 1596, you called not-to-will-st- in a significant pain-shin-st-va of the right-in-glorious-no-go on-se-le-niya and part of the spirit-ho-ven-st-va; her from-me-us and equation in rights with the Polish way-to-bi-va-lis also Ukrainian rhe-st-ro-vye ka-za-ki. Poland under-der-ji-va-la close union with Gabs-bur-ga-mi, during the period of the Swedish-Polish war of 1600-1629 and Re-chi Po-spo-li -toy in-ter-ven-tion on-cha-la of the 17th century without-re-zul-tat-but py-ta-las ov-la-child Swedish and Russian pre-hundred-la-mi, voe-va- la with the Os-man-sky im-pe-ri-she (1620-1621; see the Polish-tu-rets-ky wars of the 17th century). In 1611, the Polish Sejm re-gave Prince-same Prussia Bran-den-burg-gu, recognizing the hereditary rights to this ter-ri-to-riyu kur-fur-sta Io -gan-na Si-giz-mun-da. From-no-si-tel-noe improvement in Poland’s position on the international folk arena (ure-gu-li-roving from-no-she-niy with Shwe -qi-ey, the Russian state and the Os-man-sky im-pe-ri-ey) and internal-ri-po-ly-tic sta-bi-li-za-tion would you dos-tig-well-you under Vla-di-slav-ve IV. Nevertheless, in-torture to uk-re-drink the ko-ro-left-power in Poland and, yes, not-to-will-st-vo-ka-za-kov and kre-st- yan (rising 1637, 1638) were left without-us-pesh-na-mi. A new stage, connected with the os-los-not-neither-external-non- and internal-ri-poly-political situation in Poland, came to the right le-tion after the trace-not-go-ro-la from the dynasty of Va-za Jan II Ka-zi-mi-ra (1648-1668). Starting in the conditions of the ka-zats-ko-go revolt in the Uk-rai-not under the pre-di-tel-st-vom B.M. Hop-nits-ko-go (see Os-vo-bo-di-tel-naya howl-on uk-ra-in-sko-go and white-Russian-go-on-ro-dov 1648-1654 years), it is co-pro-in-zh-yes-moose con-flik-ta-mi with Bran-den-burg-g, Tran-sil-va-ni-ey, howl-on-mi with the Russian state ( see Russian-Polish wars of the 17th century) and Sweden-qi-ey (Northern war-on 1655-1660). The next one would be especially ben-but heavy for Poland: in 1655, the Swedish army invaded the Polish territory for the second time and almost half of it ok-ku-pi-ro-wa-la (see the article “Po-top”). At that time, as a significant part of the magna-na-tov, the gentry and the arm-mii, went to one hundred-ro-well in-ter-ven-tov, the heroic co-pro -tiv-le-nie of the Polish na-ro-da (the most-bo-lea bright example - about-ro-on the monastery of Yas-na-Gu-ra, in some rum was stored Chen-hundred-hov-sky icon-on God-she-her Ma-te-ri) saved the country. In the rezul-ta-te of the war, Poland would not only be-la-ra-zo-re-na, but also in-te-la part of Lee-in-nii, recognized half- new os-bo-zh-de-nie of the Prince of Prussia from the len-noy for-vi-si-mo-sti (1657). According to the “Eternal Peace” of 1686, Le-in-be-rezh-naya Uk-rai-na and Ki-ev (entered after 1569 into the composition of the MP) went to Russia, the process of consolidating the Polish authorities in the east began.

Under Jan II Ka-zi-mi-re, Poland entered-pi-la into a lo-su system-tem-no-go kri-zi-sa. From-ve-shlyah-you on-me-tiv-neck-sya lower prices for Polish bread on foreign markets became-lo ras-shi-re-nie his ex-port and increase-li-che-bar-shchi-ny. So-kai-li-ti-ka under-ry-va-la eco-no-mi-ku kre-st-yan-farms, os-lie-nya-la development of the city-ro -dov (improvement of the situation in agriculture and re-mes-le on-me-ti-moose only in the 2nd half of the 18th century). Numerous wars and ter-ri-to-ri-al-nye in-te-ri ve-whether to reduce to-se-le-niya. In political life, the role of magnates sharply intensified. From-ve-to-to-torture-ku-ro-la from-to-take during life-no-next-no-pre-hundred-la became ro-kosh E.S. Lu-bo-world-go-go (1665-1666). Rise-a-hundred-nav-whether-were in-zi-tion ka-li-tsiz-ma: from the country would be aria-not from-gna-na (1658), for-pre-sche -but step-no-thing-from-to-personal re-li-gy (1668), in the next-blowing other-faiths-whether we-we-were right -va for-no-mother state duties and for-se-give in this me (1733). Ra-bo-that this-ma, half-but-mo-chia-some-ro-go for-mal-but continued-whether it’s ras-shi-ryat-sya, more and more for work -was-often used-by-me-no-no-em prin-qi-pa li-be-room ve-to, which became the cornerstone of the Polish “hat-het-sky de-mo-kra-tii ”(in-mouth-so-by-ti-em, we consider the disruption of this-ma in 1652 by one V. Xi-qin-sky, for which -to-eye stood mag-nat Ya Rad-zi-vill; see in the article Rad-zi-villa). Pa-da-lo me-zh-du-folk influence of Poland. During the Northern War of 1655-1660, the Swedish king Carl X Gus-ta-va even had a plan for her de-la. After the rights of M.K. Vish-not-vets-ko-go (1669-1673) and Jan III So-bes-ko-go on-step-drank per-ri-one but-in-go demon-ko-ro-le-vya. He completed the rise of the st-vi-em on the Polish pre-table under-der-zhi-vae-mo-go Av-st-ri-she and Ros-si-she sak-son- sko-go Kur-fyur-hundred Fried-ri-ha Av-gu-sta I, pra-viv-she-go in Poland under the name of Av-gu-sta II Strong-no-go. Under him and his pre-em-ne-ke Av-gu-sta III, Poland more and more turned into an object, like-li-ti-ki of neighboring powers. Dragging-gi-va-nie Sak-so-nii into the Northern war-well of 1700-1721 on the hundred-ro-not of an-ti-Swedish coal-li-tion for-ver-shi-moose the second-same-ni-em of Karl XII to Poland and 5-year-old-right-le-ni-em of S. Le-shchin-sko-go. The return to the throne of August II and the introduction of the Saxon troops in Poland led to the formation of op-po-zi- qi-on-noy of the Tar-Nogrod con-fe-de-ra-tion (1715-1717), teaching-st-no-ki someone-swarm would-well-well-de-we to sub-chi-non-niyu only with the help of the Russian army. The practical-ti-che-ski full pa-ra-lich of the Polish state became a stimulus for in-is-ka ways of its lake-to-ditch-le-ning. Gradually, 2 poly-tic la-gers formed: one of them, “Fa-mi-liya”, was headed by prince-i-mi Char- then-ry-ski-mi and you-stepped-for-re-form-we, the second-swarm group-pi-ro-val-sya in a circle a thread in not-pri-kos-but-veins-no-sti us-toi of Poland. After being elected to the throne by S.A. Po-nya-tov-sko-go, can-di-da-ta Char-to-ry-sky, under-der-zhan-no-go by the Russian Empress Eka-te-ri-noy II, would it be we-de-we are not-something-ry reforms of public administration and fi-nan-co-howl systems-te-we. At the same time, the “kar-di-nal-rights” of the gentry (li-be-room ve-to, free you-bo-ry mo-nar-ha, right-in-no-po- vi-no-ve-niya ko-ro-lyu) would be co-storage-not-ny, the guarantor of their co-observation became the Russian Empire (see Var- Shavsky do-go-thief of 1768). Rise-nick-but-ve-nie of the Bar con-fe-de-ra-tion in response to the re-stand-new-le-tion of this po-lytic equal-but-pra-viy not-some-personal on-se-le-tion, mainly right-in-glorious-no-go (“dis-si-den-tov”), and enter-p-le-con-fe- de-ra-tion in the fight-boo with the Russian army . Eka-te-ri-on II you-well-well-den-but from-ka-za-las from the idea of ​​keeping Poland under the control of Russia and in 1772 with-gla-si -las on the proposal of Prussia and Austria about its time-de-le (see Raz-de-ly Re-chi Po-s-po-li-toy). This act stimulated the process of internal reforms in the Polish state. Were there ob-ra-zo-va-nys A hundred-yan-ny council (1775; Poland), the first in the European-ro-pe ve-house-st-in-of-people education (Edu-ka-tsi-on-naya commission-siya, 1773), on-cha -elk creation of a 100-thousand-thousand re-gu-lyar-noy army, not-having a path-those for-pre-ti-whether participating in this mi-kah, ras-shi-ri-lis pra-va go-ro-dov. There was a pri-nya-ta on May 3, 1791, a con-sti-tution, opening the way to a deep-bo-ko-mu internal re-for-mi-ro-va-nia of the Polish go -su-dar-st-ven-no-sti, creating-yes-vav-shay unified organs of state power, fak-ti-che-ski up-razd-nyav-shay ON (soon -re would-lo restore-a-new-le-but, one-on-one, his auto-no-mia was under-turned-o-ra-no-che-ny). Against-no-ki-re-forms, led by the pro-Russian "het-man-sky" par-ti-she created-yes-whether Tar-go-vits-kuyu con-fe- de-ra-tion (1792-1793), and Russia introduced the military into Poland. In the case of the Polish crown troops in the name of Russia and Prussia, the 2nd section of the Republic of Poland (1793). Bad luck of the Polish revolt of 1794 under the leadership of T. Kos-tyush-ko came-la to the 3rd time-de-lu of the Republic of Poland (1795) and whether-to-vi-da-tion of the Polish state-su-dar-st-va.

