Creation of a unified Russian state. Formation of a unified Russian state in the 15th century

Goals and objectives: to consider the specifics and stages of the formation of a unified Russian state; find out the reasons for the rise of Moscow; consider the process of unification of Russian lands; analyze the socio-political system of the Moscow state.

1. The specifics of the formation of a unified Russian state.

The process of uniting the lands and creating the Russian centralized state was long, complex, stretching for more than two centuries. This process was natural and even necessary. Firstly, the need to create a unified state was caused by economic reasons. The single economic space was beneficial to all areas of the future state by ensuring security, raw materials and sales markets, and so on. Secondly, the need was caused by considerations of preserving their national identity: there was a real threat of the dissolution of the Russian nation (as, for example, happened with the Galicia-Volyn principality). Thirdly, the emerging social system demanded stability. The Russian people managed to create their own state and a very distinctive society. The period of "construction" of the Russian state falls on the XIV-XVI centuries. It was at this time that the state system and social structure of Russia began to take shape. What was the specificity of the formation of the Russian centralized state?

1. One of the main factors in the formation of a unified Russian state was the foreign policy factor. In other words, the state was created in the interests of defense.

2. Another specific feature of the formation of the Russian state was the creation of a social structure according to principles different from Western ones, namely, the formation of estates took place under the direct influence of the state. Estates differed not in rights, but duties . In Russia, a special type of statehood is emerging - service state , in which each estate had the right to exist insofar as it performed certain duties.

3. The next feature of Muscovite Rus is the formation among the people of a special attitude towards their state. The Russian state was formed in the most difficult conditions, with the people themselves fully aware of the need for this process. Therefore, selflessness, selflessness, loyalty to the state became the main virtues encouraged by the public consciousness.

4. For a number of reasons (Tatar yoke, internecine wars), Russia was formed as an agrarian country, and it retained this feature until the middle of the 19th century. (True, with the beginning of the industrial revolution, Russia can be called an agrarian-industrial country.

5. Another feature of the new state was the institution of autocracy with its unlimited rights.

6. Another feature of Russia in the period under review is the destruction of the institution of patrimony, which was the main form of land ownership in the XII-XV centuries.

7. Among the features of the historical path of Russia in the XI-XVI centuries. the process of formation of the Great Russian ethnos, due to the mutual acculturation of the Eastern Slavs, Finno-Ugric tribes and the Turkic element, should be attributed. In the 17th century this process as a whole is completed, and at the same time the name "Russia" is finally assigned to the country.

2. Rise of Moscow. Ivan Kalita .

By the beginning of the 14th century. the question of the unification of Russian lands became more than relevant. This was due to the need to get rid of the foreign yoke and preserve their own existence. There were prerequisites for such an association. Despite the difficult situation of Russia, its economy did not decline. Further, new centers of vital activity began to form, in which people from unfavorable regions aspired. The desire to arrange their lives in a new place activated their inner strength. The Golden Horde has already ceased to bear the character of an unexpected misfortune - Russia began to adapt to "cohabitation" with it. The princes began to use the Horde in their own interests, primarily to destroy their political opponents. But this policy did not always consist in the primitive destruction of a competitor.

Formally, such a center was the principality of Vladimir. All the strong principalities fought for the shortcut to the Great Principality. The Vladimir principality itself was weakened by numerous Tatar raids and could no longer become the center of a new state. But his title of the Grand Duchy gave a nominal right to rule over all Russian lands. Therefore, there was a fierce struggle for the status of the Grand Duke.

Russia in the 14th century seriously different from Russia 12-13 centuries. Many principalities disappeared or lost their former power. A huge number of new principalities appeared (by the middle of the 14th century there were about 250 principalities on the territory of Russia). But there were few real centers. Several principalities claimed the role of the center of the Russian land: the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia, Suzdal, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan, the Principality of Tver, the Principality of Moscow.

The founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky - Daniel Alexandrovich (1276-1303). Under him, the principality begins to grow rapidly. Under him, Kolomna (1300), the Principality of Pereyaslavl (1303) joined Moscow. Daniel successfully fought with Ryazan. The expansion of the territory was due to "imaginations" (captures), wills, purchases of land, and so on. Historians note one feature of the Moscow princes - their personal qualities: assertiveness, cunning, prudence, foresight, deceit, patience.

From the point of view of geography, Moscow was very advantageously located: it was a junction of river and land trade routes. It wasn't close to the western borders (which kept it out of danger on that side), and it wasn't too close to the Horde. In other words, there was a fairly strong buffer around Moscow, holding back external aggression from both the West and the East.

A serious reason for the rapid economic and territorial growth of Moscow was the migration of the Russian population from the southern, western and eastern territories, who were looking for protected places to live in the Moscow forest.

An important factor in the process of political elevation of Moscow was the transfer of the metropolitan see to 1326. from Vladimir to Moscow. Started this process Metropolitan Peter.

And, of course, the flexible policy of Muscovites towards the Horde has borne fruit.

Daniel's eldest son Yuri Daniilovich (1303-1325) continued his father's policy. He captured Mozhaisk. After a two-year stay in the Horde, he married the sisters of Khan Uzbek, which he used to obtain a label for a great reign. He became Prince of Vladimir in 1318. After the death of Yuri in the Horde, his brother ascended the Moscow throne Ivan I Danilovich Kalita (1325-1340), who sought to use the alliance with the Tatars to strengthen his principality. Under Ivan Kalita, Uglich, Galich, Belozersk went to Moscow. The strengthening of Moscow especially began after Tver uprising of 1327 This year, the population of Tver rebelled against the atrocities and endless requisitions from the Khan's governor - Baskak Cholkhana (Schelkan, Shevkal) and killed him. Having brutally suppressed the uprising with the help of the Tatars, Ivan Kalita became the Grand Duke (1328) and received the right to collect tribute from all Russian lands. In addition, Ivan I received judicial power over the Russian princes from the khan.

Under Ivan Kalita, Moscow became the richest principality in Russia. Rigidly managing subordinate lands, collecting tribute from them, Ivan Kalita exerted serious political pressure on them. He greatly expanded his holdings by purchasing land. After his death on March 31, 1340, his sons managed to keep their father's acquisitions and continued his policy, expanding the boundaries of the principality, increasing the number of territories under their control.

Semyon Ivanovich Proud (1340-1353), the eldest son of Ivan, continued his flexible policy towards the Horde and tough towards the not yet subjugated lands (primarily towards Novgorod). However, he died from a plague that hit Moscow. The plague seriously devastated the Moscow lands and caused an outflow of the population and the boyars to other lands, in particular, to the Tver principality. His brother Ivan II Ivanovich the Red (1353-1359) could not seriously change the situation in his favor. According to the spiritual diploma of Ivan Kalita, Ivan II got 23 cities and villages, but Moscow begins to lose its position. Tver is getting stronger again.

3. Dmitry Donskoy (1350-1389). Battle of Kulikovo .

Ivan's heir - Dmitry Ivanovich - ascended the throne at the age of 9. The authority of the young Moscow prince grew in the struggle against the Lithuanians and the principality of Tver.

On November 21, 1368, in a bloody battle on the Trostna River near Moscow, the Lithuanians defeated the guard regiment of Muscovites. Only thanks to the stone walls of the Kremlin (which Dmitry built in 1367.) Moscow withstood the Lithuanian siege. Having ruined the entire Moscow district in three days, the army of the Lithuanian prince Olgerd retreated back to Lithuania.

