Classification of explosives and their main properties. The concept and types of explosives
Chapter 2
General information about explosives and
thermochemistry of explosive processes
In the economic activity of people, we often meet with explosive phenomena (explosions).
In the broad sense of the word, "explosion" is the process of a very rapid physical and chemical transformation of a system, accompanied by the transition of its potential energy into mechanical work.
Examples of explosions include:
explosion of a vessel operating under high pressure (steam boiler, chemical vessel, fuel tank);
explosion of a conductor when it short-circuits a powerful source of electricity;
collision of bodies moving at high speeds;
spark discharge (lightning during a thunderstorm);
eruption;
nuclear explosion;
explosion of various substances (gases, liquids, solids).
We will study explosions of special substances that are widely used in national economic activity. More precisely, in the process of studying we will consider the "explosion" as the main property of the substances we study - industrial explosives.
In relation to explosives (in particular, to HEs), an explosion should be understood as a process of extremely fast (instantaneous) chemical transformation of a substance, as a result of which its chemical energy is converted into the energy of highly compressed and heated gases that do work during their expansion.
The above definition gives three characteristic features of the "explosion":
high rate of chemical transformation;
the formation of gaseous products of the chemical decomposition of a substance - highly compressed and heated gases, playing the role of a "working fluid";
exothermic reaction.
Consider the factors that determine the explosion in more detail.
exothermicity reaction is the most important condition for an explosion. This is explained by the fact that the explosion of the explosives is excited under the action of an external source that has a small amount of energy. This energy is only sufficient to cause an explosive transformation reaction of a small mass of explosives located at a point, line or plane of initiation. Subsequently, the explosion process spreads spontaneously over the explosive mass from layer to layer (layer by layer) and is supported by the energy released in the previous layer. The amount of heat released ultimately determines not only the possibility of self-propagation of the explosion process, but also its beneficial effect, that is, the performance of the explosion products, since the initial energy of the working fluid (gases) is completely determined by the thermal effect of the chemical reaction of the "explosion".
High speed of propagation of the reaction explosive transformation is its characteristic feature. The process of explosion of some explosives is so fast that it seems that the decomposition reaction occurs instantly. However, it is not. Although the propagation velocity of an explosive explosion is large, it has a finite value (the maximum propagation velocity of an explosive explosion does not exceed 9000 m/s).
The presence of highly compressed and heated to a high temperature gaseous products is also one of the basic conditions for an explosion. Expanding sharply, compressed gases produce an impact on the environment, exciting a shock wave in it, which performs the planned work. Thus, the pressure jump (difference) at the interface between the explosive and the environment, which occurs at the initial moment, is a very characteristic sign of an explosion. If gaseous products are not formed during the chemical transformation reaction (i.e. there is no working fluid), the reaction process is not explosive, although the reaction products can have a high temperature without having other properties, they cannot create a pressure jump and, therefore, cannot perform work.
The obligatory presence of all three considered factors in the phenomenon of an explosion will be illustrated by some examples.
Example 1 Burning coal:
C + O 2 \u003d CO 2 + 420 (kJ).
During combustion, heat is released (the presence of exothermicity) and gases are formed (there is a working fluid). However, the combustion reaction is slow. Therefore, the process is not explosive (there is no greater rate of chemical transformation).
Example 2 Thermite burning:
2 Al + Fe 2 O 3 = Al 2 O 3 + 2 Fe +830 (kJ).
The reaction proceeds very intensively and is accompanied by a large amount of released heat (energy). However, the resulting reaction products (slags) are not gaseous products, although they have a high temperature (about 3000 ° C). The reaction is not an explosion (there is no working fluid).
Example 3 Explosive transformation of TNT:
C 6 H 2 (NO 2) 3 CH 3 \u003d 2CO + 1.2CO 2 + 3.8C + 0.6H 2 + 1.6H 2 O +
1.4N 2 +0.2 NH 3 +905 (kJ).
Example 4 Explosive decomposition of nitroglycerin:
C 3 H 5 (NO 3) 3 \u003d 3CO 2 +5 H 2 O + 1.5N 2 + Q (kJ).
These reactions proceed very quickly, heat is released (the reactions are exothermic), the gaseous products of the explosion, expanding, do work. The reactions are explosive.
It must be borne in mind that the above main factors that determine the explosion should not be considered in isolation, but in close relationship both with each other and with the conditions of the process. Under some conditions, the reaction of chemical decomposition can proceed quietly, in others it can be explosive. An example is the combustion reaction of methane:
CH 4 + 2O 2 \u003d CO 2 + 2H 2 O + 892 (kJ).
If the combustion of methane occurs in small portions and its interaction with atmospheric oxygen is carried out over a fixed contact surface, the reaction is in the nature of stable combustion (there is exothermicity, there is gas formation, there is no high speed of the process - no explosion). If methane is preliminarily mixed with oxygen in a significant volume and combustion is initiated, the reaction rate will increase significantly and the process may become explosive.
It should be noted that the high speed and exothermicity of the process gives the impression that explosives have an extremely large energy reserve. However, it is not. As follows from the data given in Table 2.1, in terms of heat content (the amount of heat released during the explosion of 1 kg of a substance), some combustible substances are much superior to explosives.
Table 2.1 - Heat content of some substances
The difference between the explosion process and conventional chemical reactions lies in the greater volumetric concentration of the released energy. For some explosives, the explosion process occurs so quickly that all the released energy at the first moment is concentrated practically in the initial volume occupied by the explosive. It is impossible to achieve such a concentration of energy in reactions of a different kind, for example, from the combustion of gasoline in automobile engines.
Large volumetric energy concentrations created during the explosion lead to the formation of specific energy flows (a specific energy flow is the amount of energy transmitted through a unit area per unit time, dimension in W / m 2) of high intensity, which predetermines a large destructive ability of the explosion.
2.1. Classification of explosive processes
The following factors have a determining influence on the nature of the explosive process and its final result:
the nature of the explosive, i.e. its physicochemical properties;
conditions for excitation of a chemical reaction;
the conditions under which the reaction occurs.
Common in both considered examples is that the chemical decomposition by weight (volume) of TNT occurs sequentially from one layer to another. However, the rate of propagation of the reacting layer and the very mechanism of decomposition of TNT particles in the reacting layer in each case will be completely different. The nature of the processes occurring in the reacting explosive layer ultimately determines the rate of reaction propagation. However, the converse statement is also true: the rate of propagation of a chemical reaction can also be used to judge its mechanism. This circumstance made it possible to put the reaction rate of explosive transformation as the basis for the classification of explosive processes. Explosive processes are divided into the following main types according to the rate of propagation of the reaction and its dependence on conditions: combustion, explosion (actual explosion) and detonation .
combustion processes flow relatively slowly (from 10 -3 to 10 m/s), while the combustion rate depends significantly on the external pressure. The greater the pressure in the environment, the greater the burning rate. In the open air, combustion proceeds calmly. In a limited volume, the combustion process accelerates and becomes more energetic, which leads to a rapid increase in the pressure of gaseous products. In this case, the gaseous products of combustion acquire the ability to perform the work of throwing. Combustion is a characteristic type of explosive transformation of gunpowder and propellants.
actual explosion Compared to combustion, it represents a qualitatively different form of process propagation. Distinctive features of the explosion are: a sharp jump in pressure at the site of the explosion, a variable speed of propagation of the process, measured in thousands of meters per second and relatively little dependent on external conditions. The nature of the action of the explosion is a sharp impact of gases on the environment, causing crushing and severe deformation of objects located near the site of the explosion. The process of explosion differs significantly from combustion in the nature of its propagation. If, during combustion, energy is transferred from the reacting layer to the adjacent unexcited explosive layer by thermal conduction, diffusion, and radiation, then during an explosion, energy is transferred by compression of matter by a shock wave.