Polish lands in the late 18th - early 20th centuries.

In rezul-ta-te times-de-loving of the Republic of Poland, the historical territory of Poland went to Prussia and Austria, the main territory of the ON - to Russia; the administrative and legal uni-fi-ka-tion of the Polish lands began, the in-te-gra-tion of the Polish gentry into the right class of foreign states. Na-de-zh-dy on the re-stand-new-le-nie not-for-vi-si-mo-sti ties with revolutionary France, but for- those with Na-po-le-o-nom I, having declared about not-recognizing the times-de-loving of RP. In 1797, under the army of the Trans-pa-dan-sky republic-pub-li-ki, there was a formation-ro-van Polish legi-on under the command of Y.Kh. House-brov-sko-go (since 1800 in the co-veh of the French armed forces), in 1799 under the Rhine army - Pridu-nai-sky le-gi-on K. Knya-ze -vi-cha (see Polish legions). According to the Til-zit-sky peace of 1807, from a part of the Polish lands, attached to Prussia, it was created, yes, but the Warsaw prince same-st-in (duke-st-in), ob-e-di-nyon-noe personal uni-her with Sak-so-ni-her. Yes-ro-van-ny duke-st-vu Na-po-le-o-nom I con-sti-tu-tion and the civil code from me-nya-whether co-words vi-le-gyi and whether-k-vi-di-ro-va-li personal-for-vi-si-bridge kre-st-yan. In 1809, the Polish lands from the co-hundred-va of the Austrian empire would be attached to the prince-same-st-wu. At the Vienna con-gres-se of 1814-1815, the ethnic Polish lands would again be de-le-na: VP included in the composition of Prussia as Known the Great Grand Duke (PVK), the Austrian Empire returned all the ter-ri-to-rii, received by it 1- mu times-de-lu RP, Kra-ko-vu pre-dos-tav-len status of the free-to-go-ro-yes, na-ho-div-she-go-sya under “guardianship "der-zhav, teaching-st-in-vav-shih in times-de-lah (see Kra-kov-skaya re-pub-li-ka). The rest of the duchy became part of the Tsar-st-va of Poland (CP), united-nyon-no-go personal uni with Russia si-her, Emperor Alexander I gave him the con-sti-tu-tion and the right to have auto-nom-in-sti-tu-you of state power, for ex-key -che-no-eat external-not-po-ly-tic-ve-dom-st-va. On the whole territory of the former duke-st-va us-ta-nav-li-val-sya free then-va-ro-obor-mouth. On-ru-she-nie by the Russian authorities in the same way Kon-sti-tu-tion of the Tsar-st-va of Poland in 1815, intervening in its internal affairs, refusal to join the Western Territory (the former eastern territory of Poland with the pre-ob-la-da-ni-em non-pol- sko-go-se-le-niya) did you-call-for-dis-that-nie not-to-will-st-va. Since 1820, for-mi-ro-va-las-le-gal-naya op-po-zi-tion (ka-li-sha-ne), voz-no-ka-whether secret common-st- va, including the "Pat-rio-ti-che-society" (1821). As a result of the Polish revolt of 1830-1831, the status of the CPU in the composition of the Russian Empire was from me-nyon: from vla-de- according to the international agreement, according to the international agreement, it turned into the -ryu. The con-sti-tu-tion of 1815 was-la for-me-not-on Or-ga-ni-che-sky sta-tu-tom of the Tsar-st-va of Poland 1832, in 1833 vve -de-but through-you-tea-noe in the same way, lasting 20 years. Many teaching-st-ni-ki of the resurrection would have been osu-zh-de-na and so-sla-na to the interior regions of the Russian Empire, from the CPU started mass-so-vaya emigration in la-kov, pre-zh-de everything to France, Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-nia and Switzerland (the so-called Great emigration); its lytic center became the "Hotel Lambert" (Parisian re-zi-den-tion Char-to-ry-sky), Polish de-mo-kra-tic society, "Polish People" and other organizations. Until the mid-1850s, the CPU ceased to be the center of the struggle in la-kov for not-for-vi-si-bridge, in its general there were ideas about the first-of-the-eye-ra-bo-you in the name of the economic and cultural-tour-no-go rise of the country (con-cep-tion "organ-ga-nicheskogo labor-yes"). Shi-ro-ki re-zo-nans had-lo an-ti-shlya-het-sky kre-st-yan-sky revolt in 1846 in Ga-li-tsii (“ga-li-tsy- sky cut-nya”). The revolutionary events of 1848 in Europe are stronger than everything for-tro-well-whether PVK, but here, too, the resurrection in la-kov did not bring -lo them os-in-bo-zh-de-nia (see Po-Znansky revolt of 1848). Li-be-ra-li-za-tion of the Russian-li-ti-ki in the ot-she-nii of the CPU after the tsar-re-nii of Emperor Alek-san-dr II (from- me-on through-you-tea-no-go in the same way, am-ni-stia teaching-st-ni-kam of the resurrection of 1830-1831, re-forms of A. Ve -le-pol-sko-go) would-la race-tse-not-na as a witness of the weakness of Russia. In 1860-1861, patriotic ma-ni-fe-stations took place in Warsaw on the occasion of the national ones. feast-no-kov, the rise of a large-scale political movement, ras-ko-lov-the-neck on 2 la-ge-rya: “white”, strive-miv-shih-sya to do-ti-the-same-niyu av-to-no-mii po-them-ly-tic-pe-re-go-ditch and pressure-le-tion on the right-vi- tel-st-in, and “red”, ra-vav-shih for dos-ti-same-nie not-for-vi-si-mo-sti by way of recovery. Polish resurrection of 1863-1864, after-bearing-on-the-neck, with-ve-lo to whether-to-vi-da-tion os-tat-kov sa- mo-stand-tel-no-sti of the CPU, ru-si-fi-ka-tion of the administrative app-pa-ra-ta and sys-te-we about-ra-zo-va-niya. His su-sche-st-ven-nym in-lo-zhi-tel-ny re-zul-ta-tom became-la kre-st-jan-sky re-form-ma in the Tsar-st-ve of Poland 1864.

