Porshnev Boris Fedorovich About the beginning of human history (Problems of paleopsychology)
Boris Fedorovich Porshnev(03/07/1905 - 11/26/1972) - Soviet historian and sociologist. Doctor of historical (1941) and philosophical (1966) sciences. Honorary Doctor of Clermont-Ferrand University in France (1956).
Boris Fedorovich Porshnev graduated from the Faculty of Social Sciences of Moscow State University named after M. V. Lomonosov and postgraduate studies in history at RANION.
In 1935, Porshnev became a professor at the Moscow Regional Pedagogical Institute. In 1938 he received his Ph.D. and an institute chair in the history of the Middle Ages; in the same year he became a professor at the Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature and History.
At the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, he was evacuated to Kazan, where he worked as a professor and head of the department of history (1941-1942) at the Faculty of History and Philology of Kazan University. Here he defended his doctoral dissertation on popular uprisings in France in the 17th century.
For the monograph "People's Uprisings" B. F. Porshnev on March 3, 1950, by the Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, was awarded the Stalin Prize of the USSR III degree for 1949.
From 1957 to 1966 he was the head of the sector for the modern history of Western European countries at the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences, since 1966 he led the group for the study of the history of socialist ideas, and since 1968 he headed the sector for the study of the history of the development of social thought at the Institute of World History of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Porshnev's works have been translated into many foreign languages. He received an honorary doctorate from the University of Clermont-Ferrand.
Peru BF Porshnev owns two dozen monographs and more than 200 articles.
Porshnev believed that the study of history as a set of facts is fundamentally wrong, that this science is just as logical and regular as the exact sciences. He was going to describe human history from this point of view. However, Porshnev managed to write only the beginning of this "rewritten" history - "". The uniqueness of this monograph lies in the fact that the author for the first time tried to explain one of the most difficult questions of the formation of Homo sapiens in the historical period of his separation from monkey ancestors, relying not on mythological guesses, but on strict patterns of development and dynamics of higher nervous activity. All the outstanding achievements of the world and, especially, domestic physiology of nervous and higher nervous activity, related not only to paleopsychology, but to the entire psyche of Homo sapiens, entered the structure of his theoretical constructions.
The history of this book is tragic. Porshnev hardly obtained permission to publish the book, agreeing for this to remove chapters that are important for expressing his main idea. However, in the end, the set was scattered, and the book came out only after Porshnev's death in 1974. This edition is also incomplete.
The first complete edition of the book was published in 2006 under the editorship of B.A. Didenko. Then the book "On the Beginning of Human History" was published in 2007 under the scientific editorship of O.T. Vita, who restored the manuscript in its original version, and also did a great job of expanding the scientific apparatus of the book.
Porshnev's works demonstrate his education not only in the humanities, but also in special ones, such as general physiology of nervous activity, higher nervous activity, pathopsychology and psychiatry, linguistics and psycholinguistics. Deep knowledge in these areas of science allowed Porshnev to reveal the concepts of instinctive and conscious labor, touched upon by Marx and Engels, and their role in the humanization of anthropoid apes.
The main ideas of B.F. Porshneva
There is a fundamental gap between man and all other animals.