The answer to this invasion was the Moscow campaign against Tver in August 1370. The Tver land was put to the sword and fire. In 1375, a label for a great reign was delivered to Tver, and Mikhail opened hostilities. An unprecedented number of allies gathered around Dmitry: the princes of Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod, Serpukhov, Gorodetsky, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Belozersky, Kashinsky, Starodubsky, Tarussky, Novosilsky, Obolensky, Smolensky, Bryansk and Novgorodians, constant enemies of Tver. A month-long siege finally undermined Mikhail's strength and he asked for peace (although Tver was never taken, thanks to a moat dug in 1372). The agreement was concluded on September 3 and Mikhail forever renounced his claims to Moscow, the great reign of Vladimir and Novgorod, pledged to help Dmitry against the Tatars and Lithuania and open free passage of Novgorod goods through his land.

After strife and frequent changes of khans in 1350-1360s ("The Great Jam") who weakened the central authority in the Golden Horde, the temnik who came to power Mamai tried to restore the shaken dominance over the Russian lands.

In 1376, the Moscow principality asserted its influence in the Volga-Kama Bulgaria, began negotiations with Veliky Novgorod on the settlement of trade activities. Horde Khan Mamai was greatly concerned about the growing power of the Moscow prince. In 1377, the Horde attacked Nizhny Novgorod. In the battle of R. Drunk 1377 the Russian army suffered a heavy defeat from the Horde prince Arapshi(Arab Shah). Dmitry Konstantinovich, left without troops, fled to Suzdal, Nizhny Novgorod - to neighboring Gorodets, and Nizhny Novgorod was burned.

The following year, 1378, Mamai sent an army of Murza Begich plunder and burn the "excessively strengthened" Moscow. But Dmitry Ivanovich met the Horde on Ryazan land at R. Vozha, where August 11 1378. Russian troops turned the Horde into a shameful flight. Begich was killed.

For more than a year, Mamai has been preparing for a new "great campaign against Russia." He joined detachments of mercenaries to the Tatar-Mongolian army: Genoese, Circassians, Alans and Yases. The Lithuanian prince Jagiello also acted as an ally of Mamai. The Ryazan prince Oleg entered into a secret alliance with Jagiello on the terms of the division of the Moscow principality between them.

The squads of many Russian lands converged in Kolomna, where Dmitry Ivanovich's headquarters was located. According to the chroniclers, there were 23 princes in his army, not counting the numerous governors. On both sides, there were probably 100-120 thousand soldiers. 8 September 1380 G. on the Kulikovo field, in the place where R. Nepryadva flows into the Don, the Russian and Horde troops converged for a decisive battle. The Russian soldiers for this battle were blessed by St. Sergius of Radonezh, the founder and abbot of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery.

The victory in the battle came at a heavy price - about 60% of the command staff and about half of the entire Russian army died. However, the Horde died even more. The result is known: Mamai shamefully fled (the Russians pursued the Horde for another 50 km) and was killed in the Crimea, and Prince Dmitry received the nickname Donskoy for his personal courage in the battle. In 1988, in connection with the 1000th anniversary of the baptism of Russia, he was declared a saint of the Russian Orthodox Church.

The significance of this battle is great. The Golden Horde suffered its first major defeat, and the amount of tribute was reduced. The victory raised the authority of Moscow as the political and economic center of the Russian lands, the organizer of the struggle against the Tatars. However, the most important thing was the fact that for the first time a single Russian army came out against the enemy, in other words - the victory was of a national character.

IN 1382., taking advantage of the betrayal of the Ryazan prince Oleg Ivanovich, who showed secret fords through the eye, Khan Tokhtamysh approached Moscow and burned it down. Dmitry Donskoy did not have time to gather the necessary troops and approach the Tatars in time.

Dmitry still had to go "on a bow" to the Horde and thereby leave behind a label for a great reign. However, the power of Moscow has grown. May 19, 1389 Dmitry Donskoy died, for the first time transferring the label to the great reign without the sanction of the Horde to his son Basil I (1389-1425). True, Vasily still had to confirm this right in the Horde, but the very fact of the personal transfer of the label speaks volumes. So the Grand Duchies of Vladimir and Moscow merged with each other, and the Grand Duke of Moscow became the hereditary owner of the title, which retained all-Russian significance.

During the reign of Vasily I, Russia did not experience any particular upheavals, except for Edigei's invasions (1408). Under Basil I, feudal landownership continued to grow. With the strengthening of the power of the Grand Duke, part of the court cases was withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the feudal lords and transferred to the hands of the Grand Duke's governors and volostels. After the defeat in 1391 and 1395 of the Golden Horde by Timur, he refused to pay tribute; after the invasion in 1408 Edigei was forced to return to paying tribute. Edigey's invasion was one of the most terrible in the history of the Tatar yoke, but still he could not take Moscow.

The refusal to transfer power to the eldest in the family led, after the death of Grand Duke Vasily I, to a struggle for the order of succession, which went down in history under the name " feudal war". The point was that against Vasily II Vasilyevich (Dark) (1425-1462) his uncle Yuri Dmitrievich Galitsky (the second son of Dmitry Donskoy) spoke, as the eldest in the family, he claimed the Moscow throne. Together with him, his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka spoke out against Vasily II.

The war went on for 20 years and was of a variable and tragic character. Yuri, and then his sons were supported by Novgorod and temporarily Tver. After the death of Yuri Dmitrievich in 1434, who sat on the throne of Moscow, his son Vasily Kosoy declared himself the prince of Moscow, but was forced to flee to Novgorod, and after the defeat in 1435 recognized the power of Vasily. But soon he violated the peace agreement. In the battle near Skoryatin (near Rostov) in 1436, Vasily Yurievich was captured and, on the orders of Vasily II, was blinded.

Since 1441, the fight against Vasily II was led by the second son of Yuri Dmitry Shemyaka. In 1446, in alliance with the princes of Tver and Mozhaisk, he captured Moscow and blinded Vasily II (hence the nickname of the latter - “dark”). However, a year later, Vasily II returned with honor to Moscow. In 1450, Dmitry Shemyaka, in alliance with Novgorod, was defeated by Moscow troops near Galich. In 1453, the feudal war stopped due to the death of Shemyaka (there is a version that he was poisoned).

4. Completion of the unification of Russia around Moscow. Ivan III .

After the end of the feudal war in Russia, conditions developed for the creation of a single state with its center in Moscow. The completion of the process of unification of the Great Russian lands around Moscow and the formation of the foundations of a centralized state occurs with Ivan III the Great (1462-1505) and his son Basil III (1505-1533).

Under Ivan III, the territory of the Russian state grew more than six times: from 430 thousand to 2.800 million square meters. km. Under Ivan III, a new form of national self-consciousness is being formed, expressed by the monk of the Pskov Eleazarov monastery Philotheus in a message to Ivan's son Vasily III: "Moscow is the third Rome."

Relying on the might of Moscow, he quickly and bloodlessly completed unification of North-Eastern Russia . In 1478, Ivan III annexed Novgorod: the veche was destroyed as a political institution, and the veche bell was taken to Moscow out of fear, as a symbol of the subordination of the Novgorod land to the Moscow prince.