After the completion of the ob-e-di-non-niya of Germany (1871) in the former Prussian part of the Polish lands, pro-cesses were observed -le-niya german-ma-ni-za-tion of the ra-zo-vatelny system-te-we, limit-che-niya use of the Polish language in public life, goal-le-on-right-len-naya in-li-ti-kaa of the German co-lo-no-for-tion (Ko-lo-no-for-qi-on-naya ko-miss- sia for West Prussia and the province of Posen (1886), Union of Eastern Ok-ra-in (Ga-ka-ta; 1894)). In the multi-on-tsio-nal Austrian province of Ga-li-tsiya, on the contrary, on-the-ob-da-elk is a su-s-st-ven-noe improvement in-lo -zhe-niya in-la-kov. In 1861-1873, she would-la pre-dos-tav-le-na shi-ro-kaya av-to-no-miya -nie on-me-st-ni-ka-mi pro-vin-tion in-la-kov, use-pol-zo-va-nie of the Polish language in state uch-re-zh-de-ni-yah and sys -te-me about-ra-zo-va-niya and more). The general-st-ven-but-po-ly-tic development of the Polish lands went under the sign of the end of the epoch before-mi-ni-ro-va-nia shlyah-you (after the resurrection of 1863-1864) and you-ho-yes on the political arena of the new social forces : bourgeois-joie-zii, ra-bo-chih, kre-st-yan. This process continued for the pro-tya-zhe-niya of the three following de-sya-ti-years of the 19th century. So the same ak-ti-vi-zi-ro-va-lis-li-tic parties. At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries in the Polish lands, dey-st-vo-va-li Polish social-tsia-li-sti-che-s-tia (PPS), So-tsi-al -de-mo-kra-tia Ko-ro-lev-st-va of Poland and Lithuania (SDKPiL), National-de-mo-kra-tic party (en-de-ki), kre-st-yan-sky party “Pol-ske stron-nit-tvo lu-do-ve” (PSL; after the dis-pa-da in 1913, instead of it, the PSL was created “ Piast ”and PSL-le-vi-tsa), Party re-al-noy in-li-ti-ki (re-li-sty), hri-sti-an-sky de-mo-kra-you, con-ser-va-to-ry, pro-gres-si-sty and others. Pe-ri-od their special battle of activity is connected with the Re-vo-lu-qi-she of 1905-1907 in Russia, one of the important centers of which then the swarm would be the CPU. According to its re-zul-ta-there, would we make-la-we-o-ra-ni-chen-nye concessions in the political sphere (le-ha-li-za-tion moderate parties, the creation of Polish schools and societies, the Polish representation in the State Duma and the State Council), uk-re -drinking av-to-ri-tet en-de-kov headed by R. Dmovsky. S-ron-no-ki in the armed struggle for not-for-vi-si-bridge (Yu. -ga-ni-za-tion in Ga-li-tion. On the whole, the Polish poly-tic class is on-ka-well-not the 1st world-howl of the war-ny of the eye-hall of races-ko-lo-tym: en-de-ki and real- sheets of connection-zy-wa-whether pro-inter-exact solution of the "Polish question" with the be-doy of An-tan-you and ob-e-di- no-no-eat of all Polish lands on the rights of auto-to-no-mii in the co-hundred-ve of Russia, side-ron-no-ki, on the other hand, Peel-sud-th you-wa-whether for an all-for-native revolt in the CPU, the participation of the Polish army, created on the basis of military or-ga-ni-za -tsy, in the war-not on the side of Germany and Av-st-ro-Hungary, it’s possible to re-create from them the Polish state from the lands of the CPU and the Western Territory.

In the eco-no-micic from-but-she-nii, the Polish lands in the pe-ri-od after the times-de-catch of Poland were raz-vi-va-lis not-equally-but-measured-but. The greatest progress was achieved in the Prussian authorities-de-ni-yah - VP (ka-pi-ta-listic agriculture) and Upper Si-lesia (ty- yellow industry, mining de-lo). In the CPU, the industry was con-tsen-tri-ro-va-las in Warsaw, Lod-zin and Dom-brovsky ok-ru-gah, re-move of the kre-st-yan-sky farms to this var-no-mu production are just beginning. The least time-of-it would-la Ga-li-tion, in it from-day-st-in-wa-whether there are significant centers of o-ra-ba-you-vau-ing industry , pre-ob-la-da-whether large-me-shchi-chi and small kre-st-yan-sky hosts. In so-qi-al-nom from-no-she-nii, the main share of the Polish on-se-le-niya (except for Si-le-zii) is composed of-la-whether kre-st- I don't. The bourgeoisie and the working class in the Polish lands would be many-on-tsio-nal-we-mi, in my-mo-la-kov su-sche-st- ven-noy would-la to-la ev-re-ev and Germans; in the next, would it be the same to represent-le-we among in-tel-li-gen-tions, in someone-swarm, one-to-one, to-mi-no- ro-va-li-tsa hat-het-sko-go about-is-ho-zh-de-niya.

The first reliable information about Poland dates back to the second half of the 10th century. Poland was even then a relatively large state, created by the Piast dynasty by combining several tribal principalities. The first historically reliable ruler of Poland was Mieszko I (reigned 960-992) from the Piast dynasty, whose possessions - Greater Poland - were located between the Odra and Vistula rivers. Under the reign of Mieszko I, who fought against German expansion to the east, the Poles in 966 were converted to Christianity of the Latin rite. In 988 Mieszko annexed Silesia and Pomerania to his principality, and in 990 Moravia. His eldest son Bolesław I the Brave (r. 992–1025) became one of Poland's most prominent rulers. He established his power in the territory from the Odra and Nysa to the Dnieper and from the Baltic Sea to the Carpathians. Having strengthened the independence of Poland in the wars with the Holy Roman Empire, Bolesław took the title of king (1025). After the death of Boleslav, the growing feudal nobility opposed the central government, which led to the separation of Mazovia and Pomerania from Poland.

Feudal fragmentation

Bolesław III (r. 1102–1138) regained Pomerania, but after his death the territory of Poland was divided among his sons. The eldest - Vladislav II - received power over the capital Krakow, Greater Poland and Pomerania. In the second half of the 12th c. Poland, like its neighbors Germany and Kievan Rus, fell apart. The collapse led to political chaos; the vassals soon refused to recognize the sovereignty of the king and, with the help of the church, significantly limited his power.

Teutonic Knights

In the middle of the 13th c. Mongol-Tatar invasion from the east devastated most of Poland. No less dangerous for the country were the incessant raids of pagan Lithuanians and Prussians from the north. To protect his possessions, the prince of Mazovia Konrad in 1226 invited the Teutonic knights from the military-religious order of the Crusaders to the country. Within a short time, the Teutonic Knights conquered part of the Baltic lands, which later became known as East Prussia. This land was settled by German colonists. In 1308, the state created by the Teutonic Knights cut off Poland's access to Baltic Sea.

Decline of the central government

As a result of the fragmentation of Poland, the dependence of the state on the highest aristocracy and the petty nobility began to grow, whose support it needed to protect itself from external enemies. The extermination of the population by the Mongol-Tatars and Lithuanian tribes led to an influx of German settlers into the Polish lands, who either created cities themselves, governed by the laws of Magdeburg law, or received land as free peasants. In contrast, the Polish peasants, like the peasants of almost all of Europe at that time, began to gradually fall into serfdom.

