Classification of speech errors in children with general underdevelopment of speech. Kid makes mistakes

The course is designed for 8 lectures and 4 practical sessions; individual questions of the course are taken out for independent work.

Forms of control: offset.

11.1. Children's speech as a subject of scientific study.

The subject, goals and objectives of the course, its place in the system of other scientific disciplines: psychophysiology, neuropsychology, psycholinguistics. The value of experimental studies of children's speech for modern speech therapy.

Children's speech as a special stage in the ontogenetic development of speech, its first systematic descriptions (diaries, documentary records). The period of intensive study of speech ontogenesis by child psychology and psycholinguistics.

Brief historical information on the theory of the course. Basic concepts of language acquisition. Theory of innate knowledge (N. Khomsky, D. McNeil, D. Slobin). The hypothesis of the semiotic development of the child as the basis of the cognitive approach (J. Piaget). Socio-pragmatic direction in the study of the prerequisites for language acquisition (J. Bruner, M. Halliday and others).

Studies of children's speech in Russian psychology and psycholinguistics (I.N. Gorelov, E.I. Isenina, M.M. Koltsova, E.S. Kubryakova, M.I. Lisina, A.A. Leontiev, N.L. Lepskaya , T. N. Ushakova, S. N. Tseitlin, A. M. Shakhnarovich, D. B. Elkonin). The concept of L.S. Vygotsky about the development of speech as a specific activity mediated by linguistic signs. Sign regulation of human behavior (A.R. Luria). Internalization of mental functions as the basis for the development of speech, language and thinking (A.N. Leontiev). Patterns of formation and development of human language ability (A.A. Leontiev, A.M. Shakhnarovich).

The general periodization of the child's speech development: the beginning of speech (from 0 to 1 year), the development of speech at 2-3 years of age, the age of "why children" (from 4 to 5 years), senior preschool age (5-7 years of age).

11.2. Basic mechanisms of oral speech.

Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech. Speech as a product of the interaction of individual brain structures. Peripheral speech apparatus, its main sections: respiratory (energy system), phonatory (resonator system) and articulatory (generator system). The structure of the respiratory department of the peripheral speech apparatus. Characteristics of physiological and "speech breathing", types of physiological breathing, "speech" inhalation and exhalation. Phonator department of the peripheral speech apparatus. The structure of the vocal folds during phonation. Frequency and power characteristics of the human voice. The value of resonators in the design of the timbre of the voice. The structure of the organs of articulation, their role in the formation of oral speech. The state of the muscles of the speech apparatus at the time of pronouncing vowels and consonants.

Neurophysiological and neuropsychological mechanisms of speech. The structure and patterns of functioning of the human nervous system, the central and peripheral nervous system. The brain and its integrative activity. The role of the striopallidar system, the limbic-reticulatory complex, the cerebellum in providing speech. Structures of the cerebral cortex that provide speech praxis. Primary, secondary and tertiary zones, functional specificity of the left and right hemispheres. Structural-functional model of the brain (A.R. Luria).

Psychological mechanisms of speech. The processes of encoding and decoding a speech statement (“reception” and “delivery” of a message). The main operational mechanism of speech: composing words from elements, composing phrases from words (N.I. Zhinkin). The general functional mechanism of speech, which ensures the work of its operational link: comprehension of language material, retention in memory, "anticipatory synthesis" (anticipatory reflection). Mechanisms of phonation (external) speech design.

11.3. Initial phases of speech ontogenesis.

Congenital prerequisites for speech: crying and crying of a newborn, their connection with the subjective state of the child. Acoustic features and functional significance of the first voice manifestations. Variation of infant cries, their phonetic disorder, emotional enrichment, connection with the stages of motor development. Typology of children's cry, its spectrographic image. Psychophysiological unity of mother and child, communication through cry.

Primary children's vocalizations: cooing and babbling; their biological determination, the inconstancy of primary vocalizations. The period of cooing, its main characteristics, dependence on the environment of communication. Mastering the emotional and expressive vocalism of native speech, the sounds of humming. Echolalia and echopraxia.

Baby talk, its phonetic richness and diversity. Babble as a marker of the emotional state of the child. Voice evolution of the babbling period. The main phonetic characteristics of early babbling, its connection with rhythmic movements. Formation of the physiological mechanism of syllable formation, mastery of the syllabic technique of speech.

Period of babbling pseudowords. The development and change of babbling structures, the features of their reproduction, the presence of a formal similarity with the sound form of the word. Importance of factors of imitation and reinforcement.

Period of late melodic babble. Complication of the motivational sphere of the child, understanding of emotional melodic meanings. The emergence of pseudosyntagma, its connection with protosigns (gestures, facial expressions, vocalizations). The rise of modulated babbling monologues.

11.4. Mastering the sound form of the word.

“Sound gestures” as precursors of phonemes. Articulatory practice of the child: vowels and consonants of the babbling period (development of vocalism and consonantism), their difference from the first manifestations of children's speech. Asystematic sound combinations of a babble chain. Development of coordination of acoustic and articulatory images, development of intonational structures of the language, formation of prerequisites for mastering phonemic hearing.

The formation of the phonological system in children. The transition from the phonetic richness of baby talk to phonological limitation (R. Jacobson). The concept of differential phonological features of sounds, stratification as a systemic phonological phenomenon. Mastering the system of phonological oppositions, their adherence to the principle of maximum contrast. The sequence of distinguishing sounds by ear. The problem of speech giftedness of preschool children.

Patterns of mastering speech production by the articulatory side. The sequence of the appearance of the sounds of the native language in the child's speech, the analysis of the factors determining it. Assimilation of the system of phonological oppositions as the basis for the formation of conscious and voluntary articulatory movements.

Phonetic composition of the first words, features of their syllabic structure. Typology of speech errors typical for children's speech: omissions, substitutions, distortions of sounds in a word. Modification of words with a confluence of consonants. Assimilation and metathesis as the most common types of changes in the sound combinatorics of a word.

11.5. The development of the vocabulary of children's speech.

Transition to the verbal technique of speech. Characteristics of the initial children's vocabulary: the presence of babbling complexes in its composition, the use of onomatopoeic words and protowords that have the status of verbal signs. Semantic stability of onomatopoeia and protowords, their phonetic individuality, close connection with practical action. Dissociation in the development of the child's active and passive vocabulary. Generalization of linguistic phenomena as the main regularity of speech development.

The transition from onomatopoeic nominations and protowords to normative words. Formation of mechanisms of nomination, orientation to the technique of designing language forms by adults. Semantic and grammatical functions of children's nominations, patterns of their genesis.

The process of mastering the symbolic nature of the word: the formation of denotative and significative meanings. The formation of a significat as a consequence of the generalization of denotations. Characteristics of linguistic means of children's speech: determinism of the form of linguistic signs, occasional word formation, diffuseness of the use of lexemes.

Features of the interpretation of words by children, possible ways of their semantization. Direct and figurative meaning, the development of verbal associations in childhood. Assimilation of lexical-semantic variants of words. Phraseologisms and proverbs in the speech production of children. Unconscious metaphorization of the word, the emergence of its aesthetic function.

11.6. Mastering the grammatical patterns of the language.

Practical grammar of children's speech, its difference from the grammar of adults (simplicity, universality, active creative search). The process of mastering grammatical rules, their dominance in the creation of speech products.

Formation of morphological mechanisms of children's speech. The appearance of morphologically significant units, the presence of the simplest grammatical oppositions. The hierarchy of morphological categories assimilated by children, the sequence of their formation. Typical cases of formative innovations.

Formation of word-formation mechanisms. Children's word creation as a special phenomenon of speech, its limitation to the word-formation resources of the language. The process of mastering the word-formation model, its use to create new words. Word-building innovations in children's speech.

Formation of syntactic mechanisms. The period of one-word sentences; word as the equivalent of a whole statement. The beginning of the combinatorial technique of speech: the appearance of two-word sentences (proto-sentences) in the child's speech production. Improving the semantic content of the syntactic constructions of children.

Transition to verbose statements: expansion of the repertoire of syntactic components of the sentence, the complication of its hierarchical structure, the use of means of expressing subjective assessment, the development of methods for modeling a complex sentence. Typical cases of violation of the syntactic norm.

11.7. Ontogenetic development of coherent speech.

Coherent speech as an object of psychological and linguistic study, stages of its formation, changes in the forms of connectivity in the course of ontogenesis.

The phenomenon of egocentric speech, the concept of children's egocentrism in the studies of J. Piaget. Features of egocentric autonomous speech, its connection with subject-practical manipulations. Rapprochement of the concepts of egocentric and inner speech in the concept of L.S. Vygotsky. The evolution of inner speech, its psychological structure, patterns of functioning. Inner speech as an element of a complex mental structure that provides the most important mental functions (T.N. Ushakova).

Situational stage in the development of children's speech, differentiation of situational and contextual speech, their genetic relationship. Structural originality of situational speech, its functional purpose, formal ways of expression. The transition from the exclusive dominance of situational speech to its contextual form (S.L. Rubinshtein).

Assimilation of the technique of constructing a dialogue: the exchange of statements-replicas, taking into account their meaningful and constructive connection, developing the ability to plan one's own and predict other people's speech actions within the dialogue, focus on the speech image of a communication partner, taking into account the interaction of communicants. The transition from spontaneous mini-dialogues to extended forms of dialogic speech.

Monologue speech of a preschooler, its reproductive and arbitrary phases. Assimilation of the technique of constructing a monologue: the formation of a holistic proposition, the formation of a modal form of speech, the acquisition of experience in communicative variation of the statement, the formation of a repertoire of speech patterns, the mastery of various functional styles of speech. Integrity and coherence indicators as the main parameters for evaluating a monologue.

11.8. General characteristics of speech underdevelopment.

General underdevelopment of speech as a special form of abnormal speech development. Violation of the main components of the speech-language system (phonetic-phonemic and lexico-grammatical) in this form of speech pathology. The principle of a systematic approach to the development of speech as the basis for highlighting speech underdevelopment, determining the methodology of correctional and pedagogical influence (R.E. Levina).

The structure of abnormal manifestations in speech underdevelopment, the nature of their origin. Periodization of general underdevelopment of speech (R.E. Levina, T.B. Filicheva). The main signs of general underdevelopment of speech in preschool age, the specifics of the violation of speech and language mechanisms that encode and decode a speech message.

Violations of the process of speech coding, their dependence on the state of semantic operations involved in the process of programming a speech statement, the nature of its lexical and grammatical implementation, the degree of formation of the motor components of speech activity.

Violations of the process of speech decoding, their dependence on the degree of decoding of the phonemic and phonological codes of the language, the specifics of the perception of verbal meanings, the level of understanding of the syntactic rules for their combination, the nature of the perception of a speech message.

Features of the mental activity of children with speech underdevelopment: immaturity of the emotional-volitional sphere, cognitive activity decrease, persistent disorders of voluntary attention, specificity of verbal-logical thinking, various types of behavioral disorders, difficulties in internal regulation (self-regulation) of productive activities.

Literature

Beltyukov V.I. Interaction of analyzers in the process of perception and assimilation of oral speech (in normal and pathological conditions). - M., 1977.

Belyakova L.I., Dyakova E.A. Stuttering. - M., 1998.

Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. Selected works on general linguistics.- M., 1963.-V.2.

BrunerJ. Ontogeny of speech acts // Psycholinguistics. -M., 1984.

Vinarskaya E.N. Early speech development of the child and problems of defectology. - M., 1987.