The collapse of the Golden Horde contributed to the strengthening of the unified Russian state. IN 1472. Russia stopped paying "exit" - a tribute. Then in 1480 Khan Akhmat, having collected almost a hundred thousandth army and having entered into an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Casimir, he moved to Russia. The troops met on the river. Ugra (near Kaluga) October 6 1480. - Russians stood on the left bank, and Tatars on the right. On November 11, Akhmat withdrew his troops to the steppe. famous " standing on the Ugra” is traditionally considered the date of the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia.

IN 1485., after the annexation of Tver, Ivan III received the honorary title "by God's grace of the Sovereign of All Russia, the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugra, and Perm, and Bulgarian, and other lands." The process of territorial unification of Russian lands was basically completed.

Under Ivan III, an important legislative document was issued - “ Sudebnik of 1497».

The complete unification of the lands of North-Western and North-Eastern Russia took place in the first quarter of the 16th century. under Vasily III, nicknamed " the last collector of the Russian land". Pskov (1510), Smolensk lands (1514), Ryazan (1521), Smolensk (1522) went to Moscow. Under him, the Russian state was finally formed, which established diplomatic relations with Denmark, Germany, Hungary, Venice, Turkey, the Livonian Order, and the papal throne. Thus, the largest power in Europe was created, which was called Moscow Rus or Russia.

5. Political and social system of the Muscovite state .

The period of the formation of the Muscovite state accounted for the rapid development of feudalism. Land was in the sphere of economic interests of the nobility. Feudal landownership - the main form of wealth of princes, boyars, clergy - is rapidly becoming stronger. More and more peasants are subjected to feudal exploitation. Along with the growth of boyar land ownership in the XV century. there was a process of fragmentation of the estates, since the boyar families were large. Ivan III began to distribute state lands to the "children of the boyars" for life possession, subject to the military service of the nobleman "horse, crowded and armed."

The upper stratum of society consisted of princes, boyars, free servants and household servants. All of them were feudal lords. A prince could not serve as a boyar for another prince, and boyars could not be princes. The main part of the landlords (nobles) were petty servants of the Grand Dukes, descendants of patrimonial families, immigrants from other principalities to Moscow. All the nobles, who used the land insofar as they served the sovereign, depended on the throne.

In connection with the growth of cities by the end of the 15th century. the number of purely urban population is also growing: merchants, artisans, officials. City dwellers began to be called "posad people".

The privileged estate was the clergy, who owned huge landed property.

In general, by the middle of the 16th century. the estate system was basically formed (the completion of this process dates back to the 17th century), the duties of the estates were defined.

The central power in Muscovite Russia was exercised by the Grand Duke, the Boyar Duma and palace institutions. During the reign of Ivan III, the state acquired all the necessary attributes: a magnificent ceremonial, a crown (Monomakh's hat), a scepter and an orb, the coat of arms of the state. The ruler coordinated his most important decisions with the Boyar Duma, which acted as an advisory body.

Under Ivan III, the first bodies of central government - orders - were created. The centralization of power was also expressed in a change in the order of administration of the territories. The specific principalities were liquidated, the country was divided into counties, which included camps and volosts.

Of all the innovations of Ivan III, perhaps the most significant was the judicial reform. IN 1497. the first Russian legislative collection was published - Sudebnik, which established a single period for the whole country for the transition of peasants from one feudal lord to another - St. George's Day - November 26. This was the date with which in Russia the exercise of the right of transition of peasants from feudal lord to feudal lord was associated, since by this time the annual cycle of agricultural work was completed and the payment of the monetary and natural obligations of the peasants in favor of their owners took place. On a nationwide scale, the peasant output was limited in the Sudebnik of 1497 to a two-week period - a week before and after St. George's Day.

In the Sudebnik of 1497, the term "estate" was first used to refer to a special type of conditional land ownership, issued for the performance of public service (see above).

Thus, we can confidently talk about the formation of statehood on the territory of Russia.

The formation of a unified Russian state is of great historical importance. For the first time, residents began to perceive themselves as citizens of an entire country with their own state language, legislative law, economic space, and military potential. United Russia overcame the 240-year-old Tatar yoke, coped with Western expansion, determined its domestic and foreign policy, acquired state regalia, created an orderly social class system, created its own original type of feudal society - autocratic serfdom. Now we can say that this path led to a slowdown in the development of the country, but in those conditions it was obviously the only path that led to national independence, integrity and independence from other powers.

Test questions:

1. What is the specificity of the formation of the Moscow State?

2. Under what conditions did the creation of the Muscovite state take place?

3. How did the feudal war proceed and what were its results?

4. Tell us about the main stages of the creation of the Muscovite state.

5. What is the historical significance of the activities of Ivan III?

6. Tell us about the political and social structure of the Russian state.

7. What is the meaning of the “Sudebnik of 1497” and what did it regulate?

§ 25. Formation of a unified Russian state

Further strengthening of the Moscow principality

After the death of Dmitry Donskoy in 1389, his eldest son Vasily I took the Moscow throne. He annexed Nizhny Novgorod, Gorodets, Meshchera, Tarusa and Murom to the principality.

After the death of Vasily I in 1425, his brother Yuri refused to recognize the son of the deceased Grand Duke Vasily II as the heir. A long struggle for the Moscow throne began (historians sometimes call this strife a feudal war). Yuri twice managed to occupy Moscow. After the death of Yuri in 1434, his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka continued the fight against Vasily II. The struggle lasted until 1453 and was accompanied by great cruelty: Vasily Kosoy and Vasily II were blinded (for this reason the latter received the nickname Dark), Dmitry Shemyaka was poisoned. The country's economy was ruined, Russia continued to depend on the Tatar khanates, into which the Horde gradually disintegrated.

However, in the last period of the strife and after its end, Vasily II the Dark significantly strengthened his power, increasing the dependence of other Russian lands on Moscow.

church affairs

In 1437, the Patriarch of Constantinople appointed Isidore the Greek Metropolitan of All Russia. Byzantium was then looking for allies against the Ottoman Turks and agreed to the union (unification) of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches under the leadership of the Pope. At the Council of Florence in 1439, which decided the question of the union, Isidore showed himself to be its supporter. But in Moscow he was arrested on the orders of Grand Duke Vasily II. In 1448, the Council of Russian Bishops elected the Ryazan Bishop Jonah as metropolitan.

The Russian Orthodox Church became virtually independent of the Patriarch of Constantinople.

The beginning of the reign of Ivan III

After the death of Vasily II in 1462, the throne passed to his eldest son Ivan III, who had long been his father's co-ruler.

Ivan III, nicknamed the Great by his contemporaries, is one of the most prominent figures in Russian history, the creator of the new Russian state.

The situation in the first years of the reign of Ivan III was difficult. Akhmat, the khan of the Great Horde, the heiress and the most significant part of the former Golden Horde, planned a campaign against Russia. Near the most developed lands of North-Eastern Russia, the Kazan Khanate was gaining strength. The raids from this khanate were especially painful for the developing Russian state.

At the beginning of his reign, Ivan III annexed the Yaroslavl and Rostov principalities. In 1467 wars between Moscow and Kazan began. As a result of many campaigns and battles, the Kazan Khan was forced to make peace on the terms of the Grand Duke, among which was the condition for the extradition of all Russian people captured in forty years. During this war, the central military department was taking shape - the future Discharge Order.