The reunification of most of Poland was carried out by Vladislav Loketok (Ladislav the Short) from Kuyavia, a principality in the north-central part of the country. In 1320 he was crowned as Vladislav I. However, the national revival is more connected with the successful rule of his son, Casimir III the Great (r. 1333–1370). Casimir strengthened royalty, reformed the administration, legal and monetary systems according to the Western model, promulgated a set of laws called the Wislice Statutes (1347), eased the situation of the peasants and allowed Jews to settle in Poland - victims of religious persecution in Western Europe. He failed to regain access to the Baltic Sea; he also lost Silesia (withdrawn to the Czech Republic), but captured in the east Galicia, Volhynia and Podolia. In 1364 Casimir founded the first Polish university in Krakow, one of the oldest in Europe. Having no son, Casimir bequeathed the kingdom to his nephew Louis I the Great (Louis of Hungary), at that time one of the most powerful monarchs in Europe. Under Louis (r. 1370–1382), Polish nobles (gentry) received the so-called. Kosice privileges (1374), according to which they were exempted from almost all taxes, having received the right not to pay taxes above a certain amount. In return, the nobles promised to transfer the throne to one of the daughters of King Louis.

Jagiellonian dynasty

After the death of Louis, the Poles turned to his youngest daughter Jadwiga with a request to become their queen. Jadwiga married Jagiello (Jogaila, or Jagiello), the Grand Duke of Lithuania, who ruled in Poland under the name Vladislav II (r. 1386–1434). Vladislav II accepted Christianity himself and converted the Lithuanian people to it, founding one of the most powerful dynasties in Europe. The vast territories of Poland and Lithuania were united in a powerful state union. Lithuania became the last pagan people in Europe to adopt Christianity, so the presence of the Teutonic Order of the Crusaders here lost its meaning. However, the crusaders were no longer going to leave. In 1410, the Poles and Lithuanians defeated the Teutonic Order at the Battle of Grunwald. In 1413 they approved the Polish-Lithuanian Union in Horodlo, and public institutions of the Polish type appeared in Lithuania. Casimir IV (r. 1447–1492) tried to limit the power of the nobility and the church, but was forced to confirm their privileges and the rights of the Sejm, which included the higher clergy, the aristocracy, and the petty nobility. In 1454, he granted the noblemen the Neshav Statutes, similar to the English Magna Carta. The thirteen-year war with the Teutonic Order (1454-1466) ended with the victory of Poland, and under the agreement in Torun on October 19, 1466, Pomerania and Gdansk were returned to Poland. The order recognized itself as a vassal of Poland.

Golden Age of Poland

16th century became the golden age of Polish history. At that time Poland was one of the largest countries Europe, it prevailed in Eastern Europe and its culture flourished. However, the emergence of a centralized Russian state that claimed the lands of the former Kievan Rus, the unification and strengthening of Brandenburg and Prussia in the west and north, and the threat of the militant Ottoman Empire in the south posed a great danger to the country. In 1505, in Radom, King Alexander (reigned 1501–1506) was forced to adopt a constitution “nothing new” (Latin nihil novi), according to which the parliament received the right to an equal vote with the monarch in making state decisions and the right to veto all issues, concerning the nobility. According to this constitution, the parliament consisted of two chambers - the Sejm, in which the petty nobility was represented, and the Senate, which represented the highest aristocracy and the highest clergy. The long and open borders of Poland, as well as frequent wars, made it necessary to have a powerful trained army in order to ensure the security of the kingdom. The monarchs lacked the funds needed to maintain such an army. Therefore, they were forced to obtain the sanction of Parliament for any large expenditures. The aristocracy (monarchy) and the petty nobility (gentry) demanded privileges for their loyalty. As a result, a system of "small local noble democracy" was formed in Poland, with the gradual expansion of the influence of the richest and most powerful magnates.

Rzeczpospolita

In 1525, Albrecht of Brandenburg, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, converted to Lutheranism, and the Polish king Sigismund I (r. 1506–1548) allowed him to transform the possessions of the Teutonic Order into the hereditary Duchy of Prussia under Polish suzerainty. During the reign of Sigismund II Augustus (1548-1572), the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, Poland reached its greatest power. Krakow became one of the largest European centers of the humanities, architecture and art of the Renaissance, Polish poetry and prose, and for a number of years - the center of the reformation. In 1561, Poland annexed Livonia, and on July 1, 1569, at the height of the Livonian War with Russia, the personal royal Polish-Lithuanian union was replaced by the Union of Lublin. The united Polish-Lithuanian state began to be called the Commonwealth (Polish "common cause"). From that time on, the same king was to be elected by the aristocracy in Lithuania and Poland; there was one parliament (Seim) and common laws; common money was put into circulation; religious tolerance became common in both parts of the country. The last question was of particular importance, since large territories conquered in the past by the Lithuanian princes were inhabited by Orthodox Christians.

Elective Kings: The Decline of the Polish State.

After the death of the childless Sigismund II, the central power in the vast Polish-Lithuanian state began to weaken. At a stormy meeting of the Diet, a new king, Henry (Henrik) Valois (r. 1573–1574; he later became Henry III of France), was elected. At the same time, he was forced to accept the principle of "free election" (election of the king by the nobility), as well as the "consent pact", which each new monarch had to swear. The right of the king to choose his heir was transferred to the Sejm. The king was also prohibited from declaring war or raising taxes without the consent of parliament. He had to be neutral in religious matters, he had to marry on the recommendation of the senate. The council, which consisted of 16 senators appointed by the Sejm, constantly advised him. If the king did not fulfill any of the articles, the people could refuse him obedience. Thus, the Henryk Articles changed the status of the state - Poland moved from a limited monarchy to an aristocratic parliamentary republic; the head of the executive branch, elected for life, did not have sufficient powers to govern the state.

Stefan Batory (r. 1575–1586). The weakening of the supreme power in Poland, which had long and poorly protected borders, but aggressive neighbors, whose power was based on centralization and military force, largely predetermined the future collapse of the Polish state. Henry of Valois ruled for only 13 months, and then left for France, where he received the throne, vacated after the death of his brother Charles IX. The Senate and the Sejm could not agree on the candidacy of the next king, and the gentry finally elected Stefan Batory, Prince of Transylvania (reigned 1575–1586), giving him a princess from the Jagiellonian dynasty as his wife. Batory strengthened Polish power over Gdansk, ousted Ivan the Terrible from the Baltic states and returned Livonia. At home, he won the loyalty and help in the fight against the Ottoman Empire from the Cossacks - runaway serfs who organized a military republic on the vast plains of Ukraine - a kind of "border strip" stretching from southeast Poland to the Black Sea along the Dnieper. Bathory gave privileges to the Jews, who were allowed to have their own parliament. He reformed the judiciary, and in 1579 founded a university in Vilna (Vilnius), which became an outpost of Catholicism and European culture in the east.

Sigismund III Vase. A zealous Catholic, Sigismund III Vasa (r. 1587-1632), the son of Johan III of Sweden and Catherine, daughter of Sigismund I, decided to create a Polish-Swedish coalition to fight Russia and return Sweden to the bosom of Catholicism. In 1592 he became the Swedish king.

In order to spread Catholicism among the Orthodox population, a Uniate church was established at the cathedral in Brest in 1596, which recognized the supremacy of the Pope, but continued to use Orthodox rituals. The opportunity to seize the throne of Moscow after the suppression of the Rurik dynasty involved the Commonwealth in the war with Russia. In 1610, Polish troops occupied Moscow. The vacant royal throne was offered by the Moscow boyars to Sigismund's son, Vladislav. However, the Muscovites rebelled, and with the help of the people's militia under the leadership of Minin and Pozharsky, the Poles were expelled from Moscow. Sigismund's attempts to introduce absolutism in Poland, which at that time already dominated the rest of Europe, led to a revolt of the gentry and the loss of the king's prestige.