Vygotsky L.S. Thinking and speech.-M., 1996.

Gvozdev A.N. Issues in the study of children's speech.-M., 1961.

Gvozdev A.N. Vocabulary development in the first years of a child's life. - Kuibyshev, 1990.

Gorelov I.N. The problem of the functional basis of speech in ontogenesis. - Chelyabinsk, 1974.

Gorelov I.N., Sedov K.F. Fundamentals of psycholinguistics.-M., 1997.

Greenfield P.M. Informativity, presupposition and semantic choice in one-word statements //Psycholinguistics.-M., 1984.

Children's speech as a subject of linguistic study. - L., 1987.

Children's speech: linguistic aspect. - St. Petersburg, 1992.

Zhinkin N.I. Mechanisms of speech.-M,. 1958.

Isenina E.I. Preverbal period of speech development in children. - Saratov, 1986.

Isenina E.I. Communicative significance of vocalizations in the pre-verbal period of speech development in children (comparative experimental study) // Structures of linguistic consciousness. -M., 1990.

Kasevich V.B. Ontolinguistics: typology and language rules // Language, speech and speech activity. - M., 1998.-V.1.

Kiryanov A.P., Radzikhovskaya V.K., Saenkova N.A. Cause-and-effect relationships in spatio-temporal and evaluative aspects (based on children's speech) // Psycholinguistics and modern speech therapy / Ed. L.B. Khalilova.- M., 1997.

Koltsova M.N. The child learns to speak. - M., 1979.

Leontiev A.A. Studies of children's speech // Fundamentals of the theory of speech activity. - M., 1974.

Leontiev A.A. Fundamentals of psycholinguistics. - M., 1997.

Lepskaya N.I. The language of the child (ontogenesis of speech communication).-M., 1997.

Lisina M.I. Problems of the ontogenesis of communication. - M., 1986.

The world of childhood. Preschooler / Ed. A.G. Khripkova. - M., 1979.

Negnevitskaya E.I., Shakhnarovich A.M. Language and children.-M., 1981.

Fundamentals of the theory and practice of speech therapy / Ed. L.E. Levina.-M., 1968.

Piaget J. Speech and thinking of the child: Per. from French-M., 1994.

Problems of ontolinguistics / Ed.S.N. Zeitlin. - St. Petersburg, 1997.

Slobin D., Green J. Psycholinguistics.-M., 1977.

Slobin D. Cognitive prerequisites for the development of grammar // Psycholinguistics.- M., 1984.

Ushakova T.N. Ways of mastering the native language by a normal child // Questions of Psychology, 1974, No. 1.

Ushakova T.N. Children's speech - its origins and first steps in development // Psychological magazine, 1999, No. 3.- V.20.

Ushakova O.S. The development of speech of preschoolers. - M., 2001.

Frumkina R.M. Psycholinguistics. - M., 2001.

Zeitlin S.N. Speech errors and their prevention. - St. Petersburg, 1997.

Zeitlin S.N. Language and child: Linguistics of children's speech. -M., 2000.

Chukovsky K.I. From two to five. - M., 1966.

Shakhnarovich A.M., Yurieva N.M. Psycholinguistic analysis of semantics and grammar (based on ontogeny). - M., 1990.

Elkonin D.B. The development of speech in preschool age. - M., 1958.

Yakobson R. Language and the unconscious. - M., 1996.

12. Logopsychology.

A task: Familiarization of students with individual typological features of speech disorders of various origins.

The course is designed for 6 lectures and 2 practical sessions; individual questions of the course are submitted for independent study.

Forms of control: offset.

12.1. Introduction to logopsychology.

Subject and object of logopsychology. Aims and objectives and content of the course.

Speech disorder as a complex formation is “a complex phenomenon of mental disorder” (A. R. Luria). The essence of a multidisciplinary approach in the study of speech disorders. Neurological, neuropsychological, Neurolinguistic, psychological, psychological and pedagogical aspects. Interdisciplinary object of study of logopsychology.

Principles of psychological analysis of speech disorders in children. Development principles. The principle of a systematic approach. Establishing the relationship of speech impairment with other components of the child's activity. (R. E. Levina).

12.2. The history of the development of logopsychology.

The stage of empirical study of the mental sphere of persons with different types of brain dysfunctions in the process of describing the phenomenology of speech disorders. Connection of psychological phenomena of impaired perception, memory, thinking, emotional sphere with nosological forms of speech disorders. Specificity of verbal behavior of persons with speech pathology of various origins.

The stage of scientific knowledge of speech disorders in persons with local brain lesions. Neuropsychological analysis of speech communication. The concept of a factor as a psychophysiological prerequisite for language acquisition and language functioning in speech activity. Speech-hearing, dynamic and acoustic-spatial factors. The essence of the method of syndromic analysis of speech disorders. Pathological system of different levels of speech organization. Violation of verbal communication. The nature of the disintegration of the mental sphere. Personality change and personal response to speech impairment. Neurolinguistics. Features of speech communication of persons with aphasia.

The main syndromic forms of speech disorders in children. (according to R. E. Levina).

Characteristics of the current stage of development of logopsychology as an integrative field of knowledge in domestic and foreign science. The role of linguistic research in understanding the psychological structure of speech communication. Characteristics of cognitive processes, the state of the emotional sphere and verbal behavior.

Actual problems of logopsychology.

12.3. The problem of psychological classification of speech disorders.

Psychophysiological understanding of the speech functional system. Components of a functional system. Subsystem of acoustic analysis of speech (recognition of phonemic composition, reception of intonation components, actualization of rhythmic characteristics in memory, etc.), working memory and its functioning. The meaning-forming link of the speech-thinking mechanism. The system of verbal-figurative connections; their role in the process of perception and semantic processing of a speech message. A subsystem of motor structures that ensure the assimilation of linguistic codes and their functioning in the process of transmitting information by means of language. Types of pathological functional systems of speech.

Classification of speech disorders according to psychological mechanisms (according to R. E. Levina, A. R. Luria). The main symptom-complexes of speech disorders caused by the pathology of sensorimotor processes and operations of language coding as a sign-symbolic system.

12.4. Characteristics of perception in persons with speech disorders.

Perceptual organization of speech-thinking activity. The structure of the psychological content of perception, the form of flow. Disorders of auditory perception in the structure of speech disorders.

Violation of visual perception in the structure of speech disorders. Violations of the motor-perceptual organization of speech. Specificity of spatial perception in speech disorders of various forms. Disturbances in the perception of time.

12.5. Characteristics of attention in children with speech disorders.

The concept of understanding and its properties. Types of attention and their development in ontogeny. Characterization of the main properties of attention in children with various forms of speech disorders (stability, concentration, distribution). Features of voluntary attention in children with speech disorders.

12.6. Features of memory in persons with speech disorders.

Mnestic systems as components of cognitive structures. Functional structures of auditory, visual, motor memory and their originality in various forms of speech pathology. Specificity of verbal memory. Involuntary and voluntary memory. Direct and indirect memory. Features of episodic and semantic memory in speech disorders. Functioning of random access memory in real conditions of communication. Long term memory. The structure of disorders of mnestic activity in various forms of speech disorders. Saved and broken links.

12.7.Characteristics of thinking in persons with speech pathology.

Features of thinking in various forms of speech pathology. Characteristics of visual-effective thinking of children with speech disorders. Visual-figurative thinking and the specifics of its functioning in various forms of speech disorders. Verbal-logical thinking in pathological conditions of development. Qualitative originality of abstract forms of mental activity at the non-verbal and verbal levels. The specificity of the dysontogenetic course of development of the intellectual activity of children with speech disorders. Typology of disorders of intellectual activity of adults with local lesions of the brain (according to L. S. Tsvetkova, I. T. Vlasenko).

12.8.Characteristics of communication in various forms of speech disorders.

Psychological structure of communication. Perceptual, interactive and communicative aspects of communication.

The development of communication in children with speech pathology. Features of situational-personal, situational-business, out-of-situation-cognitive, out-of-situation-personal forms of communication.

Means of communication and their development in children with speech disorders (linguistic, paralinguistic, extralinguistic). Interaction of means of communication in the process of dysontogenetic development of children with speech pathology. Features of adaptive-compensatory behavior in the process of communication in persons with different mechanisms of speech disorders.

12.9. Characteristics of the personality of persons with speech disorders.

Personality as a subject of psychological study. The ratio of natural and social in the structures of individuality and personality. The main constructors of personality and their dynamics in the process of the dysontogenetic course of mental development. Personality change due to impaired speech activity in adults and children.

12.10. Actual problems of logopsychology.

Logopsychological differentiation of speech disorders, psychological diagnostics and correction.

Literature

1. Belyakova L. I., Dyakova E. A. Stuttering: Proc. Allowance for students.-M., 1998.

2. Vlasenko I. T. Verbal thinking of adults and children with speech disorders.-M., 1990.

3. Volkova G. A. Features of communication of stuttering preschoolers / / Neuro-psychic disorders in children.-L., 1989.

4. Mastyukova E. M., Moskovkina A. M. Fundamentals of genetics. Clinical and genetic foundations of correctional pedagogy and special. Psychology.-M., 2001.

5. Levinak R. E. Stuttering in children // Overcoming stuttering in preschoolers.-M., 1975.

6. Luria A. R. Language and consciousness. - Rostov-on-Don, 1998.

7. Tsvetkova L. S. Brain and intelligence.-M., 1997.

8. Seliverstov V.I. Stuttering in children.-M., 1994.

9. Usanova O. N. Special psychology.-M., 1996.

10. Chirkina G. V. Early recognition and correction of deviations in speech development in children aged 2-4 years // Problems of special psychology and psychodiagnostics of deviant development.-M., 1999.

11. Vish I.M., Tolmacheva I.S. Shiryaeva N.A. Personality features in the clinic of stuttering // Clinical and psychological study of personality. L., 1971.

12. Vlasenko I.T. Features of verbal thinking of adults and children with speech disorders. M., 1990.

13. Volkova G.A. Personal characteristics of 6-year-old children // Neuro-psychic and speech disorders. L., 1982.

14. Volkova G.A. Personal characteristics of 7-year-old stuttering children //Studying the dynamics of speech and neuropsychic disorders. L., 1983.

15. Raising an abnormal child in the family. M., 1965.

16. Vygotsky L.S. Thinking and speech.//Collected works. at 6t. Problems of General Psychology / Under the editorship of VV Davydov. M., 1982. T.2.

17. Vygotsky L.S. The main problems of defectology //Cor. in 6 volumes. Fundamentals of defectology / Under the editorship of T.A. Vlasova. M., 1983. T.5.

18. Germakovska A. Correction of dyscalculia in schoolchildren with severe speech disorders. Abstract of the thesis ... cand. ped. Sciences. St. Petersburg, 1992.

19. Glukhov V.P. Features of the creative imagination of preschool children with general underdevelopment of speech // Underdevelopment and loss of speech. Questions of theory and practice. M., 1991.

20. Gumennaya G.S. The study of the cognitive activity of children with underdevelopment of speech // Theory and practice of correctional education of preschool children with speech disorders. M., 1991.

21. Grishin V.V., Lushin P.V. Methods of psychodiagnostics in the educational process. M., 199o.

22. Davidovich L.B. Sensory education of children of the third-fifth year of life in the conditions of a different age group of a kindergarten. M., 1991.

23. Inyushin G.S. Some psychological features of stuttering preschoolers // Actual problems of speech therapy. M., 1980.

24. Kalizhnyuk E.S., Sapunova S.V. To the question of visual-spatial disorders and ways of their correction in preschool children with cerebral palsy // Defectology. M., 1980.

25. Kalyagin V.A. The main properties of attention in adults who stutter. Study and correction of speech disorders. L., 1986.

26. Kovshikov V.A., Elkin Yu.A. On the question of thinking in children with expressive (motor) alalia // Defectology. 1980. No. 2.

27. Lalaeva R.I., Germakovska A. Features of simultaneous analysis and synthesis in younger schoolchildren with severe speech disorders // Defectology, 2000, No. 4.

28. Lubovsky V.I. Psychological problems of diagnostics

abnormal development of children. M., 1989.

29. Luria A.R. Fundamentals of neuropsychology. M., 1973.

30. Maevskaya S.I. The main provisions of the sensory education of children with severe speech disorders // Disorders of speech and voice in childhood. M., 1973.

31. Martynova R.I. To the question of the mental development of children with motor alalia // Disorders of speech and voice in childhood. M., 1973.

32. Mastyukova E.M. On violations of the gnostic functions of students with severe speech disorders // Defectology. 1976. No. 1.

33.Astkzhova E.M. On memory disorders in children with speech underdevelopment // Defectology. 1979. No. 5.

34. Mastyukova E.M. On the development of cognitive activity in children with cerebral palsy // Defectology. 1973. No. 6.

35. Romanova E.S., Usanova O.N., Potemkina O.F. Psychological diagnostics of the development of schoolchildren in normal and pathological conditions. M., 1990.

36. Semenova K.A. On pathogenetic therapy for disorders of motor skills, speech and intelligence in children with cerebral palsy. M., 1968.

37. Family and personality formation / Ed. A. A. Bodaleva. M., 1981.

38.Usanova O.N. Children with mental development problems. M., 1995.

39. Usanova O.N. Special psychology. System of psychological study of abnormal children. M., 1990.

Lecture plan:

1. Subject, purpose and objectives of the course, its place in the system of other scientific disciplines

2. Children's speech as a special stage in the development of speech

3. The problem of the genesis of speech activity

4. General periodization of speech development.

Literature:

Lecture No. 2 "Basic mechanisms of oral speech." (2 hours)

Lecture plan:

1. Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech

2. Neurophysiological and neuropsychological mechanisms of speech.

3. Psychophysiological component of speech development.

4. Psychological mechanisms of speech.

5. Basic operational mechanism of speech

Literature:

№ 11, 1, 2, 4, 14

Lecture No. 3 "Mastering the sound form of the word." (2 hours)

Lecture plan:

1. Articulation practice of the child

2. Formation of prerequisites for mastering phonemic hearing.

3. The emergence of a phonetic system in children

4. Mastering the system of phonological oppositions

5. The problem of the language ability of preschool children.

Literature:

Lecture No. 4 "Development of phonemic hearing in ontogenesis." (2 hours)

Lecture plan:

1. The concept of differential phonological features of sounds, stratification as a systemic phonological phenomenon.
2. Formation of prerequisites for mastering phonemic hearing
3. Development of coordination of acoustic and articulatory images, development of intonation structures of the language
4. Mastering the system of phonological oppositions

Literature:

№ 31, 6, 7, 15, 18, 26, 27, 30.

Lecture No. 5 "Patterns of mastering articulation." (2 hours)

Lecture plan:

1. Patterns of mastering the sound side of speech

2. Phonetic composition of the first words.

3. Typology of speech errors

4. Assimilation and metathesis as the most common changes in the sound combinatorics of words

Literature:

№ 31, 6, 7, 15, 18, 26, 27, 30.

Lecture No. 6 "Mastering the grammatical structure of speech." (2 hours)

Lecture plan:

1. Main trends in the development of grammatical forms

2. The hierarchy of morphological categories assimilated by children, the sequence of their assimilation

3. The process of mastering the word-formation model

4. Features of the structure of verbal neoplasms

5. Word-building innovations in children's speech.

Literature:

№ 29, 27, 28, 30, 20.

Lecture No. 7 "Social conditions for the normal development of speech" (2 hours)

Plan:

1. Dependence of speech motor skills on the development of general motor skills.

2. Dependence of the degree of development of speech and fine motor skills of the hands.

3. The value of the speech environment for the development of speech

4. Development of speech in terms of bilingualism

Literature:

3.3. Seminar program

Seminar No. 1 "Initial periods of speech ontogenesis" (2 hours)

Plan:

1. Innate preconditions for speech

2. Primary baby vocalizations: cooing and babbling

3. Baby talk, its phonetic richness and diversity

4. Appearance of pseudo-syntagma, its connection with proto-signs

Practical task:

1. Draw up a diagram "Characteristics of primary children's vocalizations."

2. Draw up a diagram of "Periodization of baby talk."

Literature:№ 6, 12, 13, 15. 20, 21.

Seminar No. 2 "Patterns of mastering the sound form of the word" (2 hours)

Plan:

1. Development of coordination of acoustic and articulatory images

3. Education of the phonological system in children

4. Patterns of mastering the articulatory side of speech production.

5. Typology of speech errors characteristic of children's speech

Practical task:

1. Draw up a diagram of the sequence of the appearance of the sounds of the native language in the child's speech.

2. Present in the form of a diagram the sequence of distinguishing sounds by ear.

3. Indicate the typology of phonetic errors characteristic of the speech of preschool children.

Literature:№ 31, 6, 7, 15, 18, 26, 27, 30.

Seminar No. 3 "Formation of lexical structure in ontogeny" (2 hours)

Plan:

1. Characteristics of the initial children's vocabulary

2. The transition from onomatopoeic and protowords to normative words

3. The process of mastering the symbolic nature of the word

4. Features of the interpretation of words by children, possible ways of their semantization

Practical task:

1. Present in the form of a diagram the main stages in the development of a children's dictionary.

2. Present in the form of a diagram the sequence of formation of the generalizing function of the word.

Literature:№ 6, 7, 15, 22, 26, 30, 31.

Seminar No. 4 "Mastering the grammatical structure of speech" (2 hours)

Plan:

1. Practical grammar of children's speech, its difference from the grammar of adults

2. Main trends in the development of grammatical forms

3. Development of word formation

4. The development of the syntax of children's speech

Practical task:

1. Present in the form of a diagram the hierarchy of the assimilation of morphological categories of language by children.

2. Make a diagram of word-building innovations in children's speech.

3. Prepare a summary of Shakhnovich A.M., Yuriev N.M. Psycholinguistic analysis of semantics and grammar (based on ontogeny). - M., 1990.

Literature:№ 29, 27, 28, 30, 20.

Seminar No. 5 "Formation of coherent speech" (2 hours)

Plan:

1. Egocentric speech.

2. Autonomous children's speech in the theory of L.S. Vygotsky

3. Situational stage of speech development.

4. Mastering the technique of constructing a dialogue.

5 Monologue speech of a preschooler.

Practical task:

1. Draw up a diagram "The main stages in the formation of coherent speech".

2. Draw up a diagram "Parameters for assessing monologue and dialogic forms of speech."

3. Compose an essay on the topic "Peculiarities of the psychological structure of inner speech."

Literature:№ 6, 7, 30, 22.

SPEECH ONTOGENESIS

The process of formation of speech activity (and, accordingly, the assimilation of the system of the native language) in ontogenesis in the concept of "speech ontogenesis" by A. A. Leontiev is divided into a number of successive periods or "stages".

1st - preparatory (from the moment of birth to a year);

2nd - pre-preschool (from one to 3 years);

3rd - preschool (from 3 to 7 years);

4th - school (from 7 to 17 years).

The child begins learning a language from mastering the sound form of expressing a linguistic sign.

Mastering the articulation of speech sounds is a very difficult task, and although a child begins to “practice” in pronouncing sounds from the age of one and a half to two months, it takes him three to four years to master speech pronunciation skills. All normally developing children have a certain sequence in mastering the sound form of the language and in the development of pre-speech reactions: cooing, "flute", babble and its "complicated version" - the so-called. modulated babble.

The child is born, and he marks his appearance with a cry. Crying is the first vocal reaction of a child. Both the cry and the crying of the child activate the activity of the articulatory, vocal, respiratory sections of the speech apparatus.

For a child of the first year of life, “speech training” in pronouncing sounds is a kind of game, an involuntary action that gives the child pleasure. The child stubbornly, for many minutes, can repeat the same sound and thus practice its articulation.

The period of cooing is noted in all children. Already at 1.5 months, and then at 2-3 months, the child shows vocal reactions in the reproduction of sounds such as a-a-bm-bm, bl, u-gu, boo, etc. It is they who later become the basis to develop articulate speech. Cooing (according to its phonetic characteristics) is the same for all children of the peoples of the world.

At 4 months, sound combinations become more complicated: new ones appear, such as gn-agn, la-ala, rn, etc. In the process of cooing, the child, as it were, plays with his articulatory apparatus, repeats the same sound several times, while enjoying it . A child hums when he is dry, well-rested, fed and healthy. If one of the relatives is nearby and begins to “talk” with the baby, he listens with pleasure to the sounds and, as it were, “picks up” them. Against the background of such a positive emotional contact, the baby begins to imitate adults, tries to diversify his voice with expressive intonation.

To develop cooing skills, teachers recommend parents to the so-called "visual communication", during which the child peers into the facial expressions of an adult and tries to reproduce it. Such mutual imitation contributes to the rapid development of more and more complex pre-speech reactions of the child. Pre-speech reactions, as a rule, do not develop well enough in cases where, although they are engaged with a child, he cannot hear himself and an adult. For example, if loud music is playing in the room, adults are talking to each other, or other children are making noise, the child will become silent very soon. There is another important condition for the normal development of pre-speech reactions: the child must clearly see the face of an adult, the movement of the organs of articulation of the person talking to him is accessible to perception.

According to a number of experimental studies, by the age of 6 months, the sounds uttered by children begin to resemble the sounds of their native language.

With the normal development of the child, “cooing” at 6-7 months gradually turns into babbling. At this time, children pronounce syllables such as ba-ba, uncle-dya, de-da, etc., correlating them with certain people around them. In the process of communicating with adults, the child gradually tries to imitate intonation, tempo, rhythm, melody, and also reproduce series of syllables; the volume of babbling words that the child tries to repeat after adults is expanding.

At 8.5-9 months, babble already has a modulated character with a variety of intonations. But not all children have this process unambiguously: with a decrease in auditory function, the cooing “fades out”, and this is often a diagnostic symptom.

At the age of nine to ten months there is a qualitative leap in the child's speech development. The first "normative", object-related words (corresponding to the lexical system of a given language) appear.

At the age of 10-12 months, the child uses all nouns (which are practically the only part of speech presented in the “grammar” of the child) in the nominative case in the singular. Attempts to link two words into a phrase (Mom, give me!) Appear later (about a year and a half). Then the imperative mood of verbs is assimilated (Go-go! Give-give). It is traditionally believed that when plural forms appear, mastery of grammar begins. Depending on individual differences in the pace of psychophysical and cognitive development, all children progress differently in their language development.

The "suspension" of phonetic development during this period of "speech ontogenesis" (for a period of 3-4 months) is associated with a significant increase in the number of words in the active dictionary and, most importantly, with the appearance of the first real generalizations. A language sign appears in the child's speech. The word begins to act as a structural unit of language and speech.

It is known that girls begin to speak a little earlier - at the 8-9th month, while boys - at the 11-12th month of life. According to experimental data, by 6 months, the sounds uttered by children resemble the sounds of their native language.

The further development of the child's speech looks like this:

( table 2)
Mastering the sound form

Assimilation by a child of a sequence of sounds in a word is the result of the development of a system of conditional connections. The child imitatively borrows certain sound combinations from the speech of the surrounding people. At the same time, while mastering the language, the child immediately masters phonemes. For example, [p] can be pronounced differently (grassing, burr). But these differences are not essential for communication, because they do not lead to the formation of words of different meanings or different forms of the word. The child does not pay attention to the various options for pronouncing phonemes, he very quickly grasps the essential features of the sounds of his language.

According to research, phonemic awareness develops at a very early age. First, the child learns to separate the sounds of the world around him (the creak of a door, the sound of rain, the meow of a cat) from the sounds of speech addressed to him. The child is actively looking for the sound designation of the elements of the surrounding world, as if catching them from the mouths of adults.

However, he uses the funds borrowed from adults in his own way. According to the observations of the American researcher of children's speech Helen Velten, the child uses his own principle of contrasting voiceless and voiced consonants: at the beginning of a word, only voiced consonants are pronounced b And d, and at the end only deaf - t And p. This means that for a child at this stage of development there are only two classes of consonant phonemes. This is a principle that is not found in the language of adults, but it is also a kind of “sound model” for pronouncing a word.

This is a principle that is not in the language of adults, but it is a principle. The presence of such patterns allows us to say that the child in the process of mastering the language creates his own intermediate language system of the language. Subsequently, sonority will become a contrasting feature, which will allow the child to double his stock of consonant classes.

A child could not borrow such a rule from adults. The reason is not that the child cannot pronounce, say, a sound d- he knows how to pronounce it, but he believes that it can only be at the beginning of a word. Then this system is corrected, the child "brings" it to the adult's language system.

When it comes to phonology, it is clear that a child does not even need to be able to pronounce a sound in order to perceive the necessary contrasts. An example of this is the following conversation between a linguist and a child:

What is your name?

Andlyusha.

Andlyusha?

No, Andlyusha.

Ah. Andryusha.

Well, yes, Andlyusha.

It is quite clear that r-k distinguishes R And l. He rejects adult imitation of his pronunciation, although he himself is not yet able to express this difference in his pronunciation.

So, at first the child masters the purely external (i.e. sound) structure of the sign, which subsequently, in the process of operating with signs, leads the child to its correct functional use.

In general, it is possible to speak about the formation of the articulatory apparatus only when the child reaches six years of age.

Linking sound with meaning

It is characteristic that when perceiving the sound image of a morpheme (the minimum significant part of the word is the root, suffix, etc.), the child forms a figurative connection between sound and object relations. On the basis of this figurative connection, the child, as it were, "gropes" for the correct pronunciation of the word he needs, guided by the generalization that he has made. Therefore, words like mykha (big mouse) and log (big spoon) appear.

Children often pay primary attention to the second side of the sign - to its "sensual nature". Here is the experiment carried out by A. M. Shakhnarovich on the material of the Russian language to confirm this observation.

Two words were taken: whale and cat. They have properties of the first type - they denote certain phenomena of reality, certain animals. Adults know that the word cat means a small pet, and the word whale means a sea giant.

The properties of the first type are the main ones that determine the operation of these signs. The properties of the second type, which these signs possess, were revealed in an experiment with children.

They were small children who did not (as it was established) know what a whale was. Therefore, the word whale appeared for them only as a set of signs of the second type, signs of purely external, sound.

To the question “What is bigger, a whale or a cat? - these children in the vast majority answered "Cat". Obviously, something in this word, or rather, in its sound shell, made the children assume that a whale is something small, smaller than a cat. Obviously, it's all about the vowel sounds. Sound And children associate with something small, and the sound about- with big. This fact indicates that the child is guided by the external, sound properties of signs.

Thus, the child, developing and orienting himself in the environment, seeks to find in the sound image of the word a literal reflection of some properties of the object. These figurative connections help him perceive the meaning of the word.

The connection between an object (that which is denoted by a sound sign) and a word (sign) is based on the similarity that the child observes between the material shell of the word and the sensually perceived signs of objects.

Therefore, in the speech of the child, such a number of onomatopoeic words are observed. These words exist in the child’s speech as a reflection, imitation of the sounds of the world around them and serve to name objects and phenomena: tick-tock (clock), bi-bi (car), tu tu (train), etc. Sounds associated with the object, are reflected in the mind in the form of representations and comprehended by the child in the same way as the objects themselves. The word-name for the child is a part of the object called by this name.

According to L. S. Vygotsky, children retreat from onomatopoeic and figurative, sound-pictorial words in favor of words accepted in the language, and then there are double names like “av-av-dog”. Gradually, in the process of communication, the child masters the functional use of the word.

The status of the meaning of a word lies in the fact that it is between the thought and the form of the word.

The psychological structure of meaning is determined not so much by what a word means according to the dictionary, but by what is the system of correlation of words in the process of their use, in speech activity. The structure of the meaning of a word is determined by the environment in which it falls in speech, and by what property of the object it reflects. Therefore, every time, naming any object or action, the child refers it to a certain class of objects or actions, creates an image of the object.

At the same time, at first the child masters the word unconsciously and cannot give a definition to the word, although he is already able to isolate the word from the flow of speech.

One of the problems for a child in mastering the meaning of a word is its ambiguity - the ability of a lexical sign to designate several different objects at the same time.

Thus, a European studying the language of the Bantu tribe may find himself in a situation where the speaker, pointing his finger at the sky, pronounces a word unknown to him. Whether the word refers to a bird, an airplane, or good weather can only be known by the listener's experience of different interpretations of the word in different subject situations.

The problem of mastering the meaning of each new word by the subject of speech activity lies in the fact that in reality there is a sufficiently large number of possible semantic interpretations of the same word.

A small child is in just such a situation. He hears some sounds and sees that adults point to some objects. If there are several objects, it is not always easy for a child to understand what this or that word specifically refers to.

From what has been said, it follows that the child has difficulty identifying words with an abstract component (laughter, joy, kindness).

In structural linguistics (lexicology), words are distinguished with a predominant visual component (dog, rose, teapot) and an abstract component (thoughts, country, animal, furniture, work). For a child of early and younger preschool age, the visual “component” prevails in all words (The plant is where the big pipe is. The bank is where dad works, etc.).

It is almost impossible for a child to learn their meaning based on a comparison of the options for their use in the context of speech.

It is no less difficult for a child to master the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs, since for this it is necessary to have some “mental” standards of comparison stored in memory.

The word for a three-year-old child continues to be specific. If an adult can give a fairly detailed definition of any word (A dog is a domestic animal that belongs to the class of mammals, lives with a person and helps him ...), then the “definition” of the child will be very specific and situational (A dog is ours lives in the village).

Young children also have difficulty mastering metaphors and, in general, the figurative meanings of words, asking “absurd” questions (Who is the clock behind? Where is the movie going?, etc.).

Some children believe that any machine gun (even with soda water) should shoot, since it is called that, and any car, even a washing machine, can go somewhere.

Active growth of vocabulary

During the period of initial assimilation of the language, the volume of babbling and full-meaning words in the child's active vocabulary expands. This stage is characterized by increased attention of the child to the speech of others, his speech activity noticeably increases. The words used by the child are most often “polysemantic”, “semantically polyphonic”, at the same time the child designates several concepts with the same word or combination: “bang” - fell, lies, stumbled; "give" - ​​give, bring, give; "bibi" - goes, lies, rides, mashi-ma, plane, bicycle.

When a child can slide backwards down the steps (at the age of about one and a half years), it seems that the child is about to speak and that he already understands a lot of what is said to him. His vocabulary is still small - from 3 to 50 words, but he is already trying to communicate.

After a year and a half, there is an increase in the active vocabulary of children, the first sentences appear, consisting of whole words and amorphous root words. For example:

Papa, di ("Papa, go").

Ma, yes meat (“Mom, give me a ball”). Pedagogical observations show that children do not immediately master the correct reproduction of language signs: some language phenomena are acquired earlier, others later. The simpler the sound and structure of the word, the easier it is remembered by the child. During this period, a combination of the following factors plays a particularly important role:

a) imitation (reproduction) of the speech of others;

b) the formation of a complex system of functional (psychophysiological) mechanisms that ensure the implementation of speech;

c) the conditions in which the child is brought up (psychological situation in the family, attentive attitude to the child, a full-fledged speech environment, sufficient communication with adults).

At the age of 1 year 10 months. up to 2 years - when a child jumps on two legs - his dictionary reaches 300 words. Nouns make up 63%, verbs - 23%, other parts of speech - 14%, there are no unions. The vocabulary is expanding very quickly, new words appear every day.

At the age of two, children have a period of questions “What is this?”. They want to know the name of this or that boy, the dog. If adults cannot satisfy the interest of the child, then they sometimes come up with a name themselves, which ensures the development of higher degrees of generalization in young children.

During the first half of the second year of life, the child learns a large number of names of objects and actions, but all of them are still related to individual objects and do not yet receive a generalized meaning. Around the age of three - when a child can ride a tricycle - it seems that he has reached his peak of vocabulary growth: the vocabulary expands very quickly, reaching a thousand words. At the same time, the child understands up to two or three dozen words, although he does not use them in his speech.

Parents and educators should be informed that the most favorable and intensive period in the development of a child's speech falls on the first 3 years of life. It is during this period that all the functions of the central nervous system, which ensure the formation of a system of conditioned reflex connections that underlie the gradually developing speech and language skills, are most easily amenable to directed pedagogical influence. If the development conditions at this time are unfavorable, then the formation of speech activity may be delayed or even proceed in a “distorted” form.

Many parents evaluate the speech development of their child only by the degree of correctness of sound pronunciation. This approach is erroneous, since an indicator of the formation of children's speech is the timely development of the child's ability to use his vocabulary in verbal communication with others, in different sentence structures. Already by the age of 2.5-3 years, children use three-four-word sentences using various grammatical forms (go - go - go - do not go; doll - doll - doll).

Mastery of morphology

Domestic linguist A.P. Gvozdev revealed the following sequence of mastering the grammatical forms of the Russian language by a child: the number of nouns - the diminutive form of nouns - the category of imperativeness - cases - the category of time - the person of the verb. Here the path is obvious from less abstract, concrete forms to more abstract ones, from a simple, formal expression to a complex one.

Mastering the morphological elements of the language occurs as follows: first, bibi, Then bibika due to the fact that the child highlights the suffix - ka from different words (spoon, hat, plate) and attaches it to his own words. And bibi- this is a car, and go, and beware. BUT bibika- it's just a car.

From the moment of mastering the morphological mechanism of the language, a great leap begins in the development of the child's vocabulary. The generalization of the dictionary goes not only at the expense of individual words, but also at the expense of mastering the construction of words.

It is important that, as the child develops, he discovers a normative sense of the rule: he learns to determine whether the statement is correct relative to some local standard. What linguists call "grammatical sense" is related to the phenomenon of self-correction: There were a lot of fish in the river... a lot of fish... a lot of fish.

The stability and well-formedness of a rule can be tested experimentally if the child is forced to apply this rule to obviously unfamiliar language material.

The American linguist Jean Berko showed children pictures of fantastic animals, which she assigned non-existent words (quasi-words) as names. The child was shown this picture and said:

"This beast is called wuk (wug)."

Then they showed a picture depicting several of these animals and asked: “What is this?” If the child answered It's a Wookiee or These are three big wooks, which means that he mastered the way of expressing the plural (and did not memorize a lot of ready-made words in the plural form).

Language acquisition is the assimilation of not only language units, but also the rules for their creation and use. And in order to know the rules, you need to do mental work all the time to analyze, systematize and generalize these rules. So it turns out, as S. N. Zeitlin figuratively wrote about this, that the child is to some extent similar to a linguist.

The next stage in mastering the grammatical structure of the language is the period of constructive syntagmatic (syntagmatics - linear relations between units of the language in a real stream of speech or text) grammar. It is characterized by the fact that the child himself begins to create linear grammatical constructions that have no analogue in "adult" speech. So, in the speech of children of different nationalities, the same phenomenon is noted - the doubling of the last syllable to indicate possessiveness: Mama-ma hat, Uncle Alyosha Shala, Uncle-dya Alyosha-shapa.

In the utterances of children, the first proper grammatical oppositions appear, apparently marking the difference in the syntactic functions of grammatical forms. These oppositions are random in their sound appearance - there is no normative design of inflection. In addition, the oppositions themselves do not yet correspond to the grammatical paradigm existing in the language: for example, initially only direct and indirect, “active” and “passive” cases are distinguished. The word form exists for the child as a whole "simultaneous complex". (Simultaneous)

Later, at the age of about two years, the child comes to paradigmatic (paradigmatics - opposition relations, in which there are units of speech, in which one of the mutually exclusive units is selected) grammar. In a word, separate morphemes or morphs begin to stand out subjectively for it, as indicated by the possibility of forming words by analogy and the presence of word forms that do not exist in “adult” speech.

The period of paradigmatic grammar, according to A. A. Leontiev, can be divided into a number of successive "sub-periods". The first of them, the sub-period of non-phonological morphemics, is characterized by a complete lack of orientation to the sound form.

The second sub-period - phonological morphemics - is characterized by an orientation towards the general sound characteristic of the morpheme without taking into account its subtle phonemic composition. Such a way of assimilation of the morphological structure of speech presupposes an orientation already on the phonetic features of morphemes; this is the reason for the remarkable fact that the clarity of pronunciation first of all begins to manifest itself in inflections. “At the same time, the root part continues to sound inarticulate... The work done by the child in connection with the beginnings of distinguishing grammatical meanings contributes in this period to a more dissected perception of the sound composition of the word. This leads to a new rapid growth of the vocabulary. But this stage is characterized by formations that are incorrect precisely from the morphophonological point of view: two lefts, water flowed, pharmacy machine.

The third sub-period is the period of morphophonological morphemics. At this stage of language development, the child gradually gropes for the boundaries of word variance and, finally, finds them. R. E. Levina gives an example of such a “search” for a normative word form in a child. The word "breakfast" the child begins to pronounce as zavtlyk, zavtlyuk, clearly emphasizing the last sounds. Finally, he speaks Zavtlik, highlighting the end of the word with a quick pace.

Syntax Mastery

American psychologist Susan Erwin-Tripp wrote: “To become a native speaker, you need to learn the rules. That is, you need to learn to behave as if you know these rules. The child very skillfully pretends that he knows the rules of the adult language.

First, the child speaks in words that have the communicative power of sentences, but are single-word sentences. Mother!- this word can mean Mom, give, And Here's mom, And I want to eat, and much more.

Then the period of two-part sentences begins. The child does not just combine words into sentences in a random way - two functional classes of words appear in his speech. The first class is "support words", or operators. This list of words is small and relatively closed. The second class is "open", it is wider, many of the words in this class were one-word sentences before. To create a two-part sentence, a word is selected from the “reference” class (it is, as it were, the semantic basis of the sentence), and the meaning varies due to the second word from the “open” class.

More - milk ("closed" list + "open" list).

It is obvious that parents do not use such expressions when talking to children. It is more likely that the child is using meager language tools to create new sentences within his uncomplicated but already structured system.

Two-part sentences are used in different semantic functions - for naming a place (“Baba kesya” - “Grandma chair”, Goose mulberry); for a request (More poppy - “More milk”, Give tyasy - “Give me a watch”); to describe the situation (Papa bye-bye, Aunt there); for negation (Ne moko - "Not wet").

There are few "reference" words in the child's speech, but they have a high frequency. The class of supporting words expands rather slowly in the child's active vocabulary - only a few supporting words are added every month. The stage of two-word utterances (“proto-sentences”) in the speech of young children is a defining stage in mastering the syntax of speech.

The next stage in the formation of the syntactic side of speech is the emergence of developed syntactic forms that can perform a variety of functions in the child’s speech utterances: the semantic association of objects displayed in speech (I see a cup and a glass.), attribution (This is an “exit” hat.), pointing to belonging (These are Vova's socks.), the location of the object (Jacket on a chair.), displaying relations of the type: "subject-object" (Katya throws a ball, etc.).

Starting from the age of three, “hierarchical constructions” appear in the speech of children. In one phrase, the child begins to speak from the predicate group, and then immediately changes it to the subject-predicate group (I want it ... Sasha wants it; Builds a house. Misha builds a house.). These phrases are not just "mechanical" chains of several words. This is evidenced, in particular, by the fact that the child often expands such verbal groups to a whole complete sentence. (She got up ... The cat got up ... The cat got up on the table.)

L. V. Shcherba introduced the concept of “negative linguistic material” into applied linguistics as a speech statement that is not understood or understood with difficulty, and therefore does not achieve its goal. In his opinion, the child initially produces negative language material, but rather quickly "learns" to correctly ask for something, since his incomprehensible requests are not fulfilled.

Mastering syntax in the course of "speech ontogenesis" is inextricably linked with the child's mastery of intonation (as a universal sign of speech activity) - a set of speech components, which includes melody, rhythm, tempo, intensity, accentuation of words, timbre, pitch, pause, etc. .

The development of the syntax of children's speech is associated with the inclusion of the child in communication with adults, which is due to the possibility of meeting the needs of the child. This is what stimulates, first of all, the development of children's speech activity.

word creation

Numerous studies show that the period of preschool age is a period of enhanced word creation for a child. At the same time, attention is drawn to the fact that some “new” words are observed in the speech of almost all children (everyone, real-life), while others are found in the “speech production” of only individual children (toptun, dictun, etc.).

Based on the linguistic analysis of the experimental data of T. N. Ushakova (236, 237), several “word-building models” were identified, according to which children from three to six years old form new words:

1. Part of a word is used as a whole word. “Shard words” appear (groin - “smell”, jump - “jump”, mold - something that was molded from plasticine. We sculpted - sculpted and it turned out to be sculpted).

2. Attaching an “alien” affix or inflection to the root of the word is also a very common way for a child to create new words (such as pravdun (telling the truth), smell (smell), dryness (dryness), have (one who has), smelly, purginki (snowflakes), intelligence, joy, etc.).

3. One word is made up of two (“synthetic words”). When such “synthetic” words are formed, those parts of the word that sound similar are linked (vku-ski = “tasty” + “pieces”; kolotok = “pound” + “hammer”; ulitsioner - “street” + “policeman”, etc. d.).

A. N. Gvozdev, investigating the appearance of “fragment words”, drew attention to the fact that, starting to speak, the child first, as it were, pulls out the stressed syllable from the word. Instead of the word milk, the child pronounces only ko, later - moko and, finally, milk. This is how “shards of words” appear in the speech of children. In the same way, different words and phrases are combined (babesyana - "grandmother of the monkey", mother's daughter - that is, "mother's and father's" daughter, etc.).

Based on this, we can conclude that word creation, as well as the assimilation of ordinary words of the native language, is based on the imitation of those speech patterns that are given to children by surrounding adults. Assimilation of speech patterns is the basis for the use of prefixes, suffixes, endings in new words of children. Children's neologisms almost always strictly comply with the laws of the language and are always grammatically correct - only the combinations are unexpected.

One of the manifestations of children's word creation, according to some psycholinguists, are the so-called "children's words". Kolo-tok, street, circles instead of swirling snowflakes - almost every child can re-invent these words based on "adult" words. But there are still such words that are, as it were, originally childish; in foreign psycholinguistics they are defined by the concept of "baby talk". These are words denoting: states ( bo-bo), actions ( Om-Nom-nom), sounds ( knock-knock, tick-tock) and items ( lala- "doll", byaka- "bad"). It is interesting that similar words exist in all languages ​​of the world. There may be several explanations for this.

Firstly, many of these words are onomatopoeic. They are close to the real sounds of natural and artificial objects: Woof woof very similar to a real dog barking, BBC- to the car horn signal, and Ding Ding- to the sound of a bell.

Even in our “adult” language there are such rhyming, little-meaning elements that imitate sound (for example, tram-tararam, ding-ding, shurum-burum).

Secondly, children's words are built according to a “structural scheme” accessible to the child: as a rule, a consonant plus a vowel. No wonder the first words of the child are built precisely on this model: mom, dad, uncle, aunt; an example is the “partially” childish word - baba (about grandmother). The repetition of the same syllable (with slight modification) makes it easier for the child to memorize and use such a word. Somewhat later (by the age of three or four), more phonetically complex words appear in the speech of children (backgammon, bang-bang).

Many psychologists and linguists who also work in the field of psycholinguistics believe that there is nothing wrong with the fact that children under 3-4 years of age use such words. According to the observations of child psychologists, even a four-year-old child, addressing a two-year-old, speaks much more simply than with an adult. People who want to be understood must speak at a linguistic level that provides understanding on the part of the listener. In addition, children around the world use children's words, and this indicates the universality of the phenomenon.

With age, children's word creation begins to fade: by the age of five, the child has already firmly mastered the turns of speech used by adults. Thus, word creation is one of the stages that a child goes through in mastering the grammar of his native language. As a result of the perception and use of many words that have common root and affix elements, the child's brain undergoes analytical processes of dividing the used words into units corresponding to what is called morphemes in linguistics.

Common mistakes in children's speech

In the speech of children of early and preschool age, there are errors that are so common that they can be considered as a kind of one of the laws of the language development of a normally developing child.

When using verbs, the most common mistake children make is building verb forms on the model of one that is most understandable (and, as a rule, already learned by the child).

For example, Russian children at a certain age incorrectly use some verb forms (get up, lick, chew). But such forms are not an "invention" of the child: he, recognizing in the words that adults say, some models of the grammatical form of words (I grab, break, fall asleep), takes them as a model, since it is easier for him to use one standard form of the verb than several. Often such imitation occurs on the model of the form of the verb just heard.

Sasha, get up, I've been waking you up for a long time.

No, I'll get some sleep, - the three-year-old boy says in response. The presence of such errors refutes the behaviorist theory of verbal communication, according to which the speaker always acts according to the “stimulus-response” model.

According to pedagogical observations, a child can speak correctly for a long time, and then suddenly begins to form words erroneously; at the same time, linguistic analysis of children's statements shows that the child relies on a common (most often, "productive") grammatical model. This phenomenon is known in linguistics as overgeneralization - extension of the new rule to the old language material (the use of which is subject to other rules). Trying to comprehend the rules for the formation of verb forms, the child says, for example: she walked instead of walked; mastering the formation of the number of nouns - penalties instead of stumps; two sledges, one money, etc.

Among the typical mistakes in the speech of children, it should be noted the use of the past tense of verbs only in the feminine gender (ending in [-a]) instead of the masculine: I drank; I went. Boys use this form because they hear it from mothers, grandmothers and other females. Another reason for errors is that open syllables (ending in vowels) are easier to pronounce than closed syllables (ending in consonants).

Quite often, young children are also mistaken in the use of case endings for nouns.

- Let's take all the chairs and make a train, - offers one child to another.

-No you can not, - he objects, - there are few chairs.

The formation of the instrumental case can occur erroneously due to (“copied” from other variants of inflection) attaching the ending -om to the root of the noun, regardless of the gender of the noun (needles, spoon, cat, etc.).

Often in the speech of children there are errors in the use of the gender of nouns horse (horse), people (man), cows instead of bull; cat instead of cat, etc.

Often children mistakenly form the comparative degree of adjectives (good - bad, high - shorter) following the example of generally accepted forms (stronger, more fun, longer). The same applies to the formation of the comparative degree of “nominal” adjectives, for example: And our forest is still pine-tree yours (that is, there are more pines in it).

Errors in language acquisition are a completely natural phenomenon for the normally proceeding ontogenesis of speech activity. In addition to the system of rules and the language norm, in the "speech environment" of children there is also "usus" (the way it is customary to speak in this "speech environment"), and deviations from the norm, and many unique, single linguistic phenomena - that Saussure figuratively called "linguistic dust".

The typology of errors made in speech by its speakers, as a starting principle - a kind of starting point - must, without a doubt, have a linguistic criterion. And it exists - these are the norms of the language. And they, in turn, are differentiated by their belonging to the corresponding level (tier) of the language.

Therefore, based on this, we must justify the typology of errors made in oral and written speech, since an error in the use of the language is a violation of the language norm, i.e. rules for the use of a certain linguistic fact in speech.

Considering the dichotomy of language and speech (language- this is a spontaneously arisen unique system of signs and rules for their combination, closely related to thinking and a derivative of it, intended for communication, and speech- this is a specific implementation of the language, this is the language in action), all errors made in violation of the rules of the language should be called speech, since speech is the functioning of the language as such.

The language itself, as a nationwide, supra-individual, abstract, system of a psychophysiological nature, theoretically cannot contain errors, since it is initially correct, normative, therefore the wording " language error" itself is wrong. Only when the language functions in specific acts of communication, its individual elements and units (words, forms, structural diagrams of statements, etc.) are extracted from it and used to name the corresponding realities, objects, situations, etc.

Exactly in the process of implementing the language and deviations from certain language norms are possible. To date, the typology of speech errors has the following form:

Speech errors at the word level.

• 1. Spelling errors (violation of spelling existing in the Russian language).
• 2. Word-formation errors (violation of the norms of Russian literary word-formation):
  • a) incorrect direct word formation, for example, a hare (instead of a hare), a thoughtful look (instead of a thoughtful look), etc.;
  • b) incorrect reverse word formation: curl (from curl), log (from spoon), etc.

This kind of word formation is inherent in children of preschool and primary school age;

• c) substitutive word formation, manifested in the replacement of any morpheme: throw up (instead of spread out), weigh down (from hang up);
• d) word writing (creation of a non-existent derivative unit that cannot be considered as occasional): winder, reviewer.
• 3. Grammatical errors (incorrect shaping, violation of the system properties of the shaping system in different parts of speech):
  • a) violation of the norms of the formation of nouns:) the formation of the form V.p. an inanimate noun, like an animate one - “I asked for a breeze” (instead of: a breeze);
• 2) the formation of the form V.p. an animate noun, as in an inanimate one - “Two bears were harnessed to the sleigh” (instead of: two bears);
• 3) gender change during the formation of case forms: “pie with jam”, “February blue”;
• 4) declension of indeclinable nouns: “play the piano”, “ride the meter”;
• 5) the formation of plural forms in nouns that have only the singular, and vice versa: “a tray of teas”, “The sky was covered with a cloud”;
• b) violation of the norms of the formation of adjectives:
  • 1) the wrong choice of full and short forms: “The hat was full of water”, “The boy was very full”;
  • 2) incorrect formation of forms of degrees of comparison: “The new ones are becoming more combative”, “She was weaker than Petya”;
  • 3) violation of the norms of the formation of the verb: "A person rushes around the room";
  • 4) violation of the formation of gerunds and participles: “Riding in the bus”, “The hunter walked, looking around”;
  • 5) violation of the norms for the formation of forms of pronouns: "Their contribution to the victory", "I did not want to tear myself away from it (the book)," etc.
  • 4. Lexical errors (violation of lexical norms, i.e. norms of word usage and lexical-semantic compatibility of a word). Lexical errors are manifested in violation of compatibility (i.e., at the level of the semantics of a phrase, less often - sentences):
    • a) the use of the word in an unusual sense: "All the walls of the classroom were covered with panels." “Troyekurov was a luxurious (i.e., living in luxury) landowner”;
  • b) violation of the lexical-semantic compatibility of the word: “The sky was bright” (“to stand” in the sign “to take place” can only be the weather, heat), “The rays of the sun lay on the meadow” (the rays of the sun illuminated the meadow).

This type of error primarily affects the verb, so the violation of subjective and object lexico-semantic compatibility links is frequent (other semantic links of the verb, for example, locative ones, are violated extremely rarely);

• c) attributing a figurative meaning to a word that does not have it in the system of the literary language: “His hard-working hands say that he worked hard in life”, “The stripes on his vest said that Fedya is a brave man”;
• d) indistinguishability of shades of meanings of synonyms: “Mayakovsky uses (instead of: uses) satire in his work”, “The boy, legs wide apart, looks at the field where the players are fighting” (instead of: they are fighting);
• e) confusion of the meanings of paronyms: “His eyebrows rose surprisingly” (instead of: surprised), “This novel is a typical image of the detective genre” (instead of: a model);
• f) ambiguity not removed in the sentence: "These lakes live only a few days a year."

Speech errors at the level of the phrase (violation of syntactic connections): a) violation of the norms of agreement: "I want to teach everyone tennis - in my opinion, this is a very good, but at the same time very difficult sport" (to teach what? Tennis, what sport - good, but very heavy); b) violation of the norms of management: “I am surprised at his strength”, “I have a thirst for glory”, “avoid certain death”, “gain strength”; c) violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate: “Neither summer (singular) nor heat (singular form instead of plural form).

Speech errors at the sentence level.

• 1. syntactical errors (violations of the norms of formal syntax): a) violations of the structural boundaries of the sentence, unjustified parcelling]: “He went hunting. With dogs." “I look. My dogs run across the field. Chasing a hare";
• b) violations in the construction of homogeneous rows: the choice of homogeneous members of different forms in a row: “The girl was ruddy (full. f.), Smoothly combed (short f.)”;
• c) different structural design of homogeneous members, for example, as a secondary member and as a subordinate clause: “I wanted to tell about the case with the writer and why he did this (and about his act);
• e) mixing of direct and indirect speech: “He said that I would fight” (meaning the same subject - “He said that he would fight”);
• f) violation of the aspectual-temporal correlation of homogeneous members of the sentence or predicates in the main and subordinate clauses: “He goes (present tense) and said (past tense)”, “When he slept, he sees a dream”;
• g) separation of the subordinate clause from the defining word: “One of the paintings hangs in front of us, which is called “Autumn”.
• 2. Communication errors (violation of the norms governing the communicative organization of the statement:
  • a) communicative errors proper (violation of word order and logical stress, leading to the creation of false semantic connections): “The office is filled with desks with small aisles” (there are no aisles at the desks). "The girls are sitting on the boat with the keel up";
  • b) logical and communicative errors (violations of the conceptual and logical side of the statement):
• 1) substitution of the subject of the action: "Lena's face outlines and eyes are carried away by the film" (Lena herself is carried away);
• 2) substitution of the object of action: "I like Pushkin's poems, especially the theme of love";
• 3) violation of the operation of bringing to one base: "Dudaev is the leader of mountainous Chechnya and youth";
• 4) violation of genus-species relations: “It is not difficult to predict the tone of the upcoming angry gatherings - angry speeches against the regime and calls to rally ranks”;
• 5) violation of causal relationships: “But he (Bazarov) quickly calmed down, because. did not really believe in nihilism”;
• 6) a combination of logically incompatible concepts in one row: "He is always cheerful, of medium height, with rare freckles on his face, his hair is a little curly at the edges, friendly, inoffensive."

From our point of view, statements containing such violations indicate that the “failure” occurs not in inner speech, not because of the ignorance of the writer of logical laws, but during recoding, when translating mental images into verbal form due to the inability to accurately “paint” logical roles in the statement (formulate groups of object, subject, correlate them with each other, with a predicate, etc.). If so, then logical violations are the properties of speech, it is unlawful to put them on a par with actual ones and take them out of the scope of speech errors.

• c) constructive and communicative errors (violations of the rules for constructing statements):
  • 1) lack of connection or poor connection between parts of the statement: “They live in the village, when I came to him, I saw his beautiful blue eyes”;
  • 2) the use of a participial turnover without connection with the subject to which it refers: “Life should be shown as it is, without embellishing or worsening it”;
  • 3) a break in participial turnover: “There is little difference between the topics written on the board.”
• d) information and communication errors (or semantic-communicative). This type of violation is close to the previous one, but differs in that the deterioration of the communicative properties of speech here occurs not due to unsuccessful, incorrect structuring of the statement, but due to the absence of part of the information in it or its excess:
  • 1) the vagueness of the primary intention of the statement: “We are inextricably linked with the country, we have the main blow with it, this is a blow to the world”;
  • 2) the incompleteness of the whole statement: “I myself love plants, and therefore I am glad that in the summer our village becomes so unrecognizable” (further explanation is required in what this sign of the village manifests itself). “His biography is short, but there is a lot behind it”;
  • 3) omission of the necessary words and part of the statement: “Bezukhov has many events that play a negative role” (the local qualifier “in life” and the local qualifier of the second part of the statement, for example, “in his fate” are missing);
  • 4) semantic redundancy (pleonasms, tautology, repetitions of words and duplication of information): "He began to work on this topic with all his mental strength." “When he is sad, his face is wrinkled, his face is sad”;
• e) stylistic errors (violation of the requirements of the unity of functional style, unjustified use of emotionally colored, stylistically marked means). These violations may consist in the unjustified use of the word, but they appear only at the sentence level:
  • 1) the use of colloquial words in neutral contexts: “The ship stumbled upon a rock and pierced its belly”;
  • 2) the use of book words in neutral and reduced contexts: “First of all, she takes out all the components of the soup from the refrigerator”;
  • 3) unjustified use of expressively colored vocabulary: “A couple of robbers attacked the American embassy and captured the ambassador”;
  • 4) unsuccessful metaphors, metonyms, comparisons: "This is the tip of the iceberg, on which the Omsk garment factory floats in a sea of ​​​​problems."

Speech errors at the text level. All of them are communicative in nature.

• 1. Logic violations:
  • a) violation of the logic of thought development: “I like that he is so smart, he does not try to harm anyone. Chatsky didn’t even think that he would be put in such a position”;
  • b) the absence of connections between sentences: “I really wanted to marry someone like Onegin, because he is fond of literature, because she loved her too. Then Pushkin opens a gallery of great Russian women”;
  • c) violation of causal relationships: “Nothing has changed in the house since Chatsky's arrival. There was no such welcome meeting. And they did not react to his arrival. During the play of the day, Chatsky finds out a lot, and by the evening the play is nearing its end, i.e. Chatsky's departure";
  • d) operations with the subject or object: “The author endowed all his heroes with wonderful qualities. Manilov (goodwill), Korobochka (homeliness), Plyushkin (thrift). But all these qualities dominate them, fill their whole essence, and therefore we laugh at them”;
  • e) violations of genus-species relations: “Instability in the country is exacerbated by the attempts of the opposition to attack the authorities. Here are attempts to make another noisy scandal in the State Duma, connected with the decision on the early termination of the powers of the President for health reasons, and the expectation of "fateful" upcoming forums, and indignation at the government's decisions.
• 2. Grammar violations:
  • a) violations of the aspectual-temporal correlation of verb forms in different sentences of the text: “Chatsky states all his requirements in the finished program. Quite often he disgraced nepotism and servility, he never mixes business with fun and tomfoolery ”;
  • b) violation of agreement in the gender and number of the subject and the predicate in different sentences of the text: “I believe that the Motherland is when every corner reminds of the past days that can no longer be returned. Which is gone forever and it remains only to remember them.
• 3. Information and communication disorders:
  • a) information-semantic and constructive insufficiency (omission of part of the statement in the text): “They were the greatest humanists. And on this, in their opinion, it is necessary to build the future society”;
  • b) information-semantic and constructive redundancy (piling up structures and an excess of meaning): “In the portrait of Tatyana, Pushkin does not give an external appearance, but rather an internal portrait. She suffers greatly that he cannot answer her in kind. However, she doesn't change.

Everything remains the same calm, kind, sincere”;

• c) the discrepancy between the semantics of statements and their constructive predetermination: “For me it should be like this: when you are talking with your own people, there is one position. And when you enter into contacts with representatives of other political views, then everything should be the same, but with even more attention to requests and proposals” (the opposition is constructively set, but the statements do not reflect this constructive direction);
• d) the unsuccessful use of pronouns as a means of communication in the text: “Only occasionally they were delivered from outside.

The rest was grown on the estate. The Generalissimo recognized rest only in the park area of ​​the estate, where a garden with caged birds was planted and a pond with carps was dug. Every afternoon he devoted a few minutes to feeding birds and fish. There he worked with a secretary. He prepared all the information” (it is not clear: who is he? Sade, generalissimo, secretary?); e) repetitions, tautology, pleonasms: “Yesenin loved nature. He devoted much time to nature. He wrote many poems about nature.

Similarly, stylistic violations at the text level can be considered. It should be noted that we also include the poverty and monotony of syntactic constructions among them, since texts like: “The boy was dressed simply. He was dressed in a jacket lined with tsigei. On his feet he wore moth-eaten socks” - testify not to syntactic failures, but to the inability of the writer to express his thoughts in a variety of ways, giving them stylistic richness.

Speech disorders at the text level are more complex than at the utterance level, although they are "isomorphic" to the latter. The above examples convincingly demonstrate that textual violations, as a rule, are of a syncretic nature, i.e. here the logical, lexical, constructive aspects of the organization of this speech unit are violated. This is natural, because text (or microtext) is more difficult to build. It is necessary to keep in memory previous statements, the general idea and semantics of the entire text, constructing its continuation and completion.

Thus, as the analysis of methodological, linguistic literature shows, in the practice of teaching the Russian language and the development of speech, there are a large number of different approaches to the classification of speech errors. Each author, dealing with this problem, offers his own classification or corrects, corrects, improves classifications that already exist before him. At the same time, it is obvious that in the classifications of M. R. Lvov, T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, and M. S. Soloveichik, one can meet repeated groups of errors.

Eliseeva M.B.,cand. philol. Sciences, Associate Professor, Russian State Pedagogical University, St. Petersburg

The article describes the approach to speech disorders of well-known specialists in general underdevelopment of speech in children - N.S. Zhukova, E.M. Mastyukova and T.B. Filicheva. The presented analysis of language acquisition in the process of onto- and dysontogenesis of speech makes it possible to attribute all disorders to three main types.
1. Delayed speech development
This includes everything that is characteristic of children with normal speech development, but with dysontogenesis, speech is delayed for several years:
- syllabic elision (reduction of the syllabic structure of a word);
- persistent and prolonged absence of speech imitation of new words (normally - no more than 5-6 months after the appearance of the first 3-5 words);
- small dictionary;
- lack of phrasal speech;
- the use of unchangeable words, the absence of morphological categories.
These deviations in general do not raise objections, except for one thing - imitation as an indispensable characteristic of the norm, which occurs no later than six months after the appearance of the first words. There are different points of view regarding the role of imitation in language development. Behaviorists believe that new behaviors must be imitated before they appear in their own repertoire. In 1941, R. Jacobson noted the contradiction between this view of language acquisition and the creative nature of its nature. The child discovers language rules to understand and create words and sentences never before spoken or heard that imitation cannot explain. L. Bloom argues that imitation is not necessary when learning a language: two out of six children in this study moved from one-word to two-word statements without repeating adult speech. The degree of imitation varied from child to child but remained constant for each child. For imitative children, repetition helped them learn new words. It turned out that children imitate:
- from input (the speech of adults addressed to them);
- from what is in the process of assimilation;
- not from what they already know well, and from what they do not know at all.
The author believes that the disagreement about the role of imitation in language development can be explained by the fact that different researchers have observed different children who are prone or not prone to imitation.
As for the rest of the points, everything is also not so simple, since the ideas about what the volume of the dictionary should be when phrasal speech and morphological categories appear during normal speech development are different even for different speech therapists:
- 10 months - 1-2 words;
- 11 - 3 "babble" with correlation;
- 12 - 3-4;
- 15 - 6;
- 18 - 7-20;
- 21 - 20;
- 24 - 50;
- 36 - 250.
At 20 words, the child should already pronounce two-word phrases. N.S. Zhukova names 30 words at the moment the phrase appears. Although Zhenya Gvozdev, whose speech development is recognized as a conditional standard of the norm, had the first two-word statement in his diary at the age of 1 year 8 months. (sencik dundyu - a sunbeam fell behind a chest), when Zhenya's dictionary had 70 words. In the book by T.B. Filicheva, N.A. Cheveleva, G.V. Chirkina "Fundamentals of speech therapy" (1989) gives other figures:
- 10-11 months. - reactions to words;
- 18 - 10-15 words;
- 24 - 300;
- 36 - 1000.
The data on speech comprehension seem to be rather fuzzy:
- 9 months - patty game;
- 10 - situational understanding of addressed speech, objects;
- 12 - understanding of a simple instruction, supplemented by a gesture;
- 15 - no gesture.
Further, only the display of body parts testifies to understanding:
- 18 months - one;
- 21 - 3;
- 24 - 5.
Only at 36 months. the child understands the meaning of simple prepositions, performs tasks like “put the cube under the cup (in the box)”.
Data from parent questionnaires completed in St. Petersburg
at the Institute for Early Intervention, quite different:
- 17 months - shows 3 parts of the body (85% of boys), less than 15 months. (85% girls);
- 21 months - says at least two words, except for mom and dad (85% of boys), 18 months. (85% girls);
- 40 months - uses at least 20 words (85% of boys), 30 months. (85% girls).
In the Russian speech therapy tradition, there is a desire to tie this or that achievement of the child to the exact age, while it would be more correct to indicate the interval: "The baby goes through a number of stages in its development." This also applies to digital indicators. For example, judging by the data of the Department of Children's Speech of the Russian State Pedagogical University, at 2 years old, normally developing children can have 50 and about 1000 words.
2. Pathological errors,
unsuitable for children
with normal speech development
These errors are less obvious than violations of the first group, but they can be signs of pathology for a speech therapist-practitioner:
- ma - instead of mom, pa instead of dad, ba instead of a woman;
- the word mother refers to the father and to other persons;
- reproduction of a word through two vowel sounds (ao - bus; ua - duck);
- pathological substitutions of consonants (the sound-substitute and the replaced differ from each other by two or more components, articulatory are far away).
The first three types of violations, if they occur, then in very young children - no more than up to 1.5 years. However, atypical consonant substitutions are not uncommon in the speech of normally developing children under 3 years of age (padufka - pillow, kohe - coffee, kesir - kefir). Probably, it is necessary to clarify which of the atypical substitutions are not typical for children in the norm. For example, there is almost no consistent replacement of voiced consonants by voiceless ones, as well as soft ones by hard ones (and vice versa), although the substitute sound and the replaced one differ from each other in only one sign (deafness-voicedness or softness-hardness). Typical for the speech of young children is the replacement of only front-lingual hard consonants with soft ones (sat - garden, cat - cat). A child will never say mum instead of mom or pyapy instead of dad. The replacement of soft sounds with hard ones is also characteristic - but only labial and only before vowels of a non-front row (stop - again, mother - a ball).
To anomalous phonetic errors N.S. Zhukova also refers to the reproduction not of the prosody of the whole word, but only of its part (dove - go, girl - de, egg - those, go - di; apple - yaba, look - ati, pants - tani, sausages - sisi, etc.). She writes that in the normal development of speech, when speech imitation appears, children tend to reproduce precisely the melodic-intonation contour of the word. However, there are other points of view on how a child masters the syllabic structure of a word. S.N. Zeitlin points out that I.A. Sikor-
Skysky divided all children into "sound" and "syllabic". “Later, they began to talk about holistic and analytical tactics for comprehending a language, extending this opposition also to the area of ​​grammar. “Syllabic” children (children adhering to a holistic strategy) strive primarily to reproduce the syllabic contour of a word, its rhythmic-melodic structure, without caring about the quality of the sounds that make it up. A significant part of the children still belong to the “sound” type: they tend not to expand the syllabic chain until they achieve a certain accuracy in the articulation of sounds. Zhenya Gvozdeva can be considered a classic “sound” child. "Sound" children master the word "in parts", while "syllabic" immediately strive to reproduce it as a whole. This opinion is not unfounded: a child with normal speech development often turns from "sound" into "syllabic" when the pronunciation of polysyllabic words becomes possible for him. As a rule, this coincides in time with the development of adult speech imitation. The desire to pronounce a five-syllable word leads to the appearance in the speech of a 2-year-old child of variants such as cacadaphia - photography, kapaatua - temperature. The child, previously very careful, ceases to strive for sound accuracy and uses various "techniques" to cope with the pronunciation of difficult words. Syllabic elision almost disappears, but the number of cases of assimilation in the area of ​​vowels and consonants increases sharply, and metathesis appears (permutation of sounds or syllables). However, when qualifying children's speech errors, one should remember that there are different types of mastering the syllabic structure of a word by children: many children begin to speak as “sound” - from “word-parts”, but a non-speaking child who begins to speak with the help of a speech therapist is also at the initial level. stage of their speech development. Therefore, it is probably no coincidence that the above examples of syllabic elision from the speech of children with OHP coincide with examples from the speech of children with normal development and can be attributed to the first type (“delayed speech development”).
Another "interesting feature of abnormal children's speech" N.S. Zhukova considers the child's desire to use open syllables. “The desire to “open a syllable” most clearly reveals itself in the addition of vowels to the ends of words in those cases where the word ends in a consonant: “matika” (boy), “kotika” (cat). The child, as it were, completes the word: “meat” (ball), “gozya” (nail), “abuse” (bus). However, the trend towards the creation of final open syllables is well known to researchers of children's speech; many of the examples cited are also found in the speech of children with good speech development. For example, in the speech of a 2-year-old child: Papalet is like an abusya. This is an abusya bird. - The plane is like a bus. This is a bird bus.
N.S. Zhukova classifies the first words of "abnormal children's speech" as follows:
- correctly pronounced;
- fragment words (with syllabic elision);
- onomatopoeia;
- "contour", in which the stress and the number of syllables are correctly reproduced (we are talking about words in which assimilation has occurred - likening sounds and syllables);
- absolutely not reminiscent of the words of the native language.
However, in the initial lexicon of a normally developing child, there are all of these types of words. The latter type is also described in foreign and domestic literature on ontolinguistics: these are protowords - vocalizations that contain a constant composition of sounds and references.
are used in typical situations, but are unique to a given child, invented by him, and not based on the speech of an adult.
Thus, most of the "pathological errors" of children's speech turn out to be type 1 errors, since children with normal development also make them, but earlier.
In the field of vocabulary N.S. Zhukova notes the "negligible verbal vocabulary, mostly nouns", the "nominative function" of abnormal children's speech. Here one question arises: what is considered a "negligible verbal dictionary"? Clarification: one cannot talk about pathology without taking into account the various “speech styles” of children (referential and expressive), first identified by K. Nelson based on an analysis of 18 initial lexicons. Among the first 50 words of referential children, objects predominated; in the speech of expressive children there were fewer of them, but there were more pronouns and functional words. These children also used many more interaction words, many of which were fixed phrases. Researchers identify two sources of such linguistic variation.
Firstly, these are different ways of organizing information and interacting with the world. “Nelson proved,” write B. Goldfield and K. Snow, “that these differences (in the initial children's lexicons. - M.E.) reflect differences in children's hypotheses regarding how language is used. Referential children learn language to talk about objects in the environment and classify them. Expressive children are more socially oriented and learn meanings to talk about themselves and others.
Secondly, these are the features of the input. The speech strategy of the child can be influenced by the speech of the mother. Mothers of referential children often name and describe objects, drawing the child's attention to them (declarative style), and in the speech of mothers of expressive children there are more motives and requirements that regulate the child's behavior (directive style).
A speech therapist needs to have an idea about these styles, since the differences in language acquisition by expressive and referential children are very significant and affect all language levels: not only vocabulary, but also phonetics, morphology, word formation and syntax. It is known that referential children are early-speaking, and expressive children are late-speaking, often causing concern for parents and specialists. The differences between them are shown in the table on p. 32.
Let us dwell on the difference between the grammatical errors of children in the norm and in the pathology described by N.S. Zhukova. “Unlike children with normal speech development, who use a grammatical element syntactically correctly within the meaning of one case, number, face, children with impaired speech development do not learn the syntactic meaning of the case for a long time: “eats porridge”, “sits on a small chair” (sits on a high chair )" . The first case is the use of a grammatically amorphous form of the nominative instead of (here) the accusative and, in all likelihood, instead of all the others. This, again, is the prolonged use of unchangeable words, the absence of grammatical categories, and not intercase confusion. But the second case cannot be considered as an example of the unlearned meaning of the case: when the preposition is omitted, the ending of the prepositional case is used correctly, since inflection -y is present in some frequent words of the Russian language precisely in the locative meaning (on the closet, on the bridge, on the shore, in the forest, in the pelvis, etc.). It is no coincidence that such errors are often found in children with normal speech development (On the mushroom; Do the horses sleep on the beach?).
An error like many chairs should also not be considered abnormal: this is the only case of intercase confusion (the endings of the genitive plural and the prepositional plural), which is often found in speech during normal development. S.N. Zeitlin writes: “Children, as a rule, can choose an inflection that does not correspond to the norm, but at the same time they never go beyond the limits of the case, i.e. the case itself is determined correctly - in accordance with semantic premises. However, there is one exception to this rule: there is a mixture of inflections of the genitive and prepositional cases in the plural, i.e. one has to hear: “I fell off the sled”, “He is already in stockings”, “We have a calf, only he has no horns”, etc. The reasons for this phenomenon are not yet fully understood. Most likely, the case is chosen correctly here too (otherwise, such a mixture would be observed in the singular, but this, however, does not happen). Apparently, the child is misled by some sound proximity of inflections -ah and -ov (pronounced as -af). “Х” and “Ф” are often mixed up during the perception of speech, obviously, and in this case they are not sufficiently differentiated by ear. This is obviously a perceptual speech error, turning into a production error. Perhaps there are other reasons for such errors, since it is phonetically inexplicable to use the ending -е of the genitive case instead of the ending
-ah prepositional: "This story will be about Katya and her friends: Long, Borokhvost, Zhar-Kon." (From the composition of a second-grader-excellent student.) Or the use of the ending -ah instead of zero: “The ducklings had a problem with the harp” (From the story of a 6-year-old child). Errors of this type are found not only among preschool children, but among schoolchildren and even adults in oral and written speech: “Leaves fall from the trees in autumn” (from a composition by a second grader); “…thinking about the social and moral laws by which humanity lives” (from an essay by an applicant); "... based on these products of activity" (from the thesis).
Another feature in the pathology of speech development, noted by N.S. Zhukova, - the pronunciation of vowels ("vocal substitute") in place of prepositions: akamani - from the pocket, atui - on a chair. But the use by children of proto-prepositions (“fillers”, some substitutes for real prepositions), which fill the place of future prepositions, is known to researchers of normal children's speech at the initial stage of mastering morphology. At first, all forms are used either without prepositions at all (me -
at me, chest of drawers - on the chest of drawers, grazing flour - went for milk), or accompanied by the sound [a], acting as a proto-preposition (and kiiti - on the porch, and lighthouses - for milk, and Yanya - about Vanya). Consequently, here we are not talking about an anomalous type of error, but again about a developmental delay: normally, proto-prepositions are replaced by real prepositions after 5-6 months. after the appearance of the first grammatical categories (by about 2.3-2.6 years), when prepositions appear in the speech of children who used the first grammatical forms without them at all. Statement by N.S. Zhukova that "normally, the period during which the child consistently omits prepositions is unusually short, only 1.5-3 months" does not correspond to reality: the forms of all cases appeared in Zhenya Gvozdev's speech within 28 days, and the first suggestions - 5 months later! See in the diary of A.N. Gvozdeva: "There are still no prepositions, although the forms of cases have been learned for a long time."
“Many prepositional constructions of abnormal children's speech may indicate a peculiar understanding by children of the meanings of service words: they say “from the bucket” in the meaning - pour out of the bucket; “for the oilcloth” in the meaning - to hide under the oilcloth; “with a knife”, “with a ball” in the meaning - to cut with a knife, play ball, i.e. in the meaning of the compatibility of the action with the object,” writes N.S. Zhukov. However, similar errors associated with the wrong choice of preposition are often found in the speech of children when mastering syntax. For example, in the speech of a 3-year-old child with a good level of speech development, there are expressions: “I want to kiss you on the nose”; “I cried about my mother”, “Dad is joking with me”, “Don’t be naughty with me”, etc.
3. Disharmonious ratio of the development of the components of the language ability
Relationship between vocabulary and syntax
"Does not build sentences after 30 words"; “Dictionary of 50-100 words in the absence of two-word
sayings." Such an exact figure seems strange, as mentioned earlier. In addition, it is necessary to take into account whether the child has begun to acquire grammatical categories: he can use a compensatory strategy, mastering morphology earlier than syntax, thus avoiding "telegraphic speech", i.e. constructing sentences from immutable words. So, having mastered the category of case and number of a noun, a child can often convey with the help of inflections the same thing that another child conveys at the same time with the help of two-word statements of the “telegraphic style”. Compare the requirement to give a spatula (scoop) in the speech of different children: apatka - a spatula and apatka give - a spatula.
Correlation of syntax and morphology
 The use of unchangeable root words in 3-5-word statements for a long time. Indeed, a child using “telegraphic speech”, not for 2-3 months, but for about a year, is at risk in terms of speech development. However, it should be borne in mind that children of the expressive type may begin to produce sentences with a small set of words, combining them in all possible ways, and do not abandon the "telegraphic style", i.e. rather complex syntax exists for a long time without morphology at all.

• Premature use of a preposition (before inflection), use of an invariable word with a preposition (with mom).
• In the most severe cases of manifestation of agrammatism.

Such cases are not known to researchers of normal children's speech.
In general, in our opinion, we can talk about the underdevelopment of the child's ability to generalize, which leads to the following consequences:
- long coexistence of sentences, grammatical
ski correctly and incorrectly formed, words with and without endings (katya aizakh and skates - skiing and skating);
- a small dictionary, since normally a lexical explosion in the development of the lexicon occurs at the moment when the child makes a discovery, which he wrote about at the beginning of the 20th century. German psychologist W. Stern: "Each object has its own name." Apparently, especially
knowledge of this fact is later and with great difficulty given to children with speech pathology;
- lack of ability to use a “prompting word pattern”, to form forms by analogy, i.e. little or no innovation in speech. In other words, most children with normal speech development have a large number of errors - form and word-building innovations (occasionalisms). It is hard not to agree with N.S. Zhukova that “the same manifestations of agrammatism observed at different stages of speech development should be regarded differently. Depending on the stage of speech development, the same irregular forms of words used by children act as indicators of evolution in language acquisition , then as indicators of involution".
However, here too, caveats are required:
- innovations are characteristic primarily of referential children - children of expressive speech style produce much less innovations, since their way of language acquisition is mainly imitative;
- it is important which manifestations of agrammatism and at what age act as indicators of evolution and when they become indicators of involution.
Of fundamental importance for speech diagnostics is the ability of a speech therapist to recognize differences:
- between word-building and form-building innovations. Word formation is almost always a plus in assessing a child's speech development. Let's consider some word-forming occasionalisms in the speech of 8-year-old Zhenya Gvozdev, recognized by speech therapists as the standard of the norm: I don’t care about the middle crucian - he asks for the crucian that lies in the middle of the pan; Get up! Pretty couch potato; Winding road - about the road from Yalta to Livadia; Thick-skinned - about watermelon; The cat will put on - will give birth to kittens, lamb; After shaving - after shaving; It is cramped for him - it is bulging upwards, and thinner downwards - it speaks of a cactus expanding upwards; Rowing boat; As long as it is not nailed - not knocked down with nails; It is necessary to make it (the boat) - do it; Water-feeding - this is the name of a boat made of rotten, which absorbs water very much; Afraid - will turn into dust; Georgian - Georgian; Here we have a wall that is getting worse; I am now doing vacations - about the examples given for the holidays; I finish holes - I punch with a chisel; He spoke about primitive people, then about secondary and tertiary; Prisoners - for-
included; Calls the rider an inmate;
- between different types of formative innovations. So, there are difficult, late assimilated forms; long-term mistakes that even a 6-7-year-old child with excellent speech development has the right to make.
List of used
and recommended literature
1. Balobanova V.P., Titova T.A., Chistovich I.A. Primary assessment of the communicative development of young children // Diagnosis of speech disorders in children and the organization of speech therapy work in a preschool institution: Sat. method. rec. SPb., 2002.
2. Gvozdev A.N. From first words to first class. Saratov, 1981.
3. Zhukova N.S., Mastyukova E.M., Filicheva T.B. Overcoming the general underdevelopment of speech in preschool children. M., 1990.
4. Eliseeva M.B. Speech ontogenesis: a linguist's view // Speech therapist. 2005. No. 4.
5. Zeitlin S.N. Language and child. M., 2000.
6. Bloom L. Language development from two to three. 1991.
7. Goldfield B., Snow C.E. Individual differences in language acquisition // The development of language. Ed. by J. Berko Gleason. NY, 1993.
8. Nelson K. Structure and strategy in learning to talk: Monographs of the Society for Research in child development. 1973.