Detonation represents a stationary form of the explosion process. The detonation velocity in the process of an explosion occurring under given conditions does not change and is the most important constant of this explosive. Under detonation conditions, the maximum "destructive" effect of the explosion is achieved. The mechanism of excitation of the reaction of explosive transformation during detonation is the same as in the actual explosion, that is, the transfer of energy from layer to layer is carried out in the form of a shock wave.
An explosion occupies an intermediate position between combustion and detonation. Although the mechanism of energy transfer during an explosion is the same as during detonation, the processes of energy transfer in the form of heat conduction, radiation, diffusion, and convention cannot be neglected. That is why an explosion is sometimes considered as non-stationary, combining the totality of the effects of combustion, detonation, expansion of gaseous products, and other physical processes. For the same explosive under the same conditions, the explosive transformation reaction can be classified as intense combustion (gunpowder in the gun barrel). Under other conditions, the process of explosive transformation of the same explosive occurs in the form of an explosion or even detonation (for example, an explosion of the same gunpowder in a borehole). And although there are processes inherent in combustion during an explosion or detonation, their influence on the general mechanism of explosive decomposition turns out to be insignificant.
2.2. Classification of explosives
Currently, a huge number of chemicals capable of explosive decomposition reactions are known, and their number is constantly increasing. In their composition, physicochemical properties, in their ability to excite explosion reactions in them, and in their propagation, these substances differ significantly from each other. For the convenience of studying explosives, they are combined into certain groups according to various criteria. We will focus on three main features of classification:
by composition;
by appointment;
by susceptibility to explosive transformation (explosiveness).
Explosive chemical compounds are unstable chemical systems capable, under the influence of external influences, of rapid exothermic transformations, as a result of which intramolecular bonds are completely broken and subsequent recombination of free atoms, ions, groups of atoms into thermodynamically stable products (gases). Most explosives of this group are oxygen-containing organic compounds, and their chemical decomposition reaction is a reaction of complete and partial intramolecular oxidation. Trotyl and nitroglycerin (as constituents of the EVA) can serve as examples of such PEVs. However, there are other explosive compounds (lead azide , Рb(N 3 ) 2 ), not containing oxygen, capable of exothermic reactions of chemical decomposition during an explosion.
Explosive mixtures are systems consisting of at least two chemically unrelated components. Usually one of the components of the mixture is a substance relatively rich in oxygen (oxidizer), and the second component is a combustible substance that does not contain oxygen at all, or contains it in quantities insufficient for complete intramolecular oxidation. The first ones include black powder, emulsion explosives, the second ones - ammotol, granulites, etc.
It should be noted that there is a so-called intermediate group of explosive mixtures:
substances of the same nature (explosive chemical compounds) with a different content of active oxygen (TNT, RDX).
explosive chemical compound in an inert filler (dynamite).
By appointment Explosives are divided into four main groups:
initiating explosives;
blasting explosives (including the class of industrial explosives);
propelling explosives (gunpowder and fuel);
pyrotechnic compositions (including PVV, black powder and other igniters).
Brisant explosives have a large energy reserve and are less sensitive to the effects of initial impulses.
The main type of chemical decomposition of IVV and BrVV is detonation.
A characteristic sign (type) of the chemical decomposition of propellant explosives is combustion. For pyrotechnic compositions, the main type of explosive transformation reaction is also combustion, although some of them are capable of an explosion reaction. Most pyrotechnic compositions are mixtures of (mechanical) fuels and oxidizers with various cementitious and special additives that create a certain effect.
Susceptibility to explosive transformation explosives are divided into:
primary;
secondary;
tertiary.
The category of tertiary explosives includes explosives with weakly pronounced explosive properties. Typical representatives of tertiary explosives can be considered ammonium nitrate and an emulsion of an oxidizer in fuel (emulsion explosives). Tertiary explosives are practically safe to handle; it is very difficult to excite a decomposition reaction in them. Often these substances are classified as non-explosive. However, complete disregard for their explosive properties can lead to tragic consequences. When mixing tertiary explosives with combustibles or adding sensitizers, their explosiveness increases.
2.3. General information about detonation, features
detonation of industrial explosives
According to the hydrodynamic theory, detonation is considered to be the movement of a chemical transformation zone along the explosive, driven by a shock wave of constant amplitude. The amplitude and velocity of the shock wave are constant, since the dissipative losses accompanying the shock compression of the substance are compensated by the thermal reaction of explosive transformation. This is one of the main differences between a detonation wave and a shock wave, whose propagation in chemically inactive materials is accompanied by a decrease in the velocity and parameters of the wave (attenuation).
The detonation of various solid explosives proceeds at speeds from 1500 to 8500 m/s.
The main characteristic of the explosive detonation is the detonation velocity, i.e. the speed of propagation of the detonation wave along the explosive. Due to the very fast speed of propagation of the detonation wave over the explosive charge, changes in its parameters [pressure ( R), temperature ( T), volume ( V)] in the front, the waves occur abruptly, as in the shock wave.
Parameter change scheme ( P, T, V) during the detonation of a solid explosive is shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 - Scheme of changing parameters during the detonation of solid explosives
Pressure ( R) increases abruptly at the shock wave front, and then begins to gradually decrease in the chemical reaction zone. Temperature T also increases exponentially. but to a lesser extent than R, and then, as the chemical transformation proceeds, the explosive increases slightly. Volume V, occupied by the explosive, due to the high pressure decreases and remains practically unchanged until the end of the transformation of the explosive into detonation products.
Hydrodynamic theory of detonation (Russian scientist V.A. Mikhalson (1890), English physicist D. Chapman, French physicist E. Jouguet), based on the shock wave theory (Yu.B. Khariton, Ya.B. Zeldovich, L.D. Landau), makes it possible, using data on the heat of transformation of explosives and on the properties of detonation products (average molecular weight, heat capacity, etc.), to establish a mathematical relationship between the detonation velocity, the velocity of the explosion products, the volume and temperature of the detonation products.
To establish these dependencies, generally accepted equations are used that express the laws of conservation of matter, momentum, and energy in the transition from the initial explosive to its detonation products, as well as the so-called Jouguet equation and the equation of state of detonation products, which expresses the relationship between the main characteristics of the explosion products. According to the Jouguet equation, in a steady process, the detonation velocity D is equal to the sum of the velocity of the detonation products behind the front and speed of sound from in detonation products:
D \u003d + s. (2.1)
For detonation products of "gases" having a relatively low pressure, the well-known equation of state for ideal gases is used:
PV=RT (2.2)
Where P- pressure,
V- specific volume,
R is the gas constant,
T- temperature.