After the death of Albrecht II of Prussia in 1618, the Elector of Brandenburg became the ruler of the Duchy of Prussia. Since that time, the possessions of Poland on the coast of the Baltic Sea have become a corridor between two provinces of the same German state.

decline

During the reign of Sigismund's son, Vladislav IV (1632–1648), the Ukrainian Cossacks revolted against Poland, the wars with Russia and Turkey weakened the country, and the gentry received new privileges in the form of political rights and exemption from income taxes. Under the rule of Vladislav's brother Jan Casimir (1648–1668), the Cossack freemen began to behave even more militantly, the Swedes occupied most of Poland, including the capital, Warsaw, and the king, abandoned by his subjects, was forced to flee to Silesia. In 1657 Poland renounced sovereign rights to East Prussia. As a result of unsuccessful wars with Russia, Poland lost Kyiv and all areas east of the Dnieper under the Andrusovo truce (1667). The process of disintegration began in the country. The magnates, creating alliances with neighboring states, pursued their own goals; the rebellion of Prince Jerzy Lubomirski shook the foundations of the monarchy; the gentry continued to defend their own “freedoms”, which was suicidal for the state. Since 1652, she began to abuse the pernicious practice of "liberum veto", which allowed any deputy to block a decision that he did not like, demand the dissolution of the Sejm and put forward any proposals that should have been considered by its next composition. Taking advantage of this, the neighboring powers, through bribery and other means, repeatedly frustrated the implementation of decisions of the Sejm that were objectionable to them. King Jan Casimir was broken and abdicated the Polish throne in 1668, in the midst of internal anarchy and strife.

External intervention: prelude to partition

Mikhail Vyshnevetsky (r. 1669–1673) turned out to be an unprincipled and inactive monarch who played along with the Habsburgs and ceded Podolia to the Turks. His successor, Jan III Sobieski (r. 1674–1696), fought successful wars with Ottoman Empire, saved Vienna from the Turks (1683), but was forced to cede some lands to Russia under the "Eternal Peace" treaty in exchange for her promises of help in the fight against the Crimean Tatars and Turks. After the death of Sobieski, the Polish throne in the new capital of the country, Warsaw, was occupied for 70 years by foreigners: the Elector of Saxony August II (r. 1697–1704, 1709–1733) and his son August III (1734–1763). August II actually bribed the electors. Having united in an alliance with Peter I, he returned Podolia and Volhynia and stopped the exhausting Polish-Turkish wars, concluding the Karlovitsky Peace with the Ottoman Empire in 1699. The Polish king unsuccessfully tried to recapture the Baltic coast from the King of Sweden, Charles XII, who invaded Poland in 1701, and in 1703 he took Warsaw and Krakow. August II was forced to yield the throne in 1704-1709 to Stanislav Leshchinsky, who was supported by Sweden, but returned to the throne again when Peter I defeated Charles XII at the Battle of Poltava (1709). In 1733, the Poles, supported by the French, elected Stanislav king for the second time, but the Russian troops again removed him from power.

Stanisław II: the last Polish king. Augustus III was nothing more than a puppet of Russia; patriotic Poles tried with all their might to save the state. One of the factions of the Sejm, led by Prince Czartoryski, tried to cancel the pernicious "liberum veto", while the other, led by the powerful Potocki family, opposed any restriction of "freedoms". Desperate, Czartoryski's party began to cooperate with the Russians, and in 1764 Catherine II, Empress of Russia, succeeded in electing her favorite Stanisław August Poniatowski as King of Poland (1764–1795). Poniatowski was the last king of Poland. Russian control became especially evident under Prince N.V. Repnin, who, being ambassador to Poland, in 1767 forced the Sejm of Poland to accept his demands for equality of confessions and the preservation of the “liberum veto”. This led in 1768 to an uprising of Catholics (the Bar Confederation) and even to a war between Russia and Turkey.

Partitions of Poland. First section

In the midst of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, Prussia, Russia and Austria carried out the first partition of Poland. It was produced in 1772 and ratified by the Sejm under pressure from the occupiers in 1773. Poland ceded to Austria part of Pomerania and Kuyavia (excluding Gdansk and Torun) to Prussia; Galicia, Western Podolia and part of Lesser Poland; eastern Belarus and all lands north of the Western Dvina and east of the Dnieper went to Russia. The victors established a new constitution for Poland, which retained the "liberum veto" and elective monarchy, and created a State Council of 36 elected members of the Sejm. The division of the country awakened a social movement for reform and national revival. In 1773, the Jesuit Order was dissolved and a commission for public education was created, the purpose of which was to reorganize the system of schools and colleges. The four-year Sejm (1788–1792), headed by enlightened patriots Stanislav Malachovsky, Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kollontai, adopted a new constitution on May 3, 1791. Under this constitution, Poland became a hereditary monarchy with a ministerial system of executive power and a parliament elected every two years. The principle of "liberum veto" and other pernicious practices were abolished; cities received administrative and judicial autonomy, as well as representation in parliament; peasants, over whom the power of the gentry was maintained, were considered as an estate under state protection; measures were taken to prepare for the abolition of serfdom and the organization of a regular army. normal operation parliament and reforms became possible only because Russia was involved in a protracted war with Sweden, and Turkey supported Poland. However, the magnates opposed the constitution and formed the Targowice Confederation, at the call of which the troops of Russia and Prussia entered Poland.

Second and third sections

January 23, 1793 Prussia and Russia carried out the second partition of Poland. Prussia captured Gdansk, Torun, Greater Poland and Mazovia, and Russia captured most of Lithuania and Belarus, almost all of Volhynia and Podolia. The Poles fought but were defeated, the reforms of the Four Years Sejm were reversed, and the rest of Poland became a puppet state. In 1794, Tadeusz Kosciuszko led a massive popular uprising, which ended in defeat. The third partition of Poland, in which Austria participated, took place on October 24, 1795; after that, Poland as an independent state disappeared from the map of Europe.

foreign rule. Grand Duchy of Warsaw

Although the Polish state ceased to exist, the Poles did not give up hope for the restoration of their independence. Each new generation fought, either by joining the opponents of the powers that divided Poland, or by raising uprisings. As soon as Napoleon I began his military campaigns against monarchical Europe, Polish legions were formed in France. Having defeated Prussia, Napoleon created in 1807 from the territories captured by Prussia during the second and third partitions, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815). Two years later, territories that became part of Austria after the third partition were added to it. Miniature Poland, politically dependent on France, had a territory of 160 thousand square meters. km and 4350 thousand inhabitants. The creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was considered by the Poles as the beginning of their complete liberation.

Territory that was part of Russia. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna (1815) approved the partitions of Poland with the following changes: Krakow was declared a free city-republic under the auspices of the three powers that divided Poland (1815–1848); the western part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was transferred to Prussia and became known as the Grand Duchy of Poznań (1815–1846); its other part was declared a monarchy (the so-called Kingdom of Poland) and annexed to the Russian Empire. In November 1830, the Poles raised an uprising against Russia, but were defeated. Emperor Nicholas I canceled the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland and began repressions. In 1846 and 1848 the Poles tried to organize uprisings, but failed. In 1863, a second uprising broke out against Russia, and after two years of partisan warfare, the Poles were again defeated. With the development of capitalism in Russia, the Russification of Polish society also intensified. The situation improved somewhat after the 1905 revolution in Russia. Polish deputies sat in all four Russian Dumas (1905–1917), seeking Polish autonomy.

Territories controlled by Prussia. On the territory under the rule of Prussia, an intensive Germanization of the former Polish regions was carried out, the farms of Polish peasants were expropriated, and Polish schools were closed. Russia helped Prussia put down the Poznan uprising of 1848. In 1863, both powers signed the Alvensleben Convention on mutual assistance in the fight against national movement. Despite all the efforts of the authorities, at the end of the 19th century. The Poles of Prussia still represented a strong, organized national community.

Polish lands within Austria

On the Austrian Polish lands, the situation was somewhat better. After the Krakow uprising of 1846, the regime was liberalized, and Galicia received local administrative control; schools, institutions and courts used Polish; Jagiellonian (in Krakow) and Lviv universities became all-Polish cultural centers; by the beginning of the 20th century. Polish political parties emerged (National Democratic, Polish Socialist and Peasant). In all three parts of divided Poland, Polish society actively opposed assimilation. The preservation of the Polish language and Polish culture became the main task of the struggle waged by the intelligentsia, primarily poets and writers, as well as the clergy of the Catholic Church.