Annexation of Novgorod

Meanwhile, part of the boyars who ruled in Veliky Novgorod headed for rapprochement with Lithuania. They were driven to this by the understanding that free Novgorod was living out its last days. It seemed that only as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania could the Novgorod boyars preserve not only their independence and power, but also guarantee the inviolability of their wealth. At the same time, they were little embarrassed that Catholics were at the head of Lithuania. The Grand Duke of Lithuania, Casimir IV, who was also the king of Poland, promised to help Novgorod, but did nothing at the decisive moment. On the contrary, Ivan III took advantage of the situation. He accused the Novgorodians not only of betraying him as the Grand Duke of Vladimir (Novgorod was formally subordinate to him), but also of betraying Orthodoxy. In Novgorod itself, there were many opponents of rapprochement with Lithuania, especially among ordinary residents and the clergy.

In 1471, Ivan III decided to strike at the boyar republic. The campaign, which took on a religious character, moved not only the Moscow army, but also the troops of other Russian principalities, which so far remained independent. The most zealous opponents of the Novgorodians were the Pskovites. The Moscow voivode, Prince Daniil Kholmsky, in the battle on the Shelon River, utterly defeated the troops of Novgorod that were many times superior in number. Part of the Novgorod regiments stood aside throughout the battle. After the retreat from the battlefield, the Novgorodians began to fiercely exterminate each other - the contradictions between them were so strong.

Novgorod recognized himself as the “fatherland” of the Grand Duke, and himself as his master.

Moscow's victory over Novgorod in 1471 marked the victory of the idea of ​​uniting the Russian lands under the auspices of Moscow.

In 1478 Novgorod was finally annexed to Moscow. After the liquidation of the veche, the governor of the Moscow prince began to manage the affairs of Novgorod.

The fall of the Horde yoke

In the summer of 1472, Khan Akhmat set out on a campaign against Russia. This campaign ended in nothing thanks to the heroic defense of the small town of Aleksin and the skillful actions of the Moscow governors. The centralized control of the Russian troops played an important role.

In the same year, Ivan III married a second marriage to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Zoe (Sophia) Paleolog, which increased his prestige in Russia and abroad.

In the struggle against the Horde and the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir IV, Moscow found an ally. It was the Crimean Khanate - one of the fragments of the Golden Horde. In 1480 Akhmat again moved to Russia. He decided to go to the tributary of the Oka - the Ugra River, where he could receive help from Lithuania. The Horde, trying to force the Ugra, met stubborn resistance from the Russian troops, who for the first time used squeaks (light field guns) on the battlefield. The fighting continued for four days, and on October 11, reinforcements brought from Moscow by Ivan III approached the Russians. Akhmat was forced to go on the defensive. Casimir never took the side of the Horde, since the Crimean Khan attacked his possessions.

Early frost hit at the end of October. The Ugra was covered with ice and no longer held back the Horde, but on November 11, Akhmat unexpectedly ordered a retreat. Russian regiments were thrown in pursuit of him. The retreat of the enemy turned into a flight. Soon Akhmat was killed.

On the banks of the Ugra in 1480 the Horde yoke fell.

The final unification of the Russian lands. Wars with Kazan, the Livonian Order, Lithuania and Sweden.

In 1485, the Tver principality was annexed to the Moscow possessions. At the end of the 80s. after the use of force, the authorities of Moscow recognized the Vyatka lands with the capital in the city of Khlynov (previously they were formally part of the Novgorod Republic, but in fact they were independent) and most of the Ryazan lands. After the campaigns of the Moscow governors beyond the Urals, Yugra land (the Khanty and Mansi tribes) began to pay tribute to Moscow.

The fight against the Kazan Khanate remained the most acute problem, success in solving which was one of the main guarantees for the further progressive development of the Russian lands. Despite many achievements, it was not possible to deliver a decisive blow to the eastern neighbor of Russia for a long time. Understanding that Moscow did not yet have the strength to fully control the lands of the Khanate, Ivan III sought to establish loyal rulers in Kazan. There were many adherents of peace with the Russian lands in the Khanate. In the summer of 1486, clashes took place in Kazan between supporters and opponents of friendly relations with Russia, which ended with the removal of Moscow's friends from power. In 1487, the next campaign of the Moscow regiments against Kazan began. The troops were led by Prince Daniel Kholmsky, the most experienced of the Russian generals. Despite stubborn resistance, the Russian troops managed to take the city. A person loyal to Moscow became Khan in Kazan. For a long period, normal relations were established between the two states, the raids of Kazanians stopped.

In 1490, the Russian state announced its non-recognition of the seizure of certain lands by Lithuania. As a result of hostilities, the cities of Mtsensk, Lubutsk, Mezetsk and Serpeisk, Vyazma were occupied. In February 1494, a peace treaty was concluded with Lithuania, which secured these lands for the Russian state.

In the spring of 1492, on the eastern bank of the Narova River, opposite Narva, the fortress of the Livonian Order, Ivan, the city, was founded. It was the first seaport of the Russian state. Despite the constant fire of the Narva guns, the Ivangorod fortress was built in the shortest possible time and became the most important stronghold in the fight against the order.

Attempts to consolidate the Russians in the Baltic led to a war with Sweden. It went with varying success and ended with a free trade agreement between the Russian state and Sweden.

In 1500 a new war with Lithuania began. The Orthodox population and princes of a number of regions of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania went over to the side of the Russian state. The Russian army, led by Prince Daniil Shchenya, utterly defeated the Lithuanian troops in the battle on the Vedrosha River.

In 1500, Lithuania concluded an anti-Moscow treaty with the Livonian Order. The decisive event of the war of 1501 - 1503. was the battle of Helmed on November 24, 1501, in which the Russians defeated the knights. The following year, the Germans, unable to take Pskov, were again defeated by the detachments of Daniil Schenya. In 1503, an agreement was concluded with Lithuania, according to which all the conquered territories departed to Russia. A truce was also concluded with Livonia.

New state

Ivan III died on October 27, 1505. The main result of his many years of rule was the revival of the Russian state. In some documents of that time, the word "Russia" is already found as the name of a new state. However, for a long time it continued to be traditionally called the Moscow state, Muscovy, Moscow, Rus, Rusia, etc. Ivan III himself was called "the sovereign of all Russia" in the sources of his time.

In 1497, a seal was carved in Moscow for Ivan III, on one side of which a double-headed eagle was depicted, and on the other, a horseman slaying a snake with a spear. This is the first joint image of the two main symbols of the State Emblem of Russia. The origin of these symbols is the subject of a long-standing dispute among specialists in heraldry. The horseman with a spear began to be minted on Russian coins of the 14th century. It was believed that the horseman was the Grand Duke of Moscow, but later they began to perceive him as St. George. Even more controversial is the question of the origin of the double-headed eagle. Many associate it with the Byzantine Empire and call it the coat of arms of the Palaiologoi, the dynasty of the last Eastern Roman emperors, with whom Ivan III became related through marriage with Sophia. Allegedly, a double-headed eagle came to Russia with her. But there are historians who object to this version. Firstly, they note, there was no state emblem in Byzantium, and the coat of arms of the Palaiologos is not known either (at least until the representatives of this dynasty fled to the West). Secondly, the image of a double-headed eagle during the time of Ivan III was found in the symbols of the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire from the Habsburg dynasty, with whom Russia established diplomatic relations. Therefore, it is logical to assume that it was from there that this unusual and vivid symbol of supreme power came to us. The seal of 1497 was apparently carved by one of the Italian masters invited by Ivan III to work in Moscow - perhaps the famous Aristotle Fiorovanti, the builder of the Assumption Cathedral. The double-headed eagle itself is an ancient symbol dating back to the time of the Hittites.