For detonation products of condensed explosives L.D. Landau and K.P. Stanyukovich derived the equation of state:
PV n =const , (2.3)
Where P And V- pressure and volume of explosion products at the moment of their formation;
n= 3 - exponent in the equation of state for condensed explosives (polytrope exponent) at explosive density >1.
Detonation velocity according to hydrodynamic theory
, (2.4)
Where 
- heat of explosive transformation.
However, the values obtained from this expression 
are always overestimated, even taking into account the variable, depending on the density of explosives, the value " n". Nevertheless, for a number of estimates it is useful to use such a dependence in general form:
D = ƒ(p about )
, (2.5)
Where p about is the density of explosives.
For approximate estimates of the detonation velocity of a new substance (if it is not possible to determine it experimentally), the following relation can be used:
, (2.6)
Where is the index " X" refers to the unknown (new substance), and " THIS» - to the reference one with a known detonation velocity at equal densities and assumed close values of the polytrope ( n).
Thus, the detonation velocity depends on three main characteristics of the explosive: the heat of its explosion, the density and composition of the explosion products (through " n" And " M * »).
The transformation of explosives in the form of detonation is the most desirable, since it provides a significant rate of chemical transformation and creates the highest pressure and density of the explosion products. This provision can be observed under the condition formulated by Yu.B. Khariton:
, (2.7)
Where - the duration of the chemical transformation of explosives;
- spreading time of the initial explosive.
Yu.B. Khariton introduced the concept of critical diameter, the value of which is one of the most important characteristics of explosives. The ratio of the reaction time and the scatter time makes it possible to give a correct explanation for the presence of a critical or limiting diameter for each explosive.
If we take the speed of sound in the products of the explosion through " from", and the charge diameter through "d", then the scattering time of the substance can be approximately determined from the expression
. (2.8)
Considering that the condition for the possibility of detonation passing >,
can be written 
>,
whence the critical diameter, i.e. the smallest diameter at which a stable detonation of an explosive can still occur will be equal to:
d kr \u003d c. (2.9)
It follows from this expression that any factor that increases the spreading time of a substance should contribute to detonation (shell, increase in diameter). There will also be factors that accelerate the process of chemical transformation of explosives in a detonation wave (the introduction of highly active explosives - powerful and susceptible).
Experimental measurements show the asymptotic nature of the increase in the detonation velocity with increasing charge diameter. Starting from the limiting charge diameter d etc, with its further increase, the speed practically does not increase (Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2 - Dependence of the detonation velocity D from charge diameter d h :
D AND-ideal detonation velocity; d kr is the critical diameter; d etc- limiting diameter.
The critical geometrical characteristics of the charge also depend on the explosive density and its uniformity. For individual explosives, with increasing density, d kr, up to a region close to the density of a single crystal, where, as A.Ya. Apin showed, some increase in d kr(for example, for TNT).
If the diameter of the explosive charge is much higher than the critical one, then an increase in the explosive density leads to an increase in the detonation velocity, reaching a limit at the maximum possible explosive density.
For ammonium nitrate explosives, the critical diameters are relatively large. In commonly used charges, the effect of density has a dual character - an increase in density initially leads to an increase in the detonation velocity ( D), and then, with a further increase in density, the detonation velocity begins to fall and detonation damping may occur. For each ammonium nitrate explosive, depending on the conditions of its use, there is its own "critical" density. Critical is the maximum density at which (under given conditions) stable detonation of the explosive is still possible. With a slight increase in the "charge" density above the critical value, the detonation dies out.
Critical density ( p kr) (maximum points on the curve D= ( about ) ) is not a constant of one or another industrial explosive, determined by its chemical composition. It changes with a change in the physical characteristics of explosives (particle sizes, uniformity of distribution of particles of components in the mass of matter), transverse dimensions of charges, and the presence and properties of the charge shell.
Based on these ideas, secondary explosives are divided into two large groups. For explosives of the 1st type, which mainly include powerful monomolecular explosives (TNT, RDX, etc.), the critical diameter of stationary detonation decreases with an increase in explosive density. For explosives of the 2nd type, on the contrary, the critical diameter increases with a decrease in porosity (increase in density) of explosives. Representatives of this group are, for example, ammonium nitrate, ammonium perchlorate, and a number of mixed industrial explosives: ANFO (ammonium nitrate + diesel fuel); emulsion explosives, etc.
For explosives of the 1st type, the detonation velocity D cylindrical charge diameter d increases monotonically with increasing density about explosive. For explosives of the 2nd type, the detonation velocity first increases with a decrease in the porosity of the explosive, reaches a maximum, and then decreases, until detonation stops at the so-called critical density. Nonmonotonic Dependency Behavior D= ( about ) for mixed (industrial) explosives, it is associated with difficult filtration of explosive gases, absorption of detonation wave energy by inert additives, multi-stage explosive transformation of individual components, incomplete mixing of explosion products of components, and a number of other factors.
It is believed that with a decrease in the porosity of explosives, the detonation velocity first increases due to an increase in the specific energy of the explosion Q V, because D~ 
, and then decreases for the above reasons.
2.4. The main characteristics of VV.
VV sensitivity
Since the appearance of explosives, their high danger has been established under mechanical and thermal effects (shock, friction, vibration, heating). The ability of explosives to explode under mechanical impacts was defined as sensitivity to mechanical impacts, and the ability of explosives to explode under thermal exposure was defined as sensitivity to thermal impacts (thermal impulse). The intensity of the impact, or, as they say, the value of the minimum initial impulse necessary to excite the reaction of explosive decomposition, for different explosives can be different and depends on their sensitivity to one or another type of impulse.
To assess the safety of production, transportation and storage of industrial explosives, their sensitivity to external influences is of great importance.
There are various physical models for the emergence and development of an explosion under local external influences (impact, friction). In the doctrine of the sensitivity of explosives, two concepts of the causes of an explosion under mechanical influences have become widespread - thermal and non-thermal. About the reasons for the occurrence of an explosion during thermal exposure (heating), everything is unambiguous and understandable.
According to non-thermal theory- the excitation of an explosion is caused by the deformation of molecules and the destruction of intramolecular bonds due to the application of certain critical pressures of all-round compression or shear stresses to the substance. In accordance with thermal theory the occurrence of an explosion, the energy of mechanical action dissipates (dissipates) in the form of heat, leading to heating and ignition of explosives. Ideas and methods of the theory of thermal explosion, developed by Academicians N.N. Semenov, Yu.B. Khariton and Ya.B. Zeldovich, D.A. Frank-Kamenetsky, A.G. Merzhanov.
Since the rate of thermal decomposition of explosives, which determines the possibility of the reaction proceeding by the mechanism of thermal explosion, is an exponential function of temperature (Arrhenius law: k=k about e - E/RT), it becomes clear why not the total amount of dissipated heat, but its distribution over the explosive volume should play a decisive role in the explosion initiation processes. In this regard, it seems natural that the various ways in which mechanical energy is converted into heat are not equivalent to each other. These ideas were the starting point for creating a local-thermal (focal) theory of explosion initiation. (N.A. Holevo, K.K. Andreev, F.A. Baum and others).