World War I

New opportunities for achieving independence. The First World War divided the powers that liquidated Poland: Russia was at war with Germany and Austria-Hungary. This situation opened up fateful opportunities for the Poles, but also created new difficulties. First, the Poles had to fight in opposing armies; secondly, Poland became the scene of battles between the warring powers; thirdly, disagreements between Polish political groups escalated. Conservative national democrats led by Roman Dmovsky (1864–1939) considered Germany the main enemy and desired the victory of the Entente. Their goal was to unite all Polish lands under Russian control and obtain the status of autonomy. The radical elements, led by the Polish Socialist Party (PPS), on the other hand, viewed the defeat of Russia as essential condition achievement of Poland's independence. They believed that the Poles should create their own armed forces. A few years before the outbreak of World War I, Józef Piłsudski (1867–1935), the radical leader of this group, embarked on military training for Polish youth in Galicia. During the war, he formed the Polish legions and fought on the side of Austria-Hungary.

Polish question

August 14, 1914 Nicholas I in an official declaration promised after the war to unite the three parts of Poland into an autonomous state within the Russian Empire. However, in the fall of 1915, most of Russian Poland was occupied by Germany and Austria-Hungary, and on November 5, 1916, the monarchs of the two powers announced a manifesto on the creation of an independent Polish Kingdom in the Russian part of Poland. On March 30, 1917, after the February Revolution in Russia, the Provisional Government of Prince Lvov recognized Poland's right to self-determination. July 22, 1917 Pilsudski, who fought on the side of the Central Powers, was interned, and his legions were disbanded for refusing to take an oath of allegiance to the emperors of Austria-Hungary and Germany. In France, with the support of the powers of the Entente, in August 1917 the Polish National Committee (PNC) was created, headed by Roman Dmowski and Ignacy Paderewski; the Polish army was also formed with the commander-in-chief Józef Haller. On January 8, 1918, US President Wilson demanded the creation of an independent Polish state with access to the Baltic Sea. In June 1918 Poland was officially recognized as a country fighting on the side of the Entente. On October 6, during the period of the collapse and collapse of the Central Powers, the Regency Council of Poland announced the creation of an independent Polish state, and on November 14 Piłsudski transferred full power in the country. By this time, Germany had already capitulated, Austria-Hungary had collapsed, and a civil war was going on in Russia.

State formation

The new country faced great difficulties. Cities and villages lay in ruins; there were no connections in the economy, which long time developed within three different states; Poland had neither its own currency nor government institutions; finally, its borders were not defined and agreed with the neighbors. Nevertheless, state building and economic recovery proceeded at a rapid pace. After a transitional period, when the socialist cabinet was in power, on January 17, 1919, Paderewski was appointed prime minister, and Dmowski was appointed head of the Polish delegation at the Versailles Peace Conference. On January 26, 1919, elections were held to the Sejm, the new composition of which approved Piłsudski as head of state.

The Question of Borders

The western and northern borders of the country were determined at the Versailles Conference, according to which part of the Pomerania and access to the Baltic Sea were transferred to Poland; Danzig (Gdansk) received the status of a "free city". At a conference of ambassadors on July 28, 1920, the southern border was agreed upon. The city of Cieszyn and its suburb Cesky Teszyn were divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia. Violent disputes between Poland and Lithuania over Vilna (Vilnius), an ethnically Polish but historically Lithuanian city, ended with its occupation by the Poles on October 9, 1920; accession to Poland was approved on February 10, 1922 by a democratically elected regional assembly.

April 21, 1920 Pilsudski made an alliance with the Ukrainian leader Petliura and launched an offensive to liberate Ukraine from the Bolsheviks. On May 7, the Poles took Kyiv, but on June 8, pressed by the Red Army, they began to retreat. At the end of July, the Bolsheviks were on the outskirts of Warsaw. However, the Poles managed to defend the capital and repel the enemy; this ended the war. The treaty of Riga that followed (March 18, 1921) was a territorial compromise for both sides and was officially recognized by the conference of ambassadors on March 15, 1923.

Foreign policy

The leaders of the new Polish Republic tried to secure their state by pursuing a policy of non-alignment. Poland did not join the Little Entente, which included Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Romania. On January 25, 1932, a non-aggression pact was signed with the USSR.

After Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany in January 1933, Poland failed to establish allied relations with France, while Great Britain and France concluded a "pact of consent and cooperation" with Germany and Italy. After that, on January 26, 1934, Poland and Germany signed a non-aggression pact for a period of 10 years, and soon the duration of a similar agreement with the USSR was extended. In March 1936, after the military occupation of the Rhineland by Germany, Poland again unsuccessfully tried to conclude an agreement with France and Belgium on Poland's support for them in the event of a war with Germany. In October 1938, simultaneously with the annexation of the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany, Poland occupied the Czechoslovak part of the Teszyn region. In March 1939, Hitler occupied Czechoslovakia and put forward territorial claims to Poland. On March 31, Great Britain, and on April 13, France guaranteed the territorial integrity of Poland; in the summer of 1939, Franco-Anglo-Soviet negotiations began in Moscow aimed at curbing German expansion. The Soviet Union in these negotiations demanded the right to occupy the eastern part of Poland and at the same time entered into secret negotiations with the Nazis. On August 23, 1939, a German-Soviet non-aggression pact was concluded, the secret protocols of which provided for the division of Poland between Germany and the USSR. Having ensured Soviet neutrality, Hitler untied his hands. On September 1, 1939, World War II began with an attack on Poland.

/ Kingdom of Poland / XX century / Return to Europe

20th century

The First World War divided the Polish people on different sides of the barricades. The Poles living on the territory of the Russian Empire were forced to fight against their brethren living in Germany and Austria-Hungary. At the same time, all three states used the promise of the restoration of an independent Polish state to motivate the Poles. In the autumn of 1915, the Kingdom of Poland was completely occupied by German troops, who established there military dictatorship. However, a year later, a lack of human resources forced Austria and Germany to proclaim an independent Polish state in the occupied lands.

The restoration of an independent Polish state was legally formalized at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, which determined the borders of the newly created country. As a result of the Polish-Ukrainian and Soviet-Polish wars, the borders of Poland were significantly expanded.

The formed parliamentary republic lasted until 1926, when Jozef Pilsudski came to power after a coup d'état, effectively establishing a dictatorship in the country. The establishment of an authoritarian state in 1930 and the reorientation of foreign policy towards Germany did not bring the desired results, since the latter was already hatching predatory plans for Poland. The Germans demanded that Gdansk be handed over to them and a corridor to East Prussia be opened. After the refusal of the Polish government and its hasty conclusion of an agreement on guarantees with England, Germany unilaterally denounced the Polish-German non-aggression pact, and on September 1, 1939, its troops invaded Poland.

Already by October 5, the Polish army ceases resistance, and the country is again divided, this time between Germany and the USSR. Western Ukraine and Belarus go to the Soviet Union, the rest of Poland - to Germany, which includes part of the land in the Reich, and occupies the rest of the country. A policy of forced Germanization is being pursued, Jews and Gypsies are being exterminated. A Polish government-in-exile was formed in Paris, headed by General Sikorski. A resistance movement is unfolding in the country.

Poland was liberated in 1944 by Soviet troops. The fate of the country was determined at conferences in Yalta and Potsdam. Initially, it was planned to create a democratic presidential republic, but the internal political situation, as well as the pressure of neighboring countries (primarily the USSR) led to the fact that in 1952 the Polish People's Republic was proclaimed in Poland, heading towards building a socialist society.

The peculiar multi-party political structure of Poland led to a series of political crises, during which old coalitions collapsed and new coalitions were created. In 1956, a new course was announced - the "Polish path to socialism", which provided for the democratization of public life and the decentralization of economic management. However, the leadership of Poland could not sustain the new course. The crisis grew, reaching a peak in 1970, when a wave of strikes swept across the country, turning into riots. The technocrats who came to the leadership put forward the idea of ​​economic acceleration, which at first gave good results. However, the inability to critically assess the level of political and economic development led to the collapse of this idea. The growth of public debt and inflation, together with the activation of opposition forces, led to a new political crisis.