Gradually, a new system of government took shape. The sovereign was at the head of the country. He made the most important decisions after consulting with the Boyar Duma, which included representatives of the most noble families of the country, as well as some people close to the sovereign. The boyars and other associates carried out the instructions (orders) of the sovereign. To do this, they attracted assistants. That is how, under Ivan III, orders were born as central government bodies (the word itself appeared later). The chiefs of orders were called clerks. In the documents of that time, one can find the names of the first such central institutions, the Treasury and the Palace. The treasury was in charge of collecting taxes, the Palace organized military service and the provision of land for this. On the ground, in the counties, feeders ruled on behalf of the sovereign. For their service, they received payment (feed) from the population of the county.

In 1497, a new all-Russian collection of laws appeared - Sudebnik.

The code of laws introduced uniform legal norms throughout the state. The main pillar of the new system of government and the new Russian army was the rapidly developing in the XV centuries. stratum of the population - the nobility, or landowners. They were also called service people in the homeland, i.e. by birth. The Grand Dukes provided the nobles with small plots of land with peasants (estates) as payment for military or other service ("placed on the land"). Failure to fulfill official duties led to the deprivation of the landowner of his land. The son inherited the estate only subject to the continuation of his father's service. The nobles were much more loyal to the ruler than the boyars, who received their estates by inheritance. Ivan III distributed vast lands confiscated from the Novgorod boyars to the nobles.

The estate was land cultivated by peasants of several, usually only two or three, families. The peasants had to provide the landowner with funds for the purchase of weapons, armor, a horse, as well as feed and create conditions for the life of his family. It is clear that the position of the landlord peasants was much more difficult than the position of the peasants who lived in the large estates of the boyars or on state lands. Peasants in Russia have long had the right to freely choose their place of residence, move to new lands, and, naturally, they began to leave the landowners. As a result, the landowners lost their working hands, and the state lost its military forces.

One of the articles of the Sudebnik of 1497 introduced a single period for such transitions - St. George's Day (a week before and a week after October 26). The size of the "elderly" was also determined - the payment of the peasant to the landowner, from whom he left.

Reign of Basil III

Under the son of Ivan III, Vasily III (1505-1533), Pskov and Ryazan were annexed. The war with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was very difficult. The Russian army in July 1514 took Smolensk. However, in the same year, in the battle of Orsha, it was utterly defeated. The devastating raid of the Crimean Khan in 1521 and the uprising in Kazan against the adherents of Moscow prompted Vasily III to stop the wars with Lithuania.

Under Basil III, important changes took place in public administration. If Ivan III, as contemporaries believed, consulted with the boyars and allowed them to express their opinion, then Vasily III allowed only clerks to come to him, whom he could, at his discretion, either bring closer to him, or, on the contrary, remove him from business. He did not tolerate when he was contradicted, everyone had to agree with his opinion.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

Describe the process of unification of the Russian lands in 1389-1462. What events accelerated this process? Which slowed down?

How did the Russian Orthodox Church become independent? What did it matter?

What lands were annexed to the Moscow principality during the reign of Ivan III? Show them on the map. Why is the annexation of the Novgorod land considered the most important honeycomb, being in the course of creating a unified Russian state?

How did Russia free itself from the Horde yoke? What factors made it possible to solve this problem?

With what external opponents did the young Russian state fight? What were the results of these wars?

How has the management of the Russian lands changed in connection with the creation of a single state? Who became the backbone of the new state? What was the significance of the Sudebnik of 1497?

Write a historical essay that reveals the role of Ivan III in the history of Russia.

Tell us about the main events of the reign of Vasily III.

document

From the Sudebnik 1497

A Christian refuses from the parish, went to the village, one term in the year, a week before St. George's autumn days and a week after St. George's autumn days. Elderly yards pay a ruble for a yard in the fields, and fifty in the forests. And to whom a Christian lives for a year and goes away, and he pays a quarter of the yard, and for two years he lives and goes away, and he pays half a yard; but he lives three years and goes away, and he pays three-fourths of the yard; and live for four years, and he pays the whole yard ...

Russian lands in single state. Elevation Moscow principalities ... gain external threat from neighboring states b) further ...

When did Russia free itself from Horde dependence? How was the unified Russian state formed?

Since 1472, Prince Ivan III of Moscow stopped sending tribute to the successor of the Golden Horde - the Great Horde. In 1480, the Khan of the Great Horde gathered a large army and went to Russia. At the Ugra River, the Tatars camped and began to wait for the troops of the Lithuanian prince Casimir, with whom the Great Horde made an alliance against Moscow. In Moscow, it took a long time to decide whether to enter into an armed clash with the Horde army or to settle the matter peacefully and resume the payment of tribute. Muscovites and the Orthodox Church were in favor of the war. Ivan III decided to fight back the Tatars. The Russian army came out to meet the Tatars and stood on the other side of the Ugra. Meanwhile, Ivan III concluded an agreement with the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey (Mengli-Gerai), an old enemy of the Great Horde Khan Akhmat. Crimean Tatars attacked the southern lands of the Principality of Lithuania. In Lithuania itself, a revolt of Orthodox princes was also brewing. Under these conditions, the Lithuanian prince Casimir did not dare to oppose Moscow and did not come to the aid of the Great Horde. Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat himself did not dare to cross the Ugra and attack the Russian army. The armies stood against each other for a month. The outcome of the standing was decided by the raid of the Russian-Tatar detachment under the command of the governor Nozdrevaty and prince Nur-Daulet-Girey in the rear of Akhmat, in the Volga region. Upon learning of the threat to his possessions, Akhmat quickly retreated. And Ivan III, feeling the strength to resist the khan, expelled his ambassadors and refused to resume the payment of tribute. So, standing on the Ugra ended the Horde dominion that lasted 240 years.

Prince Ivan III continued the onslaught on the Kazan Khanate, which overcame Russia with constant raids, and after several campaigns he managed to take Kazan and put a khan friendly to Moscow at the head of the Khanate.

During this period, the Russian lands could not be called completely unified. Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Ryazan, Rostov, Yaroslavl retained their independence. In 1471, Moscow troops defeated the Novgorod militia. The reason for the campaign was an agreement that, on behalf of Novgorod, was concluded with Lithuania by a group of supporters of an alliance with the Catholic state, headed by the widow of the posadnik Martha Boretskaya. According to this agreement, Novgorod recognized Casimir IV as its prince. Having defeated the Novgorod militia, Ivan III obliged them to break the agreement with Lithuania and pay tribute to Moscow. And in 1477, Prince Ivan III of Moscow organized a new campaign against Novgorod. In January 1478, the independence of Novgorod was liquidated, the veche was dissolved, and the veche bell was taken to Moscow.

After the annexation of Novgorod, the Tver principality found itself in the ring of lands subordinate to Moscow. The prince of Tver tried to make an alliance with Casimir, but in 1485 Ivan III went with an army to Tver. The Tver boyars went over to the side of Moscow, and the Tver prince fled to Lithuania. The accession of the main rival of Moscow meant the creation of the Russian state with its center in Moscow.

Then there was a war with Lithuania and the victory of Moscow - in 1503, Lithuania ceded 19 cities and 70 volosts to Moscow. The son of Ivan III, Vasily III, liquidated the independence of Pskov in 1510, in 1514 Smolensk was conquered from Lithuania, and in 1521 he annexed the Ryazan lands to Moscow. From now on, all Russian lands were reunited within the boundaries of one Russian state.

How much after the annexation of Tver to Moscow can we talk about the creation of a single Russian state?

We can talk about the creation of a unified Russian state after the annexation of Tver, since at that time there were practically no irreconcilable principalities left on the Russian lands. Of course, the end of the unification process was still far away, but the defeat of Moscow's main rival was a kind of milestone in the creation of the Russian state.

What was the political meaning of Ivan's marriageIII on Sophia Paleolog?

Ivan III was the ruler of the Russian state and tried in every possible way to emphasize his special position. The marriage to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleologus, demonstrated that the Russian state was the successor of the Byzantine dynasty. In the official documents of that time, Russia began to be called in the Byzantine manner - Russia. And on the princely seal appeared the coat of arms of the Paleologs - a double-headed eagle, which was considered a symbol of imperial power. A similar double-headed eagle was on the coat of arms of the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. After that, Ivan III took a new title - the sovereign of all Russia. At receptions, Ivan III began to appear with a scepter, an orb and a Monomakh's hat.

What, in your opinion, are the main shortcomings of the parochial system?

In my opinion, the main shortcomings of the localism system were the stagnation in the development of personnel and the formation of a system in which, upon appointment, origin became significant, and not personal skills and talents.

Questions and tasks for working with the text of the paragraph

1. What was the significance of the annexation of Novgorod to the Muscovite state?

By annexing Novgorod to the Muscovite state, Ivan III actually destroyed the tripartite anti-Moscow alliance of Novgorod, Lithuania and the Great Horde, thereby getting rid of one problem. In addition, the fate of Novgorod became an example for the boyars of other lands - Tver, Ryazan. After the annexation of Novgorod, the flow of boyars from these lands who wished to serve Moscow increased. Ivan III also demonstrated consistency in the defense of Orthodoxy and strengthened his own power.

2. How was the Horde dominion overthrown? What is the significance of this event?

In order to get rid of the Horde dominion, it was necessary to regulate relations with the khanates formed during the collapse of the Golden Horde. Ivan III resolved the issue with the threat of the Kazan Khanate by placing a friendly khan on the khan's throne. Ivan III concluded an alliance with the Crimean Khanate against the Great Horde. In 1480, Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat, having agreed with the Lithuanian prince Casimir on joint actions, set out on a campaign against Russia, which ended with Standing on the Ugra. Akhmat had to retreat without a pitched battle. His army was not ready for the winter war. The Lithuanian army did not come because, at the request of Ivan III, the Crimean Khan attacked the Lithuanian lands. In addition, on the orders of Ivan III voivode Nozdrevaty went down the Volga and plundered the capital of the Great Horde. Ivan III, feeling the strength to resist the khan, expelled his ambassadors and refused to resume paying tribute. So, standing on the Ugra ended the Horde dominion that lasted 240 years.

3. Why do you think the Lithuanian rulers actively interfered in the political events that took place in the Russian lands?

The Lithuanian rulers had the same ambitions in uniting the Russian lands as the Muscovite princes. Therefore, the paths of the Muscovite state and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania constantly crossed.

4. Make a chronological table in your notebook showing the progress in creating a unified Russian state.

5. How was Muscovy governed under Ivan III?

The creation of a single state centered in Moscow meant that Russia now has a single grand duke. And the liberation from the Horde dependence allowed Ivan III to call himself tsar and autocrat, which means that he is the only ruler in the state and rules independently, without being anyone's vassal.

At this time, central authorities began to form. The sovereign was at the head of the state, he had the exclusive right to legislate, negotiate, declare war, and mint coins. Also, the sovereign was the "supreme commander." The Grand Duke "held advice" with the Boyar Duma, which consisted of representatives of the noble families of Moscow and the annexed lands. The entire territory of Russia was divided into districts and ruled by governors.

6. What do you know about the origin of the image of the double-headed eagle on the coat of arms of Russia?

Working with the map

1. Show on the map the territories that became part of the Moscow state under Ivan III, under Vasily III.

• the territories that became part of the Moscow State under Ivan III are shaded in yellow on the map
• the territories that became part of the Moscow state under Vasily III are shaded in purple on the map.

2. Find on the map the cities and territories that passed to the Russian state under the treaty of 1503.

• the territories that passed to the Russian state under the treaty of 1503 are painted over in orange;
• According to the agreement, Russia included 70 volosts and 19 cities: Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Putivl, Bryansk and other cities.

We study the document

1. How and why has the nature of princely power changed in the Muscovite state?

Liberation from the Horde dependence allowed Ivan III to call himself tsar and autocrat, which means that he is the only ruler in the state and rules independently, without being anyone's vassal.

2. Explain how the words caesar ("caesar") and "king" are connected.

"Tsar" is an abbreviated and simplified Russian form of the Latin word "Caesar", the supreme and independent ruler.

Thinking, comparing, reflecting

1. Using the Internet, collect information about the Ugra River: what does its name mean, what is the length of the river, through which regions of modern Russia does it flow.

The Ugra is a river in the Smolensk and Kaluga regions of Russia, a left tributary of the Oka. Its length is 399 km. The etymology of the name of the river is disputed. Some believe that this name is not of Slavic, but of Finno-Ugric origin. In this language, the root "uga" means "river". Others believe that the word "ugra" goes back to the old Russian word meaning "worm". It is from this lexeme that the modern word "eel" originated. If we take this hypothesis into account, then we can assume that in ancient times people called the river "snaking, winding" for the inconstant nature of its flow, which sharply changes its direction. Also, the origin of the name of the river Ugra is associated with the Magyar settlement, which stood on its bank in ancient times. The tribal name of the Magyars was the word "Ugrians".

2. Using the Internet and additional literature, find out what opinions exist about the origin of the main elements of the coat of arms of Russia - the image of a double-headed eagle and a horseman striking a snake. Make a plan of a message on this topic in your notebook.

The eagle is present on the emblems of many states, but the two-headed eagle is preserved on only a few: Russian, Serbian and Albanian. The question of where the image of the double-headed eagle came from in Russia is still debatable. Even in the "History of the Russian State" Nikolai Karamzin drew attention to this fact. For the first time, such a coat of arms appeared in Russia in the 15th century, when Tsar Ivan III married the niece of the Byzantine emperor. By depicting a double-headed eagle, which was the coat of arms of Byzantium, on the reverse side of the princely seal, Ivan III sought to show that Russia was the successor to the Byzantine Empire. In addition, the imperial ambitions of the "two-headed eagle" were confirmed by the fact that a similar eagle was depicted on the coat of arms of the Holy Roman Empire.

As for the image of a rider slaying a snake with a spear, it is considered a reference to the Christian legend about St. George. St. George was also a symbol of medieval chivalry and such an image was present on the coats of arms of many noble families and cities.

3. Using additional sources, find out what rights of the boyars and landowners were enshrined in the Sudebnik of 1497. Who had more rights? Support your conclusions with quotes from the document.

The Sudebnik of Ivan III pays more attention not to the presentation of laws, but to legal proceedings - the order of the courts. The Sudebnik indicates who should judge: “Judge the court of the boyars and devious. And at the court to be with the boyars and devious clerks. The court was to be attended by a grand-ducal official (dvor), a local headman and elected "best" people. The Sudebnik obliges the boyars to accept everyone who comes to them with a complaint and try to solve their problems. The most difficult and important cases that “cannot be managed” are presented to the Grand Duke. Thus, the Sudebnik gives the boyars the right to judge.

Also in the Sudebnik there is an attempt to protect people from the arbitrariness of judges: “And do not take private rewards (bribes) for boyars, and roundabouts, and clerks from court and from assistance (in resolving a case); likewise, any judge should not take private remuneration (bribes) from the court to anyone. And the court does not take revenge, do not be friends with anyone. Thus, the Sudebnik tries to protect the defendants from resentment and untruth.

One of the articles of the Sudebnik of Ivan III defines the rules for the peasants to leave the landowners, setting a certain period for this: a week before St. George's autumn day (November 26) and a week after it. It was at this time of the year that the field work was completed. By setting the legal deadline for payment at the end of autumn, the Sudebnik of Ivan III only obliged the peasant who received the land and the loan to fulfill the agreement agreed with the landowner on the performance of field work. Without such a legal deadline, a peasant could start them, and then quit without finishing them. In this case, the seeds would have been used up, the tools and housing would have been partially dilapidated, and the crops would not have been harvested. And it is not known whether the landowner would have found another worker in the middle of the field season who was willing to remove him. Thus, the Sudebnik protected the landowners from losses due to the possible departure of the peasants.

4. Divided into groups, make up a story about the events of October-November 1480: 1) on behalf of the advisers of Ivan III, who persuaded him to submit to Akhmat; 2) on behalf of the Muscovites, who called on Ivan III to decisively fight against Akhmat; 3) on behalf of a simple warrior from a Russian regiment stationed on the Ugra.

On behalf of an adviser persuading Akhmat to submit

My prince, is it fit for us to destroy what was achieved by our fathers and grandfathers. For a long time we lived under the Tatar kings and sought to maintain good relations with them. Of course, people began to forget the pogroms and devastation that Russia was subjected to if it began to conflict with the Horde. But we must remember this. Now is not the time to quarrel with Akhmat. Look, prince, what an army he has. Look, the Lithuanian army is standing near Vyazma - it will reach Moscow in two or three days. The Livonian Order attacked Pskov. Your brothers are ready to negotiate with Casimir. Is now the time to fight the Horde? What will happen if Akhmat waits for the Lithuanian attack and crosses the Ugra? We must urgently give the order to prepare Moscow for a siege and send ambassadors to Akhmat with gifts. Yes, you have already sent envoys to him asking him to retreat. He did not refuse you, he just wanted to see you at his throne with gifts. But you did not go to him and did not send your son. Oh, what will become of us?

On behalf of Muscovites calling for a decisive struggle

Oh, prince, you ruled over us in silence, and we were obedient to you. Do you really want to give us to the evil king Akhmat. Why did you leave your army on the Ugra and return to Moscow? It is not good for the Grand Duke to leave his people and Russian lands to be plundered. We remember what it was like to be under the Khan's heel. We remember our relatives, taken away in full. We remember all these horrors and grieve about it. Believe in your people, prince, we are ready to fight to the last drop of blood and will not give up our land. See how bravely your son is rushing into battle. We are also strong in spirit and want you to be just as strong in spirit. Don't let us be offended.

From the face of a warrior standing on the Ugra

The river will freeze over soon. What will happen to us if the Tatars decide to cross the Ugra. All previous attempts we fought off. Our artillery did not give the Tatars a chance to gain a foothold on our shore. Our prince was playing for a long time, negotiating with Akhmat. Still, the forces of Andrei Bolshoi and Boris Volotsky should come up, and the horses of the Tatar army should no longer have enough fodder. But Khan Akhmat is still waiting for the approach of the Lithuanian forces of Casimir, but he will not wait - our prince agreed with the Crimean Khan on joint actions. Therefore, the Crimean Tatars are tormenting the underbelly of Lithuania. No, Casimir will not come. And our prince is not at all simple, and far from being a coward. He sent a sabotage detachment of governor Vasily Nozdrevaty to the rear of the Great Horde to inflict a rout in Saray. But now everything can be different - the river has frozen over, and our forces are stretched along the shore for as much as 60 miles. Scary. So do our elders. The Tatars can now easily cross below or above our position. No wonder we received an order to move away from the coast to defensive positions near Kremenets. God bless us. But what is it? Are the Tatars also moving away and retreating?

5. Compare the activities of Ivan III and his contemporary French King Louis XI. How did the personality of the ruler influence his activity?

Ivan III and his contemporary, the French king Louis XI, in the history of their countries played the role of "gatherers" of the state and founded an absolute monarchy. Both he and the other were very smart and purposeful, possessed prudence and cunning. According to a number of estimates, Louis XI surpassed the Russian prince in cruelty and unscrupulousness. Ivan III, unlike Louis XI, decided all issues after careful consideration and planning. Louis relied more on intrigue, he built his feudal policy on lies, deceit and caution.

Possible additional questions in the lesson

Describe the situation that developed before Ivan came to powerIII, and formulate the tasks that he had to solve.

The legacy received by the eldest son of Vasily the Dark - Ivan III Vasilyevich, was enviable. The Russian princes of the lands that became part of Russia were actually in the full will of the Moscow prince, family strife subsided, and the Golden Horde fell apart and weakened. This allowed Ivan III to begin the consistent implementation of the tasks of strengthening Russia: eliminating the threat from the fragments of the Golden Horde (the Kazan Khanate, the Crimean Khanate and the Great Horde), resolving the “Novgorod issue”, returning the Russian lands subordinate to Lithuania, and joining the Russian principalities that tried to pursue their own policies.

Make a psychological portrait of IvanIII

Ivan III is often referred to as a "reasonable autocrat". Indeed, many historians evaluate the first Russian tsar as a rational, prudent, insightful and far-sighted person. In his actions, he tried to be guided not by emotions, but by reason. He did not rush headlong at the enemies, did not strike the imagination with personal military prowess, but consistently implemented his plans. What emotions Ivan experienced at the same time is not known, since he knew how to keep his feelings to himself. He was not distinguished by either ostentatious piety or unbridled innovation. But he showed an extraordinary mind and firmness of character. Ivan III was not an epic hero, but with his work, dedication and consistency, he managed to achieve a lot in a short time. The main result of the reign of the first Russian sovereign was the renewed, revived great Russian state.

What two groups of boyars fought for power in Novgorod? Give them a description.

Two parties fought in the city: the pro-Lithuanian, which consisted of the boyars led by the Boretskys, and the pro-Moscow, which consisted of the "younger child", that is, ordinary people. Since the boyars had access to power and made decisions, it is not surprising that in 1471 Novgorod tried to conclude an alliance with the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the Polish King Casimir.

What happened in 1471?

In 1471, on the Shelon River, Moscow and Tatar (Kasimov) troops under the command of commander Daniil Kholmsky defeated the Novgorod militia, which was several times larger than them.

How did Ivan III react to the news of the agreement between Martha Boretskaya's group and the Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Kazimir IV Yagailovich?

Muscovites reasonably considered the union of Novgorod with Kazimir as a betrayal of the all-Russian cause and compared Ivan III's campaign against Novgorod with Dmitry Donskoy's campaign against Mamai. The chronicler wrote that Ivan III went to Novgorod "not like against Christians, but like against a pagan and an apostate of Orthodoxy." Novgorodians, who chose an alliance with the Catholics, were equated by Muscovites with pagans.

What are the consequences of the battle on the Shelon River?

The rapid advance of the Moscow troops prevented the Novgorodians from completing negotiations with Lithuania. The treaty was not approved by the king, who at that time was busy fighting for the Czech throne, and Lithuania evaded the war with Moscow. Novgorod retained its independence for the time being, but it had to give up contacts with Lithuania and pay Moscow a significant amount of money.

What event did Ivan consider a weighty reason for organizing a new campaign against Novgorod?

In the spring of 1477, the Novgorod ambassadors who arrived in Moscow recognized Ivan III as their sovereign. This meant the unconditional submission of Novgorod to the power of the Grand Duke. In response, Ivan III demanded that he be given the right to direct control of Novgorod, eliminating the independence of the republic. His program was laconic: "I will not be, the posadnik will not be, but we will keep the state." However, it turned out that the embassy was sent only on the initiative of some boyars. After that, a split occurred in Novgorod: the townspeople supported the idea of ​​​​joining Moscow, and the boyars, defending the inviolability of their estates and rights, advocated the preservation of Novgorod independence. In the course of fierce disputes at the veche, some supporters of Moscow were killed, and the Novgorod ambassadors refused to call Ivan III the sovereign. This was the reason for a new campaign against Novgorod.

How did Ivan III's second campaign against Novgorod end?

The second campaign of Ivan III ended with the loss of independence by Novgorod in 1478. The veche was dissolved, and the veche bell was taken to Moscow. Elected posadniks and officials were replaced by Moscow governors, and dozens of the most noble families of Novgorod were transferred (“placed”) to areas close to Moscow as service people.

When did Ivan III stop sending tribute to the Great Horde?

Ivan III stopped sending tribute to the Great Horde from 1472.

What complicated the situation in the Muscovite state? Rate these factors.

The situation in the Muscovite state was complicated by the deterioration of relations with its Western neighbors. The Lithuanian Grand Duke Casimir entered into an alliance with Akhmat and could attack at any moment. Lithuanian troops were located in Vyazma and could reach Moscow in a few days. In addition, the Livonian Order attacked Pskov. Another blow for Grand Duke Ivan was the rebellion of his brothers: the appanage princes Boris and Andrei Bolshoi, dissatisfied with the oppression of the Grand Duke, drove off to the Lithuanian border and entered into negotiations with Casimir. And although, as a result of active negotiations with the brothers, as a result of bargaining and promises, Ivan III managed to prevent their action against him, the threat of a repeat of the civil war did not leave Moscow.

Which of the Horde khans took advantage of the difficult situation in the Muscovite state?

The Khan of the Great Horde took advantage of the difficult situation in the Muscovite state and, having gathered troops, set out on a campaign against Moscow.

With whom did Khan Akhmat manage to conclude an alliance for a joint struggle against Russia?

Khan Akhmat made an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Casimir for a joint struggle against Russia.

What dilemma did Ivan III face when he learned about Akhmat's intentions?

Ivan III had to decide whether to start military operations against Akhmat, given the difficult situation, or to make peace with the Great Horde and continue paying tribute.

Why did Akhmat order his army to retreat in November 1480?

Tatar troops stood on the Ugra for several months. A few attempts to cross the river were repulsed. Akhmat did not wait for the help of the Lithuanian prince Casimir, since, at the request of Ivan III, the Crimean Khan attacked the Lithuanian lands, and Casimir did not dare to march on Moscow. In addition, winter was coming, and the Tatar troops were not ready to wage a winter war: as the chronicle says, “the Tatars were naked and barefoot, they were skinned,” and their horses were already running out of fodder. It is possible that Akhmat's decision to retreat was influenced by the fact that at that time Ivan III sent the voivode Nozdrevaty along with the Tatar prince Nur-Devlet with a ship's army down the Volga, where he defeated and robbed the capital of the Great Horde Saray and other Tatar uluses and returned with a large prey.

Chronology of the liquidation of the Horde dominion

How did the fact of joining Novgorod to the Moscow principality affect the position of the Tver principality?

The Tver principality was practically surrounded by lands subordinate to the Moscow principality. In addition, starting from the 60s of the XV century, an active transition of the Tver boyars to the service of Moscow was observed.

How did the attempt by Prince Michael of Tver to conclude an alliance with Casimir IV end?

In 1483, the enmity between Moscow and Tver turned into an armed confrontation. The formal reason for it was an attempt by Prince Mikhail Borisovich of Tver to strengthen his ties with Lithuania through a dynastic marriage and a union treaty. Moscow reacted to this by breaking off relations and sending troops to the Tver lands; Prince of Tver admitted his defeat and in 1484 concluded a peace treaty with Ivan III. According to him, Mikhail recognized himself as the "little brother" of the Grand Duke of Moscow, which in the political terminology of that time meant the actual transformation of Tver into a specific principality; the treaty of alliance with Lithuania, of course, was broken.

Why did Casimir IV not dare to help the Prince of Tver?

The Moscow principality was no longer the same as during Vytautas. It became strong. Significant changes took place during the reign of Ivan III and in the relations of the Muscovite state with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Initially friendly (the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir was even appointed, according to the will of Vasily II, the guardian of the children of the Grand Duke of Moscow), they gradually deteriorated. Moscow's desire to subjugate all Russian lands constantly ran into opposition from Lithuania, which had the same goal. The attempt of the Novgorodians to pass under the rule of Casimir did not contribute to the friendship of the two states, and the union of Lithuania and the Horde in 1480, during the "standing on the Ugra", heated relations to the limit. Since 1481, there have been constant skirmishes on the border of the two states. In addition, the Crimean Khan, allied to Moscow, constantly tormented the southern Lithuanian lands. Having sensibly assessed the situation, Casimir did not even think of helping the Tver prince.

How did Ivan III's campaign against Tver end in the autumn of 1485?

In 1485, using as an excuse the capture of a messenger from Mikhail of Tver to the Lithuanian Grand Duke Casimir, Moscow again severed relations with the Tver principality and began hostilities. A significant part of the Tver boyars and specific princes transferred to the Moscow service, and Prince Mikhail Borisovich himself, having seized the treasury, fled to Lithuania.

Who became the Grand Duke of Tver?

The son of Ivan III Ivan the Young became the Grand Duke of Tver

What cities did the great Lithuanian prince cede to Moscow in 1503?

The Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1503 ceded to Moscow Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Putivil, Bryansk, Gomel, Toropets, Mtsensk, Dorogobuzh and others.

Did his son, Vasily III, continue the policy of Ivan III?

Vasily III continued the policy of Ivan III. In 1510 he liquidated the independence of Pskov, in 1512 he returned Smolensk, and in 1521 he annexed the Ryazan lands to Moscow.