According to the focal theory of excitation of an explosion, the energy of mechanical action does not dissipate uniformly throughout the volume of the explosive, but is localized in separate areas, which, as a rule, are physical and mechanical inhomogeneities of the explosive. The temperature of such areas ("hot spots") is much higher than the temperature of the surrounding homogeneous body (substance).
What are the reasons for the appearance of a heating center during mechanical action on explosives? We can assume that internal friction is the main source of heating of viscoplastic bodies with a homogeneous physical structure. High-temperature heating centers in liquid explosives under shock-mechanical effects are mainly associated with adiabatic compression and heating of gas or explosive vapors in small bubbles scattered over the volume of liquid explosive.
What is the size of the hot spots? The maximum size of hot spots that can lead to an explosion of explosives under mechanical stress is 10 -3 - 10 -5 cm, the required temperature increase in the hot spots is 400-600 K, and the heating duration ranges from 10 -4 to 10 -6 s.
LG Bolkhovitinov concluded that there is a minimum bubble size that can collapse adiabatically (without heat exchange with the environment). For typical conditions of mechanical shock, its value is about 10 -2 cm. Film frames of the collapse of the air cavity are shown in Figure 2.3
Figure 2.3 - Stages of collapse of bubbles during compression
What determines the sensitivity of explosives and what factors affect its value?
These factors include the physical state, temperature and density of the substance, as well as the presence of impurities in the explosive. With an increase in the temperature of the explosive, its sensitivity to impact (friction) increases. However, such an obvious postulate is not always unambiguous in practice. As proof of this, an example is always given when charges of ammonium nitrate with the addition of fuel oil (3%) and sand (5%), in the middle of which steel plates were placed, exploded from a bullet at normal temperature, but did not explode under the same conditions with a preliminary heating the charge to 60 0 S. S.M. Muratov pointed out that in this example the factor of change in the physical state of the charge with temperature changes and, most importantly, the conditions of interboundary friction between the moving object and the explosive charge are not taken into account. The effect of temperature is often offset by other temperature-related factors.
Increasing the density of explosives usually reduces the sensitivity to impact (friction).
The sensitivity of explosives can be purposefully adjusted by introducing additives. To reduce the sensitivity of explosives, phlegmatizers are introduced, to increase - sensitizers.
In practice, you can often meet with such sensitizing additives - sand, small rock particles, metal shavings, glass particles.
TNT, which gives 4-12% explosions in its pure form when tested for impact sensitivity, when 0.25% sand is introduced into it, it gives 29% explosions, and when 5% sand is introduced, 100% explosions. The sensitizing effect of impurities is explained by the fact that the inclusion of solid substances in explosives contributes to the concentration of energy on solid particles and their sharp edges during impact and facilitates the creation of local "hot spots".
Substances with a hardness less than the hardness of explosive particles soften the blow, create the possibility of free movement of explosive particles and thereby reduce the likelihood of energy concentration at individual "points". As phlegmatizers, fusible substances, oily liquids with good enveloping ability, high heat capacities are usually used: paraffin, ceresin, petroleum jelly, various oils. Water is also a phlegmatizer for explosives.
2.5. Practical assessment of the sensitivity of explosives
For the practical assessment (determination) of sensitivity parameters, there are various methods.
2.5.1. The sensitivity of explosives to thermal
influence (impulse)
The minimum temperature at which, during a conditionally given period of time, the heat gain becomes greater than the heat removal and the chemical reaction, due to self-acceleration, takes on the character of an explosive transformation, is called the flash point.
The flash point depends on the conditions of the explosive test - the size of the sample, the design of the device and the heating rate, so the test conditions must be strictly regulated.
The time interval from the beginning of heating at a given temperature until the onset of a flash is called the flash delay period.
The flash delay is the shorter, the higher the temperature to which the substance is exposed.
To determine the flash point, which characterizes the sensitivity of explosives to heat, use a device "for determining the flash point" (a sample of explosives is 0.05 g, the minimum temperature at which a flash occurs 5 minutes after the explosive is placed in a heated bath).
The flash point is for
The sensitivity of explosives to heating is more fully characterized by the curve showing the dependence
T rev \u003d ƒ (τ ass).
and in
Figure 2.4 - Dependence of the flash delay time (τ set) on the heating temperature ( about FROM) - schedule " but”, and also dependence in logarithmic form (Arrhenius coordinates) lgτ ass - ƒ(1/T, K)- schedule " in».
2.5.2. Sensitivity to fire
(flammability)
Industrial explosives are tested for susceptibility from the fire beam of the igniter cord. To do this, 1 g of PVV is placed in a test tube mounted on a tripod. The end of the OHA is inserted into the test tube so that it is at a distance of 1 cm from the explosive. When the cord burns, the flame beam, acting on the explosive, can cause it to ignite. In blasting, only those explosives are used that, in 6 parallel definitions, do not give a single flash or explosion. Explosives that do not withstand such a test, for example, gunpowder, are used in blasting only in exceptional cases.
In another version of the test, the maximum distance at which the explosive still ignites is determined.
Explosive substances have long been a part of human life. About what they are, where they are used and what are the rules for their storage, this article will tell.
A bit of history
From time immemorial, man has tried to create substances that, with a certain impact from the outside, caused an explosion. Naturally, this was not done for peaceful purposes. And one of the first widely known explosive substances was the legendary Greek fire, the recipe of which is still not exactly known. This was followed by the creation of gunpowder in China around the 7th century, which, on the contrary, was first used for entertainment purposes in pyrotechnics, and only then adapted for military needs.
For several centuries, the opinion was established that gunpowder is the only explosive known to man. Only at the end of the XVIII century was discovered silver fulminate, which is not unknown under the unusual name "explosive silver". Well, after this discovery, picric acid, "explosive mercury", pyroxylin, nitroglycerin, TNT, hexogen, and so on appeared.
Concept and classification
In simple terms, explosive substances are special substances or their mixtures, which, under certain conditions, can explode. These conditions can be a rise in temperature or pressure, a shock, a blow, sounds of specific frequencies, as well as intense lighting or even a light touch.
For example, one of the most famous and widespread explosive substances is acetylene. It is a colorless gas, which is also odorless in its pure form and is lighter than air. The acetylene used in production has a pungent smell, which is given to it by impurities. It has gained wide distribution in gas welding and cutting of metals. Acetylene can explode at 500 degrees Celsius or on prolonged contact with copper, as well as silver on impact.
At the moment, a lot of explosive substances are known. They are classified according to many criteria: composition, physical condition, explosive properties, directions of application, degree of danger.
According to the direction of application, explosives can be:
- industrial (used in many industries: from mining to material processing);
- experimental-experimental;
- the military;
- special purpose;
- anti-social use (often this includes homemade mixtures and substances that are used for terrorist and hooligan purposes).
Degree of danger
Also, as an example, explosive substances can be considered according to their degree of danger. In the first place are gases based on hydrocarbons. These substances are prone to random detonation. These include chlorine, ammonia, freons and so on. According to statistics, almost a third of the incidents in which explosives are the main actors involve hydrocarbon-based gases.