Attempts to increase prices in 1980 caused a new wave of protest. At first, purely economic demands were put forward, but political demands soon joined them. Negotiations between the government and the workers did not produce tangible results. At the same time, the opposition took shape organizationally: the Solidarity trade union was created, headed by L. Walesa.

The ensuing confrontation between Solidarity and the government ends with the coming to power of General Jaruzelski, the introduction of martial law in the country and the internment of all trade union activists.

The end of World War II led to the beginning of a new stage of political development in Poland. The government of national unity was headed by E. Osubka-Moravsky, head of the Polish Committee of National Revival, one of the leaders of the Polish Workers' Party (PPR) Wladyslaw Gomulka (1905-1982) became his first deputy, and the second was the prime minister of the emigrant government S. Mikolajczyk. The government also included representatives of other political groups. The reactionary-conservative forces of the country began to unite around

S. Mikołajczyk (1901 - 1966) and the Polish Peasants' Party created by him in August 1945, as well as the Party of Labor, created in November 1945, based on Catholic clerical circles. Patriotic forces, striving for the revival of an independent Polish state, concentrated around the PPR.

The struggle of the PPR with the opposition and the establishment of a totalitarian regime

The PPR, which had an overwhelming majority in the government, quite easily overcame the resistance of S. Mikolajczyk and his allies and carried out its policy step by step. In January 1946, the main branches of the national economy were nationalized. 11 thousand enterprises, which employed 75% of all those employed in industry, became the property of the state.

The land reform, begun during the war, also continued. Until the end of 1948, small and landless peasants received about 6 million hectares of land. There were 747 thousand new peasant farms, most of which belonged to the category of medium. As a result of the reform, the landlord economy was completely liquidated.
The PPR has secured a social and political base in the country. In 1948, a complete rollback from democratic reforms began.

In December 1948, the Polish Socialist Party (PPS) merged with the PPR and a new party was created - the Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP), which became the dominant political force in the country and effectively established a one-party dictatorship. Boleslav Bierut became the first secretary of the new party. Until 1954, he was the president of the country and chairman of the Council of Ministers. For almost six years, he single-handedly ruled the country, being a staunch follower of the Soviet model of building socialism.

Berut Boleslav (1892-1956) - since 1948 - General Secretary of the Central Committee of the PPR, Chairman of the Craiova Rada of the People (1944-1949), from 1947 to 1954 - Chairman of the State Council, President and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the PPR.

Foreign policy

Poland had no choice. In the east and north, it borders on Russia, in the south - on Czechoslovakia, in the west - on the GDR, in which parts of the army of the Soviet Union were located. At the same time, as a result of the war, Poland, thanks to the Soviet Union, received a wide coastal strip in the Baltic Sea and two ports - Gdansk and Szczecin, which played important role in economic development Poland and its approval as a maritime power. Poland also received, according to the decisions of the Potsdam Conference, the western lands that had been taken away from Germany. About 2 million Poles were resettled on them. However, already in the first years after the war in West Germany, where 6 million Germans were displaced from the lands that had gone to Poland, unions of displaced persons were formed who demanded the return of these lands.

Therefore, in foreign policy Poland began to focus on the Soviet Union. On April 20, 1945, a Soviet-Polish treaty of friendship, mutual assistance and post-war cooperation was signed in Moscow. This treaty provided for measures to eliminate any threat from Germany. It was concluded for 20 years and in 1965 was renewed for another 20 years in an updated form.

To strengthen the defense capability of Poland in 1949, the Soviet Marshal K. Rokossovsky (1896-1968) was appointed Minister of Defense of the country, who served in this position until 1956. In 1949, Poland joined the CMEA, establishing close economic ties with the USSR, to the share which accounted for up to 70% of the country's foreign trade. In 1955 Poland joined the Warsaw Pact.

Proclamation of the NDP

On July 22, 1952, the Polish Sejm approved a new constitution proposed by the PZPR. The country was proclaimed the Polish People's Republic. The constitution consolidated the leading role of the PUWP and the socialist economic system as the economic basis of the PPR.

On October 26, 1952, elections to the Seimas were held on the basis of a new constitution. Back in 1951, the National Front was created, in which the PUWP, the United Peasant Party and the renewed Democratic Party united, where the real power belonged to the communists. The elections brought victory to the National Unity Front. 99% of voters voted for his candidates. The constitutional registration of the dictatorship of the party was completed.

The development of the country's economy in the 50-70s

Close economic ties with the USSR contributed to the major economic achievements of Poland, which turned it from an agrarian into an industrial country. Poland continuously received energy and raw materials from the USSR. In 1962, the Polish energy system was connected to the unified energy system "Mir", and in 1964 the world's largest oil pipeline "Druzhba" began to operate, through which oil came from the USSR, the price of which was 30% lower than the world price.

The Soviet Union was the main consumer of Polish industrial products. Polish excavators, buses, ships, wagons, instruments and much more came here.
All this ensured the rapid development of the Polish economy. In a relatively short period of time, it has become a highly developed country. The traditional industries - coal, textile and food - were modernized. In the same years, industries new to the country began to develop - machine-building, automotive, electrical, shipbuilding.

The industrial production of the country from 1950 to 1974 increased 10 times. This made it possible to make huge investments in the national economy and significantly raise the material and cultural standard of living of the people. Illiteracy was eliminated, free secondary and higher education and medical care were introduced.

Successes in economic construction have not led to an increase in the living standards of the working people. Poland experienced a shortage of food and housing. There was a disproportion between the development of industry and agriculture. Agricultural production practically did not develop.

In 1956, a political crisis began in the country. The Polish people sought the democratization of political life, freedom of speech and assembly, opposed the persecution of the Catholic Church, whose influence in the country was enormous.

The fight for democratization

On June 28-29, 1956, a strike of workers and a demonstration of students began in Poznań. 53 people were killed in clashes with police and troops. The demonstrations were dispersed and the organizers arrested.

In search of a way out of the situation that had arisen, the leadership of the PUWP went through changes in the leading bodies of the party. Its leader was V. Gomulka, who since 1951 was dismissed from all positions and was in disgrace. The return of the popular leader quelled the conflict for a while. However, W. Gomułka's political maneuvers were mainly aimed at introducing the so-called Polish model of socialism. But the matter was limited only to the improvement of planning methods, the dissolution of collective farms and the transfer of all land to the peasants. At the enterprises, workers' councils with limited powers were created. Nothing has changed in the political life of the country.
On December 12, 1970, an increase in prices for basic types of food products was announced

Gomulka Wladyslaw (1905-1982) - statesman and party leader, author of the "Polish path to socialism". One of the organizers of the PPR, a member of the Resistance Movement. Since 1956, the first secretary of the PUWP. The program of democratization of a society offered by it has led to political and economic crisis. In 1970 he resigned.

This decision led to mass demonstrations of workers along the entire coast: in Gdansk, Gdynia, Szczecin, Elbląg. They began to smash institutions and shops. The leadership of the PUWP is changing again. On December 20, 1970, Edward Gierek (b. 1913) is elected its leader. The new leadership declared the priority of social tasks and canceled price increases. The economic situation has improved somewhat wage increased, pensions and benefits increased. However, the rise was temporary. The government again returned to the policy of accelerated industrialization. Poland had an economy typical of the socialist countries - labor productivity was low, and all savings were spent on the maintenance of unprofitable factories and plants and a huge administrative apparatus. The CMEA could not allocate enough funds to cover the country's public expenditures.

Attempts to solve economic problems and their results

The Polish government turned to Western countries for loans. Equipment and technology were purchased there, but the expectation that loans could be covered by exporting their products to world markets did not materialize - Polish goods were uncompetitive. By the end of the 1970s, Poland's external debt amounted to $23 billion.