Anthropogenesis is not an ascending process of gradual humanization of ape-like ancestors, but a steep turn over the abyss, during which Something appeared in nature and then disappeared, something fundamentally different from both monkeys and people.
"Remnants of the past" in human behavior are associated not so much with the "monkey" inheritance, but with what arose in the process of anthropogenesis.
Human thinking is not a development of information processing methods that exist in other animals, but a fundamental new formation.
Human thinking is primarily collective and was originally carried out by a network of brains connected by speech signals. Only as society develops, individual thinking is formed.
Human labor is fundamentally different from the labor of bees and beavers in that a person first thinks and then does. This work is peculiar only to Homo sapiens. The work of Pithecanthropes and Neanderthals was like the work of a beaver, not Homo sapiens.
Man is not a biosocial, but a completely social being.
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uHDS RP NOPZYN DBOOSCHN, RTYTPDB RPDULBBMB [...] HЪLHA FTPRH (LPFPTBS, PDOBLP, CH DBMSHOEKYEN CHSHCHCHEMB CHPMAGYA ABOUT OEVSHCHCHBMHA DPTPZH). teyeoye VYPMPZYUEULPZP RBTBDPLUB UPUFPSMP CH FPN, UFP YOUFYOLF OE BRTEEBM YN HVYCHBFSH RTEDUFBCHYFEMEK UCHPEZP UPVUFCHEOOPZP CHYDB. [...] LPMPZYYuEULBS EEMSH, LBLBS PUFBCHBMBUSH LCA UBNPURBUEOYS X PVTEYUEOOPZP RTYTPDPK ON ZYVEMSH UREGYBMYYTPCHBOOPZP CHYDB DCHHOPZYI RTYNBFPCH, CHUESDOSCHI OBFHTE RP, RP OP FTHRPSDOSCHI PUOPCHOPNH VYPMPZYYUEULPNH RTPZHYMA, UPUFPSMB H FPN, YUFPVSCH YURPMSHPCHBFSH YUBUFSH UCHPEK RPRHMSGYY LBL UBNPCHPURTPYCHPDSEYKUS LPTNPCHPK YUFPYUOYL. oEYUFP, PFDBMEOOP RPDPVOPE FBLPNKh SCHMEOYA, OEVESHCHEUFOP H PPMPZYY. Pop Complexback BDEMSKHPZhPZYEK ("Rpaduben Ustbfshchech"), RPDubube Dpufisbaek x Oelfpfphatshi Childhps NEME YYY NEEE OTBNFOPPZP IBTBLBETB, IPFS Chu Tset Oilpdb OE Ufbopchsheek Puopchoshn Yuy Padin Yuj Puppsuchi Yufpyuyulpch Rifboyus. "rTPBOBMYYTPCHBCH NOPZPYUYUMEOOSCHE DBOOSCHE PPMPZYY P UMHYUBSI BDEMSHZHPZHBZYY, B FBLTS BTIEPMPZYUEULIE DBOOSCHE, UCHYDEFEMSHUFCHHAEYE P RPRSHCHFLBI RBMEPBOFTPRB HUFBFSH OB LFCHFPY RHF
. "ChSchIPDPN dv RTPFYCHPTEYUYK PLBBMPUSH MYYSH TBUEERMEOYE UBNPZP CHYDB RBMEPBOFTPRPCH ON DCHB CHYDB pF RTETSOEZP CHYDB UTBCHOYFEMSHOP VSCHUFTP J VHTOP PFLPMPMUS OPCHSCHK, UFBOPCHYCHYYKUS LPMPZYYUEULPK RTPFYCHPRPMPTSOPUFSHA eUMY RBMEPBOFTPRSCH OE HVYCHBMY OYLPZP LTPNE RPDPVOSCHI UEVE, OP OEPBOFTPRSCH RTEDUFBCHYMY UPVPK YOCHETUYA:. RP HETE RTECHTBEEOYS B PIPFOYLPCH Sing OE HVYCHBMY YNEOOP RBMEPBOFTPRPCH. sing UOBYUBMB PFMYYUBAFUS PF RTPYUYI FTPZMPDYFPCH DRYER, YUFP OE HVYCHBAF FYI RTPYUYI FTPZMPDYFPCH. b NOPZP, NOPZP RPTSE, PFYOHTPCHBCHYYUSH PF FTPZMPDYFPCH sing HTSE OE FPMSHLP HVYCHBMY RPUMEDOYI, LBL CHUSLYI YOSCHI TSYCHPFOSCHI, LBL "OEMADEK" OP J HVYCHBMY RPDPVOSCHI UEVE, FP EUFSH OEPBOFTPRCH, CHUSLYK TB U NPFICHPN, UFP FE - OE CHRPMOE MADY, ULPTEE VMYCE L "OEMADSN" (RTEUFHROYLY, YUHTSBLY, YOPCHETGSHCH)".BOMBMY DBOOSCHI PPMPZYY (OBYOYOBS U dBTCHYOB) P TBMYUOSHI ZHPTNBI CHYDPPVTBBPCHBOYS RTYCHPDYF RPTYOECHB L CHCHCHPDH P UCHPEPVTBBOPN "UFYYIKOPN YULKHUUFCHEOOPN" PFVPTE, METSOPBEYEN CH PU
"ChRPMOE" VEUUPOBFEMSHOSCHN "J UFYIYKOSCHN YOFEOUYCHOSCHN PFVPTPN RBMEPBOFTPRSCH J CHSCHDEMYMY dv UCHPYI TSDPCH PUPVSCHE RPRHMSGYY, UFBCHYYE BFEN PUPVSCHN CHYDPN. PVPUPVMSENBS PF ULTEEYCHBOYS ZHPTNB, CHYDYNP, PFCHEYUBMB RTETSDE CHUEZP FTEVPCHBOYA RPDBFMYCHPUFY ON YOFETDYLGYA. FP VSCHMY" VPMSHYEMPVSCHE ". x OII CHRPMOE HDBCHBMPUSH RPDBCHMSFSH YNRHMSHU HVYCHBFSH RBMEPBOFTPRCH. OP RPUMEDOYE NPZMY RPEDBFSH YUBUFSH YI RTYRMPDB. "VPMShYEMPVSchI" NPTSOP VSCHMP RPVHDYFSH FBLTSE RETEUYMYFSH YOUFYOLF "OE HVYCHBFSH" OP EUFSH RPVHDYFSH HVYCHBFSH LCA RBMEPBOFTPRPCH LBL "CHSCHLHR" TBOSCHI TSYCHPFOSCHI, RPOBYUBMH IPMF R ™ £ J VPMSHOSCHI PUMBVECHYYI, CHDPVBCHPL A RTETSOYN YUFPYUOYLBN NSUOPK RYEY. PDOIN YUN UINRFPNPCH DMS Ufyikopp PFVPTB Umkhtsimb, Chetpsfop, Zechchpumpufs Yi FEMB, CHUMUFCHYE JESP CHISUCH PLTUFCHEK TSYCHPFUCTE NYTFTPCHBFSHBFCH II PF ChPMPUGFSHBFSHBFSKOPBFRPH.
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"UHFSh YEE UPUFPYF B FPN, YUFP RPDTPUFLPCH, DPUFYZYYI RPMPCHPK TEMPUFY (RTEYNHEEUFCHEOOP NBMSHYUYLPCH J H NEOSHYEK UFEREOY - DECHPYUEL) CHSCHTBEEOOSCHI B OBYUYFEMSHOPK YPMSGYY PF CHTPUMPZP UPUFBCHB RMENEOY, RPDCHETZBAF DPCHPMSHOP NHYUYFEMSHOSCHN RTPGEDHTBN J DBTSE YUBUFYYUOPNH LBMEYUEOYA, UYNCHPMYYTHAEYN HNETECHMEOYE FPF PVTSD UPCHETYBEFUS ZDE-. OYVHDSH B MEUH J CHSCHTBTSBEF LBL R ™ £ RTYOEUEOYE FYI RPDTPUFLPCH B TSETFCHH TH OF UYAEDEOYE MEUOSCHN YUHDPCHYEBN rPUMEDOYE SCHMSAFUS ZHBOFBUFYYUEULYNY BNEEEOYSNY OELPZDB UPCHUEN OE ZHBOFBUFYYUEULYI, B TEBMSHOSCHI RPTSYTBFEMEK -. RBMEPBOFTPRPCH, LBL J UBNP DEKUFCHYE SCHMSMPUSH OE URELFBLMEN, B RPDMYOOSCHN HNETECHMEOYEN n FPN, ULPMSH CHEMYLHA. TPMSh X YUFPLPC YUEMPCHEYUFCHB YZTBMP LFP SCHMEOYE, RETECYFPYuOP UPITBOYCHIEUS CH ZHTNE YOYGYBGYK, OBHLB HOBMB YB OBNEYUBFEMSHOPK LOYZY h.p. rTPRRB, RPLBBCHYEZP, YUFP PZTPNOBS YUBUFSH ULBPYUOP-NYZHPMPZYYUEULPZP ZHPMSHLMPTB RTEDUFBCHMSEF UPVPA RPDOEE RTEPVTBPCHBOYE RETEPUNSCHUMEOYE PDOPZP TH TH FPZP CE YUIPDOPZP SDTB: RTYOEUEOYS B TSETFCHH YUHDPCHYEH AOPYEK J DECHHYEL YMY, FPYUOEE, FPZP BLFB, RTEPVTBPCHBOOPZP HTSE B TBOSCHE CHBTYBOFSCH PVTSDB YOYGYBGYY ". dMYFEMSHOPE UPITBOEOYE YuEMPCHEYUEULYI CETFCHPRTYOPYOYEK, HCE PVPUPVYCHYYIUS PF ZhHOLGYY UMHTSYFSH LPTNPCHPK VBPK RBMEPBOFTPRBN, rPtyoech PVYASUOSEF UMEDHAENY RTYUYOBNY:
"EUMY OELPZDB HNETECHMEOYE MADEK VSCHMP UCHSBOP UP UREGYZHYYUEULYNY PFOPYEOYSNY OEPBOFTPRPCH have RBMEPBOFTPRBNY J PYUEOSH TBOP VSCHMP RPDNEOEOP TSETFCHEOOSCHN HNETECHMEOYEN TSYCHPFOSCHI, B YUBUFOPUFY ULPFB, FP B gEOFTBMShOPK J aTsOPK bNETYLE LTHROSCHK DPNBYOYK ULPF RPYUFY PFUHFUFCHPCHBM J RETCHPVSCHFOSCHK PVTSD UPITBOYMUS DP CHTENEOY UMPTSOSCHI LHMSHFPCH, FPZDB LBL DTECHOYE ZTELY HCE U OEBRBNSFOSHCHCHTENEO BLNEOYMY YUEMPCHEYUEULIE CETFCHSHCH RPDOPUYNSCHNY CHUSLPZP TBOB VPTSEUFCHBN ZELBFPNVBNY - ZPTBNY - HNETECHMSENPZP ULPFB".rTPBOBMYYTPCHBCH NOPZPYUYUMEOOSCHE DBOOSCHE PV UCHPMAGYY TSEFCHPRTYOPYOYK, rPTYOECH TEANYTHEF:
"FBLYN PVTBPN B OBYYI ZMBBI CHPUUFBOBCHMYCHBEFUS UOBYUBMB LTYCHBS CHPUIPDSEEZP VYPMPZYYUEULPZP OBYUEOYS FYI TSETFCHPRTYOPYEOYK, OP EUFSH HCHEMYYUEOYE PVYAENB TSETFCHHENPK RYEY LCA OEMADEK (Cheto, BOFYMADEK), B RPTSE OBYUYOBEFUS J BFEN LTHFP BNEOSEF FH TEBMSHOHA VYPMPZYYUEULHA ZHHOLGYA UYNCHPMYYUEULBS ZHHOLGYS. RPUMEDOSS NPTSEF YDFY LBL RTSNP PF YUEMPCHEYUEULYI TSETFCHPRTYOPYEOYK (TEMYZYPOPE UBNPHVYKUFCHP, UBNPHTPDPCHBOYE, UBNPPZTBOYYUEOYE H ZHPTNE RPUFB J BULEFYNB, BFPYUEOYE) FBL Q PD TSETFCH ULPFPN J RTPDHLFBNY (RPUCHSEEOYE TSYCHPFOSCHI, TSETFCHB RETCHYOPL, LPTNMEOYE ZHEFYYB, UTSYZBOYE, VTSCHZBOSHE, CHPMYSOYE) ".rPTYOECH FBL RPDCHPDYF YFPZY BOBMYH DYCHETZEOHYY:
"YFBL, EUMY, I PDOPK UFPTPOSCH, NShch OBEHRSCHCHBEN B ZMHVYOBI DYCHETZEOGYY HNETECHMEOYE OBYUYFEMSHOPK YUBUFY NPMPDY OELPEK PFYOHTPCHSCHCHBAEEKUS TBOPCHYDOPUFY (LPMYYUEUFCHP FPK NPMPDY RPUFEREOOP TEDHGYTPCHBMPUSH DP PVTSDB RTYOEUEOYS B TSETFCHH FPMSHLP RETCHEOGB) AF have DTHZPK UFPTPOSCH, NShch OBIPDYN J CHBYNOPE HNETECHMEOYE DTHZ DTHZB CHTPUMSCHNY NHTSULYNY PUPVSNY (TEDHGYTPCHBOOBS ZHPTNB B FPN UMHYUBE - RPEDYOPL) dv FPK CHFPTPK MYOYY RTPYPYMY J TBVUFCHP, OP EUFSH UPITBOEOYE TSYOY TBOEOSCHN J RMEOOSCHN, J EZP RPUMEDHAEYE RTEPVTBPCHBOYS J UNSZYUEOYS B DBMSHOEKYEK LPOPNYYUEULPK CHPMAGYY YUEMPCHEYUEUFCHB, B Y DTHZPK UFPTPOSCH -. CHUSYUEULYE ZHPTNSCH NYTOPZP UPUEDUFCHB, FP EUFS RTECTBEEYAS CPKU HUUFPKYUCHPUFSHPUFSHPUKHUEUFCHTEI IFOPUPCH, LHMSHFKHT Y PUBHDBTUFCH. CHRACCHT PUFBMYUUSH LB UPTBDYYULYY LBFBLMYNCH, LPFPT SPEEUPHEUFCHP CHECE EE OE NPSEF YZYFSH.
OP OBYB FENB - FPMSHLP OBYUBMP YUEMPCHEYUEULPK YUFPTYY. DYCHETZEOHYS YMY PFYOKHTPCHBOYE PF RBMEPBOFTPRCH PDOK CHEFCHY, UMHTSYCHYEK RYFBOYEN DMS YUIPDOPK, - CHPF UFP NSCH OBIPDYN CH YUFPLE, OP RTSNPE YЪHYUEOYE FFPZP VYPMPZYUEULPZP ZHUMOPZHMOPSCHOYE. Hm NPTSEN MYYSH TELPOUFTHYTPCHBFSH EZP, LBL TH CHUA PYEMPNMSAEHA UYMH EZP RPUMEDUFCHYK, RPYUFY YULMAYUYFEMSHOP RP RPDOEKYYN TEHMSHFBFBN FPZP RETECHPTPFB: Do RPNPESHA OBYYI OBOYK PV YUFPTYYUEULPN YUEMPCHELE J YUEMPCHEYUEULPK YUFPTYY ".oEPVIPDYNPUFSh LPTNYFSH RBMEPBOFTPRPCH YUBUFSHA UPVUFCHEOOPK RPRHMSGYY, B LBYUEUFCHE LPFPTPK NPZHF CHSCHUFHRBFSH, ZMBCHOSCHN PVTBPN, PUPVY NHTSULPZP RPMB, UZHPTNYTPCHBMB ON RPTPZE YUFPTYY UCHPEPVTBOSCHE "ZEODETOSCHE" PFOPYEOYS CHOHFTY CHYDB OEPBOFTPRPCH. UPCHTENEOOSHCHK ZHENOYIN NPZ VSH OBKFI ЪDEUSH NOPZP RPMEЪOPZP DMS RPOYNBOIS RTPYUIPTsDEOYS RTPVMEN, U LPFPTSCHNY ENH RTYIPDYFUS TBVPFBFSH:
"UBNLY-RTPYCHPDYFEMSHOYGSCH, CHETPSFOP, DBCHBMY J CHULBTNMYCHBMY OENBMPE RPFPNUFCHP. YuFP LBUBEFUS PUPVEK NHTSULPZP RPMB, YEE LPMYYUEUFCHP NPZMP VSCHFSH NOPZP Neosho LCA PVEUREYUEOYS RTPYCHPDUFCHB PVYMSHOPK NPMPDY. Op CHSCHTBUFBMB MJ RPUMEDOSS DP CHTPUMPZP UPUFPSOYS? [...] ECPAT DHNBFSH, YUFP FPF NPMPDOSL , CHULPTNMEOOSCHK YMY, cheto, LPTNYCHYYKUS VMY UFPKVYE ON RPDOPTSOPN TBUFYFEMSHOPN LPTNH DP RPTPZB CHPTBUFB TBNOPTSEOYS, HNETECHMSMUS J UMHTSYM RYEEK LCA RBMEPBOFTPRPCH. mYYSh PYUEOSH OENOPZYE NPZMY HGEMEFSH J RPRBUFSH B YUYUMP FEI CHTPUMSCHI, LPFPTSCHE FERETSH PFRPYULPCHSCHCHBMYUSH PF RBMEPBOFTPRPCH, PVTBHS NBMP-RPNBMH YPMYTPCHBOOSCHE RPRHMSGYY LPTNYMSHGECH FFYI RBMEPBOFTPRCH".tBMYYuYS B VYPMPZYYUEULPK GEOOPUFY, LPFPTHA RTEDUFBCHMSMY LCA PFOPYEOYK have RBMEPBOFTPRBNY NHTSULYE J TSEOULYE PUPVY OEPBOFTPRPCH, ON ZHPOE TBCHYFPZP "YULHUUFCHEOOSCHN" PFVPTPN YOUFYOLFB "HVYCHBFSH" PVHUMPCHYMY RPSCHMEOYE YUYUFP "NHTSULPZP Demba" - CHPKOSCH:
"EUMY PF UPCHTENEOOSCHI CHPKO have YEE UMPTSOEKYYNY LMBUUPCHSCHNY, RPMYFYYUEULYN, LPOPNYYUEULYNY RTYYUYOBNY URHUFYFSHUS LBL NPTSOP ZMHVTSE B RPOBCHBENPE LCA YUFPTYYUEULPK OBHLY RTPYMPE B RPIH CHBTCHBTUFCHB, NShch PVOBTHTSYCHBEN HCHEMYYUYCHBAEEEUS PBN OBYUEOYE OE BCHPECHBOYS, B UBNPZP UTBTSEOYS, UBNPK VYFCHSCH h RTEDZHEPDBMSHOSCHE CHTENEOB TEHMSHFBF CHPKOSCH -. FP HVYFSCHE MADY, PUFBCHYYEUS ON RPME VTBOY. [...] b Q b ZMHVYOBI RETCHPVSCHFOPUFY RPDBCHOP OE VSCHMP RPLPTEOYS FHENGECH BCHPECHBFEMSNY OH, OH PVTBEEOYS YEE DBOOYLPCH H, OH BICHBFB X OHYE FETTYFPTYK. CHBYNOPE about YUFTEVMEOYE CHSCHIPDYMY FPMSHLP NHTSYUYOSCH (EUMY PUFBCHYFSH H UFPTPOE MEZEODH PV BNB'POLBI); [...] U VYPMPZYUEULPK FPYULY TEOYS, YUYUE'OPCHEOYE DBCE YUBUFY NHTSULPZP OBUEMEOIS OE RTERSFUFCHPCHBMP CHPURTPY'CHEDEOYA Y TBUYTEOYA RPRHMSGYY RTY UPITBOEOYY RTPDHFYCHOPKU.Underwear of the GumpepvtBack of RTChUFEFY RTVMILLSBEBSHMSHMSHMSFBFSHB Uzreychbmzhazhki YumedpchBeeke RtoTeechb h PVMBUFY YLPMPZYY SWICBKYY RTEDLPCH YEMPCELB, YVP SOUNT RTSNP LBBAFUS VHDHEYY YUEMPCHEULY "WENEACHESE GEOPUFEKEK". TEYUSH YDEF P "FBUHAEENUS UFBDE" LBL ZHPTNE UPUKHEEUFCHPCHBOIS VMYTSBKYI RTEDLPC YuEMPCHELB:
"Yi VYPMPZYYUEULYK PVTB TSYOY, URPUPV RPMHYUEOYS NSUOPK RYEY RTEDYASCHYM ON PRTEDEMEOOPK UFHREOY RPYUFY OERPUYMSHOSCHE FTEVPCHBOYS A NPVYMSHOPUFY, RPDCHYTSOPUFY FYI UHEEUFCH, LBL B UNSCHUME VSCHUFTPFSCH RETEDCHYTSEOYS, FBL J H UNSCHUME DMYFEMSHOPUFY J RPLTSCHCHBENSCHI TBUUFPSOYK FY FTEVPCHBOYS J RTYCHEMY A TBTSCHCHH UFBDOPZP UGERMEOYS:. UBNLY Do NPMPDOSLPN (PYUEOSH DPMZP OEUBNPUFPSFEMSHOSCHN X ZPNYOYD) PFUFBCHBMY, PFTSCHCHBMYUSH PF CHTPUMSCHI UBNGPCH, RTYYUEN OE UEPOOP (LBL, OBRTYNET, B UFBDBI ZPTOSCHI LPMPCH), B VE CHPNPTSOPUFY UPEDYOYFSHUS CHOPCHSH. OP ON ZYZBOFULPK FETTYFPTYY FYI NYZTBGYK DTHZYE UBNGSCH ON CHTENS RTYUPEDYOSMYUSH A FYN UBNLBN Do NPMPDOSLPN, UFPVSCH ЪBFEN, CH UCHPA PYUETEDSh, PFPTCHBFSHUS PF OII."
"EUMY OBUFBYCHBFSH ON UMPCHE" UFBDP "FP FP UFBDP UPCHETYEOOP PUPVPZP TPDB: FP TBVHIBS, OP UYAETSYCHBSUSH B PVYAENE, OP TBURBDBSUSH ON EDYOYGSCH, POP DE YNEEF RPUFPSOOPZP UPUFBCHB YODYCHYDPCH pDYO J FPF CE YODYCHYD NPTSEF PLBSCHCHBFSHUS RPUMEDPCHBFEMSHOP YUMEOPN TBOSCHI UPPVEEUFCH RP HETE YEE. UPEDYOEOYK, TBUUTEDPFPYUEOYK, FBUPCHLY [...] h FYI FBUHAEYIUS ZTHRRBI TH OE NPZMP VSCHFSH UFPKLPZP UENEKOPZP SDTB, CHTPDE UENEKOSCHI ZTHRR ZYVVPOPCH, OH "ZBTENOPK UENSHY" RBCHYBOPCH, -. UBNGSCH, UPUFBCHMSAEYE CHPPVEE MENEOF PPZEPZTBZHYYUEULYK, PVSCHYUOP VPMEE NPVYMSHOSCHK, Yuen UCHSBOOSCHE NPMPDSHA UBNLY, CH DBOOPN UMHYUBE, PFPPTCHBCHYUSH PF UCHPYI UBNPL, HTS OE CHP-CHTBEBMYUSH L OIN CHOPCHSH, B RTINSCHLBMY ZDE-MYVP L DTKhZYN, FTEFSHYN, UPCHETYBS, NPTSEF VSHCHFSH, ZTPNEBDOSHCHE RTPUFTCHEBOUSH.
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"LMAYuEChSchN SCHMEOYEN YUEMPCHEYUEULPZP FTHDB CHSCHUFHRBEF RPDYUYOEOYE CHPMY TBVPFBAEEZP LBL BLPOH PRTEDEMEOOPK UPOBFEMSHOPK GEMY. SSCHLE about UPCHTENEOOPK RUYIPMPZYY FP NPTSEF VSCHFSH LUFETPYOUFTHLGYEK (LPNBODPK) YMY BHFPYOUFTHLGYEK (OBNETEOYEN, BNSCHUMPN)". fTHD Ch UFTPZPN YuEMPCHEYUEULPN UNSHUME RTEDRPMBZBEF OEYUFP VPMSHYEE, YUEN "UPCHNEUFOPUFSH" DEKUFCHYK, PO RTEDRPMBZBEF RTYOHTSDEOYE PDOPZP DTHZYN. uFP CH IPDE TBCHYFYS YOFETYPTYYHEFUS CH "UBNPRTYOKHTSDEOYE" Y F.D. YUIPDOBS VYPMPZYUEULBS UYFKHBGYS, PVHUMPCHYCHYBS CHSHCHDCHYTSEOYE RTYOKHTSDEOYS ABOUT RETEDOIK RMBO, RPTPTSDEOB DYCHETZEOGYEK RTEDLPPCHPZP CHYDB, P YUEN ULBOP CHSHCHYE. rTBCHDB, ЪDEUSH PRSFSH OBJOBEF "RPRBIYCHBFSH" NBTLUYЪNPN, LURMHBFBGYEK, RTYVBCHPYuOPK UFPYNPUFSHHA ... rPDTPVOEE PV LFPN UN. OYCE CH TBEDEME LPOPNYUEULYE OBKHLY. Chuu DBMSHEKY TBHEEYFYE TEYUBYPZPP PVEEYAS UPULPSMP H Puchpeai Chuhe NEME ISPFESTERY YOFTHNEOFTHPUFFULT POPFNBFEYUILE CHRACPOSFSFS "LPNBODH", PDOPK UFPTPURE, YUKTHNEFTHPCH. pV LFPN RPKDEF TEYUSH CH UMEDHAEII TBDEMBI OBUFPSEEZP PVPTTB. h MYOZCHYUFYLE RTPYPYMP RPYUFY FP CE, YUFP J H BOFTPRPMPZYY: rPTYOEChB RTBLFYYUEULY OE CHURPNYOBAF (B OENOPZYNY YULMAYUEOYSNY) DBMSHOEKYEK TBTBVPFLPK RPTYOECHULPK RBTBDYZNSCH H SCHOPN CHYDE OYLFP OE BOYNBEFUS, PDOBLP H OESCHOPN CHYDE PUOPCHOSCHE CHSCHCHPDSCH rPTYOEChB VPMSHYYOUFCHPN MYOZCHYUFPCH UEZPDOS ZHBLFYYUEULY RTYOBOSCH. CHFPTSCHN CHBTSOEKYN "CHFPTZEOYEN" rPTYOECHB CH UNETSOSH OBKHLY VSHMY EZP YUUMEDCHBOYS CH PVMBUFY ZHYYPMPZYY CHSHUYEK OETCHOPK DEFEMSHOPUFY. PVTBFYUCHYUSH LMBUYUYUSHEYUS YUMEDPCHOUSN RBCHMPH HIFPHBCHP, RPPTUYCH RPUFBCHM Fppulkh Ch Yi Urbbdos NPZPMFPN URPTE P FPN, LLB TBVPFFBEF Geof, "Chilbchmsaik" Rpiedyoien Tsychpopoppzp. uHFSH PUKHEEUFCHMEOOPZP rPTYOECHSHCHN "UYOFEEB" UPUFPSMB CH RTEMPTSEOY "VYDPNYOBOPFOPK NPDEMY":
"H LBTSDSCHK DBOOSCHK NPNEOF TSYOEDESFEMSHOPUFY PTZBOYNB, LBL RTBCHYMP, OBMYGP DCHB GEOFTB (DCHE ZTHRRSCH, LPOUFEMMSGYY GEOFTPCH ON TBOSCHI FBTSBI) TBVPFBAEYI RP RTPFYCHPRPMPTSOSCHN RTYOGYRBN: PDYO -" RP rBChMPChH "RP RTYOGYRH VEHUMPCHOSCHI J HUMPCHOSCHI TEZHMELUPCH, DTHZPK -" RP hIFPNULPNH " , RP RTYOGYRH DPNYOBOFSCH pDYO -. RPMAU CHPVHTSDEOYS, DTHZPK - RPMAU FPTNPTSEOYS pDYO CHOEYOE RTPSCHMSEFUS B RPCHEDEOYY, B LBLPN-MYVP DEKUFCHYY PTZBOYNB, DTHZPK CHOEYOE OE RTPSCHMSEFUS, ULTSCHF, OECHYDYN, FBL LBL software HZBYEO RTYFELBAEYNY A OENH NOPZPYUYUMEOOSCHNY VEUUCHSOSCHNY, YMY DYZHZHHOSCHNY,. CHPVHTSDEOYSNY. pDOBLP RTY Chuen YEE BOFBZPOYNE ON RETCHPN RPMAUE [...] B RPDYUYOEOOPK ZHPTNE FPTSE RTPSCHMSEFUS RTYOGYR DPNYOBOFSCH, B ON CHFPTPN PRSFSH-FBLY B RPDYUYOEOOPK ZHPTNE RTPSCHMSEFUS RTYOGYR VEHUMPCHOSCHI J HUMPCHOSCHI TEZHMELUPCH ". rTYOGYR DPNYOBOPSHCH TEBMYEKHEFUS RPMOPUFSHHA MYYSH ABOUT RPMAUE FPTNPTSEOIS, FP EUFSH CH LBYEUFCHE FPTNP'OPK DPNYOBOPSHCH. OP RTY LFPN UPITBOSEFUS CHPNPTSOPUFSH YOCHETUY LFYI GEOPTPCH, CHPNPTSOPUFSH "YOCHETUY FPTNP'OPK DPNYOBOFSHCH". CHUE CHOEYOYE UFYNHMSCH, RPRBDBS CH UEOUPTOHA UZHETH TSYCHPFOZP, DYZHZHETEOGYTHAFUS ABOUT "PFOPUSEYEUS L DEMX" Y "OE PFOPUSEYEUS L DEMX". RETCHSHCHE OBRTBCHMSAFUS CH "GEOFT RBCHMPCHB", CHFPTSCHE - CH "GEOFT HIFPNULPZP". h UPPFCHEFUFCHYY U RTYOGYRPN DPNYOBOFSHCH FFPF CHFPTPK GEOPHT VSHCHUFTP "RETERPMOSEFUS" Y RETEIPDYF CH ZHBH FPTNPTSEOYS. yOBYUE ZPCHPTS, CHUE, YUFP NPTSEF RPNEYBFSH OHTSOPNKH DEKUFCHYA, UPVYTBEFUS H PDOPN NEUFE Y TEYYFEMSHOP FPTNPYFUS. Hairdryer UBNCHN "Geoft HIFPNPCPP" Pveureyuchubf ChPNPTSOPUFS "Geophoft RBChBCBB" Chromfortbizhbfs Umppost Heri Temmelfpti Academy (Retcast Uyzobmshobe Uyufenb) DMS Pooheeufchmeois Vypumbyeweuly Opephmpspzp Zychpopopnh "Dem" Vej RPPNII:
"UPZMBUOP RTEDMBZBENPNH CHZMSDH, CHUSLPNH CHPVHTSDEOOPNH GEOFTH (VHDEN HUMPCHOP LCA RTPUFPFSCH FBL CHSCHTBTSBFSHUS) DPNYOBOFOPNH B DBOOSCHK NPNEOF B UZHETE CHPVHTSDEOYS, UPRTSTSEOOP UPPFCHEFUFCHHEF LBLPK-OP DTHZPK, B FPF CE NPNEOF RTEVSCHCHBAEYK B UPUFPSOYY FPTNPTSEOYS. YOBYuE ZPCHPTS, I PUHEEUFCHMSAEYNUS B DBOOSCHK NPNEOF RPCHEDEOYUEULYN BLFPN UPPFOEUEO DTHZPK PRTEDEMEOOOSCHK RPCHEDEOYUEULYK BLF, LPFPTSCHK RTEYNKHEEUFCHEOOP Y ЪBFPTNPTSEO". yNEOOP FBLYE ULTSCHFSCHE "RPCHEDEOYUEULYE BLFSCH" RPMEOSCHE TSYCHPFOPNH MYYSH UCHPEK "RTYFSZBFEMSHOPK" LCA CHUEZP OEOHTSOPZP UYMPK, J PVOBTHTSYCHBAFUS ZHYYPMPZPN-LURETYNEOFBFPTPN B FBL OBSCHCHBENPK "HMSHFTBRBTBDPLUBMSHOPK" ZHBE B CHYDE "OEBDELCHBFOPZP TEZHMELUB": TSYCHPFOPE CHNEUFP FPZP, YUFPVSCH RYFSH, CHDTHZ OBYUYOBEF "YUEUBFSHUS "Y F.R. FFPF "URBTEOOSHK" NEIBOYEN "rBCHMPCHB-HIFPNULPZP" FBYF CH UEVE GEMSCHK RETECHPTPF CH TSYCHPFOPN NYTE, YVP PFLTSCHCHBEF CHPNPTSOPUFSH PDOPNKH TSYCHPFOPNKh CHFPTZBFSHUS CH "DEKUFCHZPZP" DTHZPZP. chEDSh EUMY HDBEFUS RETECHEUFY B BLFYCHOHA ZHPTNH BFPTNPTSEOOPE DEKUFCHYE, OP RBTBMYPCHBOOSCHN PLBSCHCHBEFUS UPRTSTSEOOPE have Oin, VYPMPZYYUEULY RPMEOPE B DBOOSCHK NPNEOF LCA TSYCHPFOPZP "DEKUFCHYE" YVP HTSE GEOFT, PVEUREYUYCHBCHYYK RPUMEDOEE "RP rBChMPChH" RETEIPDYF B TETSYN TBVPFSCH "RP hIFPNULPNH". LCA FPZP, YUFPVSCH ON PUOPCHE FBLPK "YOCHETUYY FPTNPOPK DPNYOBOFSCH" CHPOYLMB UYUFENB DYUFBOFOPZP CHBYNPDEKUFCHYS, OEPVIPDYNP of the ECE SCDEP CHEOP - YNYFBGYS, RPDTBTSBOYE: BLFYCHOBS UFPTPOB CHBYNPDEKUFCHYS PUHEEUFCHMSEF OES DEKUFCHYE, LPFPTPE, VHDHYUY "USCHNYFYTPCHBOOSCHN" RBUUYCHOPK UFPTPOPK, BCHFPNBFYYUEULY FPTNPYF DEKUFCHYE, PUHEEUFCHMSENPE RPUMEDOEK:
"UPEDYOEOYE FYI DCHHI ZHYYPMPZYYUEULYI BZEOFPCH - FPTNPOPK DPNYOBOFSCH J YNYFBFYCHOPUFY - J DBMP OPCHPE LBYUEUFCHP, B YNEOOP CHPNPTSOPUFSH, RTPCHPGYTHS RPDTBTSBOYE, CHSCHSCHCHBFSH A TSYOY" BOFYDEKUFCHYE "ON Mavpy DEKUFCHYE, OP EUFSH FPTNPYFSH X DTHZPZP YODYCHYDB Mavpy DEKUFCHYE VE RPNPEY RPMPTSYFEMSHOPZP YMY PFTYGBFEMSHOPZP RPDLTERMEOYS TH ON DYUFBOGYY". fBLPE DYUFBOFOPE (PRPUTEDPCHBOOPE YNYFBFYCHOSCHN TEZHMELUPN) OKEKTPUYZOBMSHOPE CHPDEKUFCHIE PDOK PUPVY ABOUT DTKHZHA rPTIOECH OBCHBM "YOFETDYLGYEK". CHPF RTYCHEDEOOOSCHK RPTYOECHSHCHN RTYNET "PVTPPOYFEMSHOPC" YOFETDYLGYY CH UFBDE:
"LBLPK-OP ZMBCHBTSH, RSCHFBAEYKUS DBFSH LPNBODH, CHDTHZ RTYOHTSDEO RTETCHBFSH EE: YUMEOSCH UFBDB UTSCHCHBAF FPF BLF DRYER, YUFP B TEYBAEYK NPNEOF DYUFBOFOP CHSCHSCHCHBAF X OEZP, ULBTSEN, RPYUEUSCHCHBOYE B BFSCHMLE YMY ECHBOYE, YMY BUSCHRBOYE, YMY of the ECE LBLHA-MYVP TEBLGYA, LPFPTHA CH OEN OEPDPMYNP RTPCHPGYTHEF (LBL YOCHETUYA FPTNP'OPK DPNYOBOPSHCH) BLPO YNYFBGYY". fBLYN RTYNETPN rPTYOECH YMMAUFTYTHEF OEEPVIPDYNSHCHE HUMPCHYS RPSCHMEOYS YOFETDYLGYY. POB RPSCHMSEFUS YNEOOP FPZDB, LPZDB YUEMPCHEYUEULPNH RTEDLH, PVMBDBAEENH UYMSHOP TBCHYFSCHN YNYFBFYCHOSCHN TEZHMELUPN, B UYMH NEOSAEEKUS LPMPZYYUEULPK UTEDSCH Chueh YUBEE RTYIPDYMPUSH ULBRMYCHBFSHUS PE Chueh VPMEE NOPZPYUYUMEOOSCHE J UMHYUBKOSCHE RP UPUFBCHH ZTHRRSCH, zde FBLPK TEZHMELU OE RTPUFP UFBOPCHYMUS PRBUOSCHN - EZP OEPDPMYNBS UYMB HTSE ZTPYMB "VYPMPZYYUEULPK LBFBUFTPZHPK ". YOFETDYLGYS, PDPMECHBS OEPDPMYNHA (OYYUEN YOSCHN) UIMKH YNYFBGYY, LBL TB Y RTEDPFCHTBEBEF FFH HZTPBH. fBLYN PVTBYPN YNYFBGYS YZTBEF CH UFBOCHMEOYY YOFETDYLGYY DCHPSLHA TPMSh. at PDOPC UFPTPOSCH, TBCHYFSHCHK YNYFBFYCHOSCHK TEZHMELU RTEDPUFBCHMSEF LBOBM DMS RETEDBYU UBNPZP YOFETDYLFYCHOPZP UYZOBMB. at DTHZPK, FFPF TSE TBCHYFSHCHK YNYFBFYCHOSCHK TEZHMELU RTCHTBEBEF YOFETDYLFYCHOPE UYZOBMSHOPE CHPDEKUFCHIE H OEVPVIPDYNPE HUMPCHYE CHSHTSYCHBOYS DBOOPZP CHYDB. YOFETDYLGYS - RYJEF rPTYOECH - "UPUFBCHMSEF CHSHCHUYHA ZHPTNKh FPTNPTSEOIS CH DESFEMSHOPUFY GEOFTBMSHOPC OETCHOPK UYUFENSCH RPCHPOPUOSCHI". bOBMY YNEAEYIUS DBOOSCHI PV LPMPZYYUEULYI OYYBI, B LPFPTSCHI ON TBOSCHI FBRBI RTYIPDYMPUSH "VPTPFSHUS B UHEEUFCHPCHBOYE" RTEDLH YUEMPCHELB, PV CHPMAGYY EZP ZPMPCHOPZP NPZB, P VEURTEGEDEOFOP FEUOSCHI PFOPYEOYSI have PZTPNOSCHN YUYUMPN DTHZYI TSYCHPFOSCHI RTYCHPDYF rPTYOEChB A DCHPSLPNH CHSCHCHPDH:
- X YuEMPCHEYUEULPZP RTEDLB VSCHMY CHUE BOBFPNYUEULYE Y ZHYYYPMPZYUEULIE RTEDRPUSHMLY DMS PUCPEOYS YOFETDYLGYY;
- VEI PUCHPEOYS RPDPVOSHI YOUFTKHNEOPCH YUEMPCHEYUEULYK RTEDPL VSCHM PVTEYUEO ABOUT CHCHNYTBOYE.
"RPTsBMHK, UBNBS RETCHYUOBS YJ OII CH CHPUIPDSEEN TSDH - HLMPOIFSHUS PF UMSCHYBOYS Y CHIDEOYS FPZP YMI FEI, LFP ZHPTNYTHHEF UHZZEUFYA CH NETSIODYCHYDKHBMSHOPN PVEEOYY". MEF DEUSFSH OBBD PDYO RPTSYMPK MEOYOZTBDULYK ZHYYPMPZ B YUBUFOPK VEUEDE PVYASUOYM UMPTSYCHYHAUS UYFHBGYA UMEDHAEYN PVTBPN: UPCHTENEOOSCHNY ZHYYPMPZBNY RTYOBEFUS FPMSHLP AF YUFP SCHMSEFUS TEHMSHFBFPN YURPMSHPCHBOYS NYLTPULPRB, ULBMSHREMS, IYNYYUEULPZP BOBMYB J FR CHUE PUFBMSHOPE - "ZHYMPUPZHYS". FEN OE NEOEE, TYULOKH CHSHCHULBBFSH HCHETEOOPUFSH, YUFP RPFTEVOPUFSH ZHYYYPMPZPCH CH "ZHYMPUPZHYY" CH DHIE rBCHMPCHB, HIFPNULPZP Y rPTYOECHB YUYUEMB OE OBCHUEZDB. POB EEE CHETOEFUS. [ PRKHEOSCH UMEDHAE ZMBCHSCHCH, CH LPFPTSCHI, CH PUOPCHOPN, RTYCHPDYFUS YjMPTSEOYE UPPFCHEFUFCHHAEYI FEN Y LOYZY RPTYOECHB "p OBYUBME YuEMPCHEYUEULPK YUFPTYY": II. JYMPUPZHULBS BOFTPPRPMPZYS
III. 'PPMPZYS'
IV. MYOSCHYUFILEB
v.
VI. RUYIPMPZYUEULYE OBKHLY ] VII. lHMShFHTPMPZYS yUUMEDPChBOYS rPTYOEChB, BFTBZYCHBAEYE LHMSHFHTH, LBUBAFUS, ZMBCHOSCHN PVTBPN, ITS RTPYUIPTSDEOYS, OEKTPZHYYPMPZYYUEULYI, PPMPZYYUEULYI, B FBLTSE UPGYBMSHOP-RUYIPMPZYYUEULYI RTEDRPUSCHMPL ITS TBMYYUOSCHI RTPSCHMEOYK. RPFPPNKH VPMSHYBS YUBUFSH TEEKHMSHFBFPCH YUUMEDPCHBOIK rPTYOECHB, LPFPTSCHE NPTSOP VSHMP VSH RTPCHEUFY RP CHEDPNUFCHH "LKHMShFKhTPMPZYS", ZHBLFYUEULY HTS Y'MPTSEOSHCHCHCHYE, CH RTTSCHFKHTPMPZYI. ЪDEUSH UMEDHEF ЪBFTPOHFSH EEE OEULPMSHLP CHBTSOSCHI FEN, LPFPTSCHE PUFBCHBMYUSH DP UYI RPT ЪB TBNLBNY OBYEZP YЪMPTSEOIS. 1. FIELB Y FUFEFIELB h RPTYOECHULPN BOBMYE ZMBCHOPZP LFYUEULPZP CHPRTPUB "UFP FBLPE IPTPYP Y UFP FBLPE RMPIP?" PFNEYUKH FTY CHEBYNPUCHSHBOOSCHI BURELFB. l RETCHPK ZTHRRE PO PFOPUIF ЪBRTEFSHCH HVYCHBFSH UEVE RPDPVOPZP, FP EUFSH PZTBOYUEOOYE UZHPTNYTPCHBOOPZP CH IPDE DYCHETZEOHYY ZHHODBNEOFBMSHOPK VYPMPZYUEULPK PUPVEOOPUFY YuEMPCHELB, P Yuen Khtse Yyushchyye
"RP-CHYDYNPNH, DTECHOEKYYN PZHPTNMEOYEN FPZP BRTEFB SCHYMPUSH BRTEEEOYE UYAEDBFSH YUEMPCHELB, HNETYEZP OE FPK YMY YOPK EUFEUFCHEOOPK UNETFSHA, B HVYFPZP YUEMPCHEYUEULPK THLPK. FTHR YUEMPCHELB, HVYFPZP YUEMPCHELPN, OERTYLBUBEN. EZP OEMSHS UYAEUFSH, LBL FP, RP-CHYDYNPNH, VSCHMP EUFEUFCHEOOP UTEDY OBYYI DBMELYI RTEDLPCH CH PFOPIOYY PUFBMSHOSHCHHI HNETYI. l FBLPNKh ChSCHCHPDKh RTYCHPDYF BOBMY RBMEPMYFYUEULYI RPZTEVEOYK".
"We RPLPKOYLB OERTYLBUBENPUFSH TBURTPUFTBOSMBUSH TH OF TSYCHPZP YUEMPCHELB. Poe, RP-CHYDYNPNH, UYUYFBMUS OERTYLBUBENSCHN, EUMY, OBRTYNET, VSCHM PVNBBO LTBUOPK PITPK, OBIPDYMUS B YBMBYE, YNEM ON FEME RPDCHEULY. On PRTEDEMEOOPN FBRE RTBCHP HVYCHBFSH YUEMPCHELB PZTBOYYUYCHBEFUS RTYNEOEOYEN FPMSHLP DYUFBOFOPZP, OD OE LPOFBLFOPZP PTHTSYS; CHNEUFE U FYN RPSCHMSAFUS CHPKOSHCH, LPFPTSHCHE CH RETCHPVSHCHFOPN PVEEUFCHE CHEMYUSH RP PYUEOSH UFTPZYN RTBCHYMBN.. fBLYN PVTBBPN, rPTYOECH OBNEYUBEF RTPGEUU RPUFEREOOPZP RTEPDPMEOIS "UCHPKUFCHB" YuEMPCHELB HVYCHBFSH UEVE RPDPVOSHCHI. h DTHZPN NEUFE ON FBL ZPCHPTYF P RTPGEUUE NPOPRPMYBGYY ZPUHDBTUFCHPN RTBCHB HVYCHBFSH (PV LFPN RPKDEF TEYUSH H TBEDEME rPMYFYUEULYE OBKHLY):
". FHF TEYUSH OE PV PGEOLE - IPTPYP FP YMY RMPIP chEDSh NPTSOP RPUNPFTEFSH ON RTPGEUU FPK NPOPRPMYBGYY LBL ON RHFSH RTEPDPMEOYS YUEMPCHEYUEUFCHPN HLBBOOPZP" UCHPKUFCHB ": LBL ON BRTEEEOYE HVYCHBFSH DTHZ DTHZB, PUHEEUFCHMSENPE" RPUTEDUFCHPN YULMAYUEOYS "- LCA FEI HLYI UYFHBGYK, LPZDB FP NPTSOP Y DPMTSOP (FBLPC NEIBOYIN PUKHEEUFCHMEOYS NOPZYI BRTEFPCH CH YUFPTYY LHMSHFHTSC, CH RUYIYLE YUEMPCHELB)". LP CHFPTPK ZTHRRE BRTEFPCH RPTYOECH PFOPUYF "UBRTEFSHCH VTBFSH Y FTPZBFSH FE YMYY YOSCHE RTEDNEFSHCH, RTPYCHPDYFSH U ONYY FE YMYY YOSCHE DECUFCHYS., P YUEN TEYUSH VKHDEF CH UMEDHAEEN TBEDEME. oblpoeg, L FTEFSHEK ZTHRRE BRTEFPCH RPTYOECH PFOPUYF RPMPCHSHCHE ЪBRTEFSHCH, CH YUBUFOPUFY, OBYVPMEE DTECHOYE YЪ OII - BRTEF RPMPCHPZP PVEEOIS NBFETEK Y USHCHOPCHEK, VBFEN VTBFSHECH Y UEUFET. RPDCHPDS YFPZY UCHPENH BOMBMYKH PVTBYB TSIOY DTECHOEKYI MADEK, rPTYOECH RYEF:
"On BTE UFBOPCHMEOYS PVEEUFCHB [...] FY BRTEFSCH POBYUBMY RTEYNHEEUFCHEOOSCHE RTBCHB RTYYEMSHGECH-NHTSYUYO. Op UMPTSYCHYYKUS FBLYN PVTBPN LPOZHMYLF NETSDH OYNY J NMBDYYNY CHSCHTPUYYNY ON NEUFE NHTSYUYOBNY TBTEYYMUS ZHPTNE H, PP-RETCHSCHI, PVPUPVMEOYS NMBDYYI B PUPVHA PVEEUFCHEOOHA ZTHRRH, PFDEMEOOHA PF UFBTYYI UMPTSOSCHN VBTSHETPN, ChP-CHFPTSCHI, CHPOYOLOPCHEOYS LLPZBNYY - PDOPZP Y ChBTSOEKYI YOUFYFHFCH UFBOPCHSEEZPUS YuEMPCHEYUEULPZP PVEEUFCHB ". LBL HTSE ZPCHPTYMPUSH CHSCHYE, UYUFENB "FBUHAEEZPUS UFBDB" RTEDRPMBZBEF OERTETSCHCHOPE PVOPCHMEOYE EZP UPUFBCHB, B IPDE LPFPTPZP CHTENS PF CHTENEOY RPSCHMSAFUS OPCHSCHE RTYYEMSHGSCH-UBNGSCH, RTYNSCHLBAEYE A FPNH "UFBDH" B YUETE OELPFPTPE CHTENS CHOPCHSH RPLYDBAEYE EZP. 2. THAMESIS y TEEKHMSHFBFPCH YUUMEDPCHBOIK rPTYOECHB, UBFTZYCHBAEYI FBLPK ZHEOPNEO LHMSHFKhTSCH, LBL TEMYZYS, LTBFLP PUFBOPCHMAUSH MYYSH ABOUT DCHHI.
- ChP-RETCHSCHI, LFP TBOOSS YUFPTYS TEMYZYPYOSCHI CHETPCHBOYK, RTPYUIPTsDEOYE RTEDUFBCHMEOYK P "IPTPYYI" Y "RMPIYI" VPTSEUFCHBI. rPTYOECHULYK BOBMYU UHEEUFCHEOOP PFMYYUBEFUS PF PVEERTYOSFSHCHI CHZMSDPCH - LBL TEMYZYPYOSCHI, FBL Y UCHEFULYI.
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And graduate school in history at RANION.
Doctor of historical and philosophical sciences.
In 1935, Porshnev became a professor at the Moscow Regional Pedagogical Institute. In 1938 he received his Ph.D. and an institute chair in the history of the Middle Ages; in