This is followed by hydrogen, which under certain conditions (for example, a combination with air in a ratio of 2:5) becomes the most explosive. Well, they close this top three in terms of the degree of danger of a pair of liquids that are prone to ignition. First of all, these are vapors of fuel oil, diesel fuel and gasoline.
Explosives in the military
Explosives find use in military affairs everywhere. There are two types of explosion: combustion and detonation. Due to the fact that gunpowder burns, when it explodes in a confined space, it is not the destruction of the cartridge case that occurs, but the formation of gases and the departure of a bullet or projectile from the barrel. TNT, RDX or ammonal just detonate and create an explosive wave, the pressure rises sharply. But in order for the detonation process to occur, an external impact is necessary, which can be:
- mechanical (impact or friction);
- thermal (flame);
- chemical (the reaction of an explosive with some other substance);
- detonation (there is an explosion of one explosive next to another).
Based on the last point, it becomes clear that two large classes of explosives can be distinguished: composite and individual. The former mainly consist of two or more substances that are not chemically related. It happens that individually such components are not capable of detonation and can only exhibit this property when in contact with each other.
Also, in addition to the main components, various impurities may be present in the composition of the composite explosive. Their purpose is also very wide: regulation of sensitivity or explosiveness, weakening of explosive characteristics or their strengthening. As world terrorism is being spread more and more by impurities in recent times, it has become possible to find out where the explosive was made and to find it with the help of sniffer dogs.
Everything is clear with individual ones: sometimes they do not even need oxygen for a positive thermal output.
Brisance and explosiveness
Usually, in order to understand the power and strength of an explosive, it is necessary to have an understanding of such characteristics as brisance and explosiveness. The first means the ability to destroy surrounding objects. The higher the brisance (which, by the way, is measured in millimeters), the better the substance is suitable as a filling for an aerial bomb or projectile. Explosives with high brisance will create a strong shock wave and give high speed to flying fragments.
Explosiveness, on the other hand, means the ability to throw out surrounding materials. It is measured in cubic centimeters. Explosives with high explosiveness are often used when working with soil.
Safety precautions when working with explosive substances
The list of injuries that a person can receive due to accidents associated with explosives is very, very extensive: thermal and chemical burns, contusion, nervous shock from a blow, injuries from fragments of glass or metal utensils in which explosive substances were located, damage eardrum. Therefore, safety precautions when working with explosive substances have their own characteristics. For example, when working with them, it is necessary to have a safety screen made of thick organic glass or other durable material. Also, those who directly work with explosives must wear a protective mask or even a helmet, gloves and an apron made of durable material.
Storage of explosive substances also has its own characteristics. For example, their illegal storage has consequences in the form of liability, according to the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. Dust contamination of stored explosives must be prevented. Containers with them must be tightly closed so that vapors do not enter the environment. An example would be toxic explosives whose vapors can cause both headache and dizziness and paralysis. Combustible explosives are stored in isolated warehouses that have fireproof walls. Places where explosive chemicals are located must be equipped with fire fighting equipment.
Epilogue
So, explosives can be both a faithful helper to a person, and an enemy if handled and stored improperly. Therefore, it is necessary to follow the safety rules as accurately as possible, and also not to try to pretend to be a young pyrotechnician and make any handicraft explosives.
Demolition work, i.e., work carried out with the help of explosives, is one of the main tasks of engineering support for combat operations of troops.
Subdivisions of military branches and special troops carry out demolition work when:
fortification equipment of positions and areas in the conditions of frozen soils and rocks;
arrangement of barriers and making passages in them;
destruction and destruction of objects, structures, weapons and equipment;
arrangement of lanes for the equipment of crossings on frozen water barriers;
carrying out work to protect bridges and hydraulic structures during ice drift and in the performance of other tasks of engineering support.
General information
Explosives(BB) are chemical compounds or mixtures that, under the influence of certain external influences, are capable of a rapid self-propagating chemical transformation with the formation of highly heated and high-pressure gases, which, expanding, produce mechanical work.
Explosives are a very powerful source of energy. In the event of an explosion, one 400 g TNT bomb develops a power of up to 160 million hp.
Explosion It is the chemical transformation of a substance from one state to another. From a chemical point of view, an explosion is the same process as fuel combustion, based on the oxidation of combustible substances (carbon and hydrogen) by oxygen, but propagating through the explosive at a high variable speed, measured in hundreds or thousands of meters per second.
The process of explosive transformation due to the passage of a shock wave through an explosive and proceeding at a constant supersonic speed for this substance is called detonation.
The excitation of explosive transformation of explosives is called initiation. To initiate an explosive transformation of an explosive, it is required to inform it of the required amount of energy (initial impulse), which can be transferred in one of the following ways:
mechanical (impact, friction, prick);
thermal (spark, flame, heating);
electric (heating, spark discharge);
chemical (reaction with intense heat release);
explosion of another explosive charge (explosion of a detonator cap or an adjacent charge).
Classification of explosives
All explosives used in the production of demolition work and equipment of various ammunition are divided into three main groups:
initiating;
blasting;
throwing (gunpowder).
INITIATORS - especially susceptible to external influences (impact, friction, fire). These include:
mercury fulminate (mercury fulminate);
lead azide (lead nitric acid);
teneres (lead trinitroresorcinate, THRS);
BLAZING (crushing) - capable of sustained detonation. They are more powerful and less sensitive to external influences and, in turn, are divided into:
INCREASED POWER EXPLOSIVES, which include:
ten (tetranitropentraerythritol, pentrit);
hexogen (trimethylenetrinitroamine);
tetryl (trinitrophenylmethylnitroamine).
HV NORMAL POWER:
trotyl (trinitrotoluene, tol, TNT);
picric acid (trinitrophenol, melinite);
PVV-4 (plastic-4);
REDUCED POWER EXPLOSIVES(amino nitrate explosives):
ammonites;
dynamons;
ammonals.
THROWING (gunpowder) - explosives, the main form of explosive transformation of which is combustion. These include: - black powder; - smokeless powder.
EXPLOSIVES (a. explosives, blasting agents; n. Sprengstoffe; f. explosifs; and. explosivos) are chemical compounds or mixtures of substances capable, under certain conditions, of an extremely fast (explosive) self-propagating chemical transformation with the release of heat and the formation of gaseous products.
Explosives can be substances or mixtures of any state of aggregation. The so-called condensed explosives, which are characterized by a high volumetric concentration of thermal energy, have received wide application. Unlike conventional fuels, which require an external gaseous gas for their combustion, such explosives release heat as a result of intramolecular decomposition processes or interaction reactions between the constituent parts of the mixture, their decomposition products or gasification. The specific nature of the release of thermal energy and its conversion into the kinetic energy of the explosion products and the energy of the shock wave determines the main field of application of explosives as a means of crushing and destroying solid media (mainly) and structures and moving the crushed mass (see).
Depending on the nature of the external influence, chemical transformations of explosives occur: when heated below the temperature of self-ignition (flash) - a relatively slow thermal decomposition; during ignition - combustion with the movement of the reaction zone (flame) through the substance at a constant speed of the order of 0.1-10 cm / s; with shock-wave action - detonation of explosives.
Classification of explosives. There are several signs of the classification of explosives: according to the main forms of transformation, purpose and chemical composition. Depending on the nature of the transformation under operating conditions, explosives are divided into propellant (or) and. The former are used in the combustion mode, for example, in firearms and rocket engines, the latter in the mode, for example, in ammunition and on. High explosives used in industry are called. Usually, only high explosives are classified as proper explosives. In chemical terms, the listed classes can be completed with the same compounds and substances, but processed differently or taken when mixed in different proportions.
By susceptibility to external influences, high explosives are divided into primary and secondary. Primary explosives include explosives that can explode in a small mass when ignited (rapid transition from combustion to detonation). They are also much more sensitive to mechanical stress than secondary ones. The detonation of secondary explosives is easiest to cause (initiate) by shock-wave action, and the pressure in the initiating shock wave should be of the order of several thousand or tens of thousands of MPa. In practice, this is carried out with the help of small masses of primary explosives placed in, the detonation in which is excited by the fire beam and is transmitted by contact to the secondary explosive. Therefore, primary explosives are also called. Other types of external action (ignition, spark, impact, friction) lead to the detonation of secondary explosives only under special and difficult-to-regulate conditions. For this reason, the widespread and purposeful use of high explosives in the detonation mode in civil and military explosive technology began only after the invention of the blasting cap as a means of initiating detonation in secondary explosives.
According to the chemical composition, explosives are divided into individual compounds and explosive mixtures. In the first, chemical transformations during an explosion occur in the form of a monomolecular decomposition reaction. The end products are stable gaseous compounds, such as oxide and dioxide, water vapor.
In explosive mixtures, the transformation process consists of two stages: the decomposition or gasification of the components of the mixture and the interaction of the decomposition products (gasification) with each other or with particles of non-decomposing substances (for example, metals). The most common secondary individual explosives are nitrogen-containing aromatic, aliphatic heterocyclic organic compounds, including nitro compounds ( , ), nitroamines ( , ), nitroesters ( , ). Of the inorganic compounds, for example, ammonium nitrate has weak explosive properties.
The variety of explosive mixtures can be reduced to two main types: those consisting of oxidizers and combustibles, and mixtures in which the combination of components determines the operational or technological qualities of the mixture. Oxidizer-fuel mixtures are designed for the fact that a significant part of the thermal energy is released during the explosion as a result of secondary oxidation reactions. The components of these mixtures can be both explosive and non-explosive compounds. Oxidizing agents, as a rule, release free oxygen during decomposition, which is necessary for the oxidation (with heat release) of combustible substances or their decomposition products (gasification). In some mixtures (for example, metal powders contained as fuel), substances that emit not oxygen, but oxygen-containing compounds (water vapor, carbon dioxide) can also be used as oxidizing agents. These gases react with metals to release heat. An example of such a mixture is .
Various types of natural and synthetic organic substances are used as combustibles, which, during an explosion, emit products of incomplete oxidation (carbon monoxide) or combustible gases (, ) and solid substances (soot). The most common type of blasting explosive mixtures of the first type are explosives containing ammonium nitrate as an oxidizing agent. Depending on the type of fuel, they, in turn, are divided into, ammotols and ammonals. Less common are chlorate and perchlorate explosives, which include potassium chlorate and ammonium perchlorate as oxidizers, oxyliquites - mixtures of liquid oxygen with a porous organic absorber, mixtures based on other liquid oxidizers. Explosive mixtures of the second type include mixtures of individual explosives, such as dynamites; mixtures of TNT with RDX or PETN (pentolite), most suitable for manufacturing.
In mixtures of both types, in addition to the indicated components, depending on the purpose of the explosives, other substances can also be introduced to give the explosive some operational properties, for example, increasing susceptibility to means of initiation, or, conversely, reducing sensitivity to external influences; hydrophobic additives - to make the explosive water resistant; plasticizers, flame retardant salts - to impart safety properties (see Safety explosives). The main operational characteristics of explosives (detonation and energy characteristics and physical and chemical properties of explosives) depend on the recipe composition of explosives and manufacturing technology.
The detonation characteristic of explosives includes detonation capability and susceptibility to detonation impulse. Reliability and reliability of blasting depend on them. For each explosive at a given density, there is a critical charge diameter at which the detonation propagates steadily along the entire length of the charge. A measure of the susceptibility of explosives to a detonation pulse is the critical pressure of the initiating wave and its duration, i.e. the value of the minimum initiating impulse. It is often expressed in terms of the mass of some primary explosive or secondary explosive with known detonation parameters. Detonation is excited not only by contact detonation of the initiating charge. It can also be transmitted through inert media. This is of great importance for, consisting of several cartridges, between which there are jumpers made of inert materials. Therefore, for cartridge explosives, the rate of detonation transmission over a distance through various media (usually through air) is checked.
Energy characteristics of explosives. The ability of explosives to produce mechanical work during an explosion is determined by the amount of energy released in the form of heat during explosive transformation. Numerically, this value is equal to the difference between the heat of formation of the explosion products and the heat of formation (enthalpy) of the explosive itself. Therefore, the coefficient of conversion of thermal energy into work for metal-containing and safety explosives that form solid products (metal oxides, flame retardant salts) with high heat capacity during an explosion is lower than for explosives that form only gaseous products. On the ability of explosives to local crushing or blasting action of the explosion, see Art. .
A change in the properties of explosives can occur as a result of physical and chemical processes, the influence of temperature, humidity, under the influence of unstable impurities in the composition of explosives, etc. Depending on the type of capping, a guaranteed period of storage or use of explosives is established, during which the normalized indicators either should not change, or their change occurs within the established tolerance.
The main indicator of safety in the handling of explosives is their sensitivity to mechanical and thermal influences. It is usually estimated experimentally in the laboratory using special methods. In connection with the massive introduction of mechanized methods of moving large masses of loose explosives, they are subject to the requirements of minimal electrification and low sensitivity to the discharge of static electricity.
History reference. Black (smoky) gunpowder, invented in China (seventh century), was the first of the explosives. It has been known in Europe since the 13th century. From the 14th century gunpowder was used as a propellant in firearms. In the 17th century (for the first time in one of the mines in Slovakia) gunpowder was used in blasting in mining, as well as for equipping artillery grenades (explosive cores). The explosive transformation of black powder was excited by ignition in the explosive combustion mode. In 1884, French engineer P. Viel proposed smokeless powder. In the 18-19 centuries. a number of chemical compounds with explosive properties were synthesized, including picric acid, pyroxylin, nitroglycerin, TNT, etc., however, their use as blasting detonating explosives became possible only after the discovery by the Russian engineer D. I. Andrievsky (1865) and Swedish inventor A. Nobel (1867) explosive fuse (detonator cap). Prior to this, in Russia, at the suggestion of N. N. Zinin and V. F. Petrushevsky (1854), nitroglycerin was used in explosions instead of black powder in the explosive combustion mode. The explosive mercury itself was obtained as early as the end of the 17th century. and again by the English chemist E. Howard in 1799, but its ability to detonate was not known at that time. After the discovery of the phenomenon of detonation, high explosives were widely used in mining and military affairs. Among industrial explosives, initially according to the patents of A. Nobel, gurdynamites were most widely used, then plastic dynamites, powdered nitroglycerin mixed explosives. Ammonium nitrate explosives were patented as early as 1867 by I. Norbin and I. Olsen (Sweden), but their practical use as industrial explosives and for filling ammunition did not begin until World War I (1914–18). Safer and more economical than dynamites, they began to be used on an increasing scale in industry in the 30s of the 20th century.
After the Great Patriotic War of 1941-45, ammonium nitrate explosives, at first predominantly in the form of finely dispersed ammonites, became the dominant type of industrial explosives in the CCCP. In other countries, the process of mass replacement of dynamites with ammonium nitrate explosives began somewhat later, approximately from the mid-1950s. From the 70s. the main types of industrial explosives are granular and water-containing ammonium nitrate explosives of the simplest composition, not containing nitro compounds or other individual explosives, as well as mixtures containing nitro compounds. Finely dispersed ammonium nitrate explosives have retained their importance mainly for the manufacture of militant cartridges, as well as for some special types of blasting. Individual explosives, especially TNT, are widely used for the manufacture of detonators, as well as for long-term loading of flooded wells, in pure form () and in highly water-resistant explosive mixtures, granular and suspension (water-containing). For deep apply and.
Explosives, their classification and properties 5
Basic properties of explosives 6
2. MARKING AND PACKAGING OF EXPLOSIVES 7
Marking Convention 8
2.2. Packaging requirements 9
TRANSPORT OF EXPLOSIVES AND ARTICLES 10
3.1. Procedure for import, export of explosive materials 11
3.2. Dangerous goods prohibited for carriage under any
circumstances 12
4.Conclusion
5. List of references used
DEFINITION, SYMBOLS, ABBREVIATIONS INTRODUCTION
Cargo- property carried or accepted for carriage on aircraft, with the exception of baggage and mail. Unaccompanied baggage issued on an air waybill is also considered cargo.
Valuable cargo- this is a cargo that has a declared value for transportation in the amount of $ 1000 more for each kg.
dangerous goods- articles or substances which, when transported on
aircraft are capable of creating a partial threat to the life and health of passengers, the safety of flight and the safety of property, and which are classified as dangerous goods in the ICAO Dangerous Goods Handling Instructions.
Shipper- a person or company that transfers goods to other persons or companies (forwarder, carrier/transport operator) for its delivery to the consignee.
cargo manifest- a shipping document, which indicates the cargo shipments that will be transported along the route of this flight. Issued by the responsible carrier or its handling agent.
Forwarder- an intermediary organizing the transportation of goods and or the provision of related services on behalf of the shipper.
Consignee- the person entitled to receive the delivered goods.
Airline (carrier)- an aviation enterprise that performs commercial transportation of passengers, baggage, cargo and mail on its own or leased aircraft.
Container- the weight of an intermodal transport unit or vehicle without load.
commercial warehouse- one or more buildings of the cargo complex, designed to carry out operations related to the complete processing of the shipped and arrived cargo, as well as to place mechanization equipment inside the warehouse equipment.
Introduction
Research relevance: Blasting is an integral part of modern technological processes in many industries, especially in airline transportation.
The most commonly used at present are the simplest types of explosives based on conversion materials, but they are highly sensitive to mechanical stress, toxic and emit a large amount of toxic gases (CO, NO x), therefore they pose a serious danger to people and the environment, both when used, as well as during transportation.
Purpose of the study: the purpose of this work is to learn the features of the organization of the transportation of explosives, the rules for the transportation of explosives, the classification and properties of explosives.
Object of study: transportation of dangerous goods by air is carried out in all developed countries of the world. These transportations are more complex than for conventional cargo, organization and more labor-intensive technological procedures. The organization of such transportation is carried out strictly in accordance with the rules for the transportation of dangerous goods of each state and the ICAO requirements set forth in the Technical Instructions for the safe transportation of dangerous goods by air.
Research objectives:
- Learn the rules for transporting explosives.
Strengthen knowledge of the rules for the transport of explosives.
Research methods: Knowledge of air transport of explosives.
EXPLOSIVES
Explosives- these are substances or articles which, when transported by air, are capable of creating a significant threat to the health, safety of people, property, and which are classified in accordance with established rules.
Simply put, an explosion is akin to the combustion of ordinary combustible substances (coal, firewood), but differs from simple combustion in that this process occurs very quickly, in thousandths and ten thousandths of a second. Hence, according to the rate of transformation, the explosion is divided into two types - combustion and detonation.
In an explosive transformation such as combustion, the transfer of energy from one layer of matter to another occurs through heat conduction. A combustion type explosion is characteristic of gunpowder. The process of gas formation is rather slow. Due to this, during the explosion of gunpowder in a confined space (cartridge case, projectile), a bullet, projectile is ejected from the barrel, but the cartridge case, the weapon chamber is not destroyed.
In an explosion of the same type of detonation, the process of energy transfer is caused by the passage of a shock wave through the explosive at supersonic speed (6-7 thousand meters per second). In this case, gases are formed very quickly, the pressure increases instantly to very large values. Simply put, gases do not have time to take the path of least resistance and in an effort to expand, they destroy everything in their path. This type of explosion is typical for TNT, RDX, ammonite, etc. substances.
1.Mechanical (impact, heat, friction).
2. Thermal (spark, flame, heating)
3. Chemical (chemical reaction of the interaction of any substance with explosives)
4. Detonation (an explosion next to an explosive of another explosive).
Different explosives react differently to external influences. Some of them explode on any impact, others have selective sensitivity. For example, black smoke powder responds well to thermal effects, very poorly to mechanical effects, and practically does not respond to chemical effects. TNT, on the other hand, mainly reacts only to the detonation effect. Capsule compositions (explosive mercury) react to almost any external influence. There are explosives that explode without any visible external influence at all, but the practical use of such explosives is generally impossible.
Explosives (EXPLOSIVES) are unstable chemical compounds or mixtures that extremely quickly pass under the influence of a certain impulse into other stable substances with the release of a significant amount of heat and a large volume of gaseous products that are under very high pressure and, expanding, perform one or another mechanical work. . The first explosive was smoky (black) gunpowder, which appeared in Europe in the 13th century. For 600 years, black powder was the only explosive. In the 19th century, with the development of chemistry, other explosives were obtained, currently called blasting. They were safe to handle, had great power and storage stability.
Explosions of dust (dust-air mixtures - aerosols) are one of the main hazards of chemical production and occur in confined spaces (in the premises of buildings, inside various equipment, mine adits). Dust explosions are possible in flour milling, grain elevators (flour dust) when it interacts with dyes, sulfur, sugar with other powdered food products, as well as in the production of plastics, medicines, in fuel crushing plants (coal dust), in textile production .
Liquefied hydrocarbon gases, ammonia, chlorine, freons are stored in technological tanks under superatmospheric pressure at a temperature higher than or equal to the ambient temperature, and for these reasons they are explosive liquids.
The fourth category - substances contained at elevated temperatures (steam in boilers, cyclohexane and other liquids under pressure and at a temperature exceeding the boiling point at atmospheric pressure).
It is known from physics that the energy and heat released during the reaction are directly related to each other, therefore the amount of energy released during an explosion and heat are an important energy characteristic of an explosive, which determines its performance. The more heat released, the higher the temperature of the explosion products, the greater the pressure, and hence the impact of the explosion products on the environment.
The rate of explosive transformation depends on the detonation velocity of the explosive, and, consequently, the time during which all the energy contained in the explosive is released. And this, together with the amount of heat released during the explosion, characterizes the power developed by the explosion, therefore, it makes it possible to choose the right explosive for the job. For breaking metal, it is more expedient to obtain maximum energy in a short period of time, and for ejection of soil, it is better to obtain the same energy for a longer period of time, just as when a sharp blow is applied to a board, it is possible to break it, and applying the same energy gradually, only move it.
Resistance is the ability of explosives to maintain, under normal conditions of storage and use, the constancy of their physicochemical and explosive characteristics. Unstable explosives can, under certain conditions, reduce and even completely lose their ability to explode, or, on the contrary, increase their sensitivity so much that they become dangerous to handle and must be destroyed. They are capable of self-decomposition, and under certain conditions, spontaneous combustion, which, with large quantities of these substances, can lead to an explosion. It is necessary to distinguish between the physical and chemical resistance of explosives.
Packing Requirements
Packaging must be durable, completely exclude leakage or spillage of explosives or products falling out, ensure their safety and security during transportation (transportation) by all modes of transport in any climatic conditions, including during loading and unloading operations, as well as during storage.
1. Safety requirements for the use of explosives and products based on them:
1.1. Explosives and products based on them must be tested by the consumer in order to determine the safety during storage and use in accordance with the indicators of technical documentation:
a) upon receipt from the manufacturer (incoming control);
b) in case of doubts about good quality (according to external examination or in case of unsatisfactory results of blasting operations (incomplete explosions, failures);
c) until the expiration of the warranty period of storage. The test results must be documented in an act followed by an entry in the test log;
1.2. It is not allowed to use and store explosives and products based on them with an expired warranty period of storage without tests provided for by the technical documentation.
2. Safety requirements for the transportation (transportation) of explosives and products based on them. Transportation (transportation) of explosives and products based on them must be carried out in accordance with the norms and rules for the transportation of dangerous goods in force in the common customs territory of the member states of the Customs Union.
3. Safety requirements for the storage of explosives and products based on them:
3.1. Storage conditions must exclude the influence of the environment on the characteristics of explosives and products based on them and comply with the requirements of regulatory and / or technical documentation, including the manual (instruction) for use;
3.2. Explosives and products based on them in warehouses should be placed taking into account their compatibility during storage;
3.3. Temporary storage in warehouses of obsolete and defective explosives and products based on them should be carried out only in a specially allocated place, marked with warning sign 12 "ATTENTION FAILURE". A plate with a similar inscription is attached to the packaging with worn-out and defective explosives and products based on them and (or) a similar inscription is applied to the packaging;
3.4. If the indicators obtained as a result of the tests do not correspond to the indicators specified in the technical documentation, explosives and products based on them are not allowed for use and must be destroyed as soon as possible.
circumstances
In the List of Dangerous Goods of the "Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air", such DGs are given without assigning them a number according to the UN list (instead of the number in columns 2 and 3 of the Table
the word "Forbidden" is written).
It must be borne in mind that it is not possible to list all explosives that are prohibited for transportation on aircraft under any circumstances. Therefore, care must be taken that no goods matching this description are offered for carriage.
Exhaust gases prohibited for transportation under any circumstances include:
1. Explosives that ignite or decompose when exposed to a temperature of 75°C for 48 hours;
2. Explosives containing mixtures of chlorates with phosphorus;
3. Solid explosives, which are classified as extremely sensitive to mechanical shock;
4. Explosives containing both chlorates and ammonium salts;
5. Liquid explosives, which are classified as moderately sensitive to mechanical shock;
6. Any substance or article offered for transport which is capable of emitting a dangerous amount of heat or gas under normal conditions of transport by air;
7. Flammable solids and organic peroxides which are explosive and which are packaged in such a way that the classification rules require the use of an explosion hazard symbol as an additional risk symbol.
The operator does not accept dangerous goods for transportation by aircraft:
If explosives are not accompanied by a shipper's declaration for dangerous goods, except as specified in the technical instructions, that such a document is not required;
Without checking the package, outer packaging or freight container with dangerous goods in accordance with the procedure established in the technical instructions;
Unless packagings are protected and fitted with seals to prevent damage to packagings, leakage of dangerous goods and control of their movement within the outer packaging under normal air transport conditions for dangerous goods.
Conclusion
One of the types of goods that require careful transportation in compliance with all safety standards and rules are explosives and products that can easily ignite in emergency situations and provoke explosions of various capacities. Their transportation requires especially thorough training and experience, therefore, as a rule, highly qualified drivers are entrusted with this work. However, before taking the necessary precautions, it is necessary to determine which type of substances, according to the degree of danger of transportation, this or that cargo belongs to.
Transportation of explosives by air is carried out in accordance with federal aviation rules, art. 113 of the Air Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, and is also regulated, in particular, by the Chicago Convention and the Technical Instructions for the Transportation of Dangerous Goods by Air ICAO.
Federal aviation regulations establish the procedure for the transportation of dangerous goods by civil aviation aircraft, including restrictions on such transportation, the rules for packing dangerous goods and applying hazard markings, and the obligations of the shipper and operator. These rules apply to flights of civil aviation aircraft in the airspace of the Republic of Kazakhstan, registered in the State Register of Civil Aircraft and (or) operated by operators holding a certificate (license) of the operator of the Republic of Kazakhstan, as well as ground handling of aircraft at civil airports (aerodromes) of the Republic of Kazakhstan . The rules do not apply to dangerous goods required on board an aircraft in accordance with airworthiness requirements and operating rules, or for special purposes specified in the technical instructions.
The authorized body in the field of civil aviation may provide an exemption from the implementation of the approved Rules. However, an equivalent level of safety for the transport of dangerous goods must be ensured.
Only properly classified, identified, packaged, marked, documented dangerous goods are accepted for transportation in accordance with the requirements of international treaties and regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation.
List of used literature
1. Buller M.F. Industrial explosives / Buller M.F. - Amounts: SumGU. -2009 - 225s.
2.Order of the Ministry of Transport of the Republic of Kazakhstan "On Approval of Aviation Regulations" Rules for the Transportation of Dangerous Goods by Civil Aviation Aircraft " dated 05.09.2008 http://base.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=LAW; n=80410
3. Shiman L.N. Safety of production processes and use of explosives of the brand "EPA". / Shiman L.N. Dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Science. - Pavlograd.-2010.-412s.
4. Golbinder A.I. Laboratory work on the course of the theory of explosives / Golbinder A.I. - M.: Gosvuzizdat, 1963.-142p.
5. Strelnikova I.A. Topical issues of legal regulation of air traffic // Modern law. - 2012. - N 3. - S. 94 - 98.
Brief information about explosives 4