An attempt to raise food prices again in the summer of 1976 and in this way pay at least part of the interest on foreign debts caused a wave of strikes and forced the government to abandon its plan. In an atmosphere of growing social tension, opposition structures began to form. The Workers' Defense Committee was formed. The Roman Catholic Church gained enormous influence. With the election of Archbishop Karol Wojtyla of Krakow (he took the name of John Paul II) as Pope in 1978, this influence increased dramatically. His visit to Poland in June 1979, where he sharply criticized the policies of the PZPR, intensified opposition and led to a new stage of tension in Polish society.

The activities of the trade union "Solidarity"

Further deterioration of the economic situation led in July-August 1980 to a new wave of strikes on the Baltic coast, especially in Gdansk, Gdynia and Szczecin. In the Gdansk shipyards, an independent trade union "Solidarity" was formed, which was headed by one of the leaders of the strike committee, an electrician from the shipyard in Gdansk, Lex Walesa. In a short time, Solidarity turned into a mass movement, in which millions of Poles participated, including Yum members of the PZPR. It expressed a nationwide protest against the dictatorship, the limitation of Poland's sovereignty, against socialism and the dominance of the party apparatus.

Walesa Leh (born in 1943) is a public and statesman. In 1967-1987. worked as an electrician at a shipyard in Gdansk. One of the organizers of independent trade unions. From September 1980 he headed the mass social movement "Solidarity". Until the end of the 1980s, he was one of the most active figures in the Polish political opposition. Awarded for human rights work Nobel Prize peace.

The government was forced to make concessions. The agreement between the government and the leaders of Solidarity ensured the mitigation of censorship, the reduction working week, freedom of the media. The government also promised to improve the food supply. But these agreements did not stop the development of the political crisis. The whole country was engulfed in strikes. Solidarity and other opposition organizations demanded radical economic reforms, the resignation of the PZPR from its leadership role, and the holding of free elections. This movement was supported by the Catholic Church.

E. Terek was removed from the post of the first secretary of the PUWP, and an influential reformist wing was formed in the party itself, which considered it necessary to find ways to an agreement with Solidarity. The position of the party in the country was weakening. The conflict between the PUWP and Solidarity escalated, and the economic situation, due to the actual cessation of production due to mass strikes, became catastrophic.

V. Jaruzelsky. Searches Poor harvests and a sharp deterioration in the food situation intensified the unrest in the winter of 1980/81. In February 1981, General Wojciech Jaruzelski, Polish Minister of Defense (b. 1923), was appointed prime minister. However, the unrest did not subside: in July 1981, a mass demonstration of women took place in Polish cities, demanding a reduction in bread prices. In September 1981, V. Jaruzelski was elected First Secretary of the PUWP Central Committee and became the master of the situation. He ordered the troops to use tear gas against the strikers in Katowice. On December 14, 1981, he introduced martial law in the country. The activities of Solidarity were banned, its leaders were arrested.

With the introduction of martial law, the strike movement stopped, and in January 1982, the implementation of economic reform began, which was based on the principle of three "C" - independence, self-management and self-financing of enterprises. The decline in production was suspended, and from the summer of 1982 even its growth began. However, no visible effect was achieved. In the summer of 1983 martial law was lifted.

In 1988, the PZPR decided to move towards political pluralism. The right to open activity was recognized for the opposition, the activity of Solidarity was allowed, the electoral system was changed and parliamentary reform was carried out.

In June 1989, elections were held for the lower house of parliament - the Sejm. By agreement of all the opposing forces, it was decided that 65% of the seats would be given to the PZPR and its allies, and all political parties would compete for the remaining 35 seats, but the opposition won them. She also received all the seats in the newly established second chamber - the Senate. At a joint meeting of both chambers, V. Jaruzelsky was elected president of the republic.

Proclamation of parliamentary democracy. "Shock therapy"

When it came to establishing the government, the allies of the PUWP - the peasant and democratic parties - broke with it and went over to the side of the opposition. A coalition government was created with the participation of four ministers from the PZPR (out of 25), headed by a representative of Catholic circles, a former adviser to Solidarity Tadeusz Mazowiecki. The PUWP lost real power. Poland has embarked on the path of parliamentary democracy.

The process of formation of new political and economic structures began. The country became known as the Republic of Poland. Departization, depoliticization and de-ideologization of the armed forces, security and internal affairs agencies were carried out. The PUWP declared that it stands for parliamentary democracy with a multi-party system and a market economy

The new government's measures to restructure the economy provided for a rapid transition from a centrally planned economy to a market economy and were called "shock therapy". Price controls were abolished, privatization of state property began, and foreign capital was attracted into the economy. This made it possible to stabilize the market, the Polish currency became convertible.

Jaruzelski Voy tsev (born in 1923) - army general. In 1965-1968. - Chief of the General Staff of the Polish Army; in 1968-1983 - Minister of National Defense of Poland, in 1981-1985. - Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Poland; in 1985-1989 - Chairman of the State Council of Poland. President of Poland from July 1989 to December 1990

Ways to solve the problems of the country in the 90s

The main problem facing the Polish government in the 1990s was foreign debt. It has exceeded $50 billion. The West again provided Poland with loans.

In December 1990, Lex Walesa was elected president of the country by popular vote, but in the 1991 parliamentary elections, none of the parties won a majority. Three governments changed during the year. In July 1992, Hanna Sukhotskaya headed the government of "national accord", which headed for limiting the economic activities of the state, accelerating the privatization of enterprises, and modernizing agriculture.

The decline in living standards, mass unemployment, poor social protection of working people caused a new wave of protests and complicated the socio-political situation in the country.

The new government was not ready to govern the state and did not have a serious program for the revival and development of Poland.

The PUWP was transformed into the Democratic Left Union, which won the elections to the Sejm in 1994. Together with the Peasant Party, they created a coalition government. In November 1995, communist leader Alexander Kvashnevsky won the presidential election.

Poland launched an effective campaign to develop a market economy. Already in 1995, the increase in production amounted to 6%, foreign investments poured into Poland in a wide stream. In 2000, A. Kvashnevsky again won the elections. The country continues its course towards the development of market relations, democracy, and the assertion of national sovereignty.

In September 2001, general elections were held in the country. The Democratic Left Alliance was given the right to form a government. Solidarity was defeated. In January 2002, President of Russia V. Putin paid an official visit to Poland. The meeting between V. Putin and A. Kwasniewski initiated the strengthening of friendly relations between the two countries, which had been weakened since 1999, when Poland joined NATO.

Summary

January 1946 nationalization of the main branches of the national economy
liquidation of the landlord economy
December 1948 - merger of PPR and PPS, formation of PUWP
President of the country - Boleslav Bierut (until 1954), a supporter of the Soviet model of building socialism
1949 - Poland's entry into the CMEA
1955 - Poland joins the Warsaw Pact
economic ties with the USSR (Mir system - electricity; Druzhba oil pipeline)
from 1950 to 1974 - industrial production increased 10 times, national income increased 5.4 times
July 22, 1952 - adoption of a new constitution, proclamation of the Polish People's Republic
June 1956 - performance of workers and students in Poznań
W. Gomulka - leader of the PUWP: development of the Polish model of socialism
at the head of the party - E. Terek
loans in western countries
summer 1976 - strike movement
1980 - performance of workers in Gdansk, Gdynia, Szczecin
Trade Union "Solidarity" - Lech Walesa
February 1981 - Prime Minister General W. Jaruzelski
December 1981 - imposition of martial law, ban on Solidarity and arrest of its leaders
since January 1982 - implementation of economic reform
1983 - lifting of martial law
1988 - start of democratization process (political pluralism)
1989 - President of the country - General V. Jaruzelsky; economic restructuring - "shock therapy"
December 1990 - President of the country - Lech Walesa
1995 - President A. Kvashnevsky: economic growth,
improvement of living standards, foreign investment

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Poland in the 50-90s Updated: January 27, 2017 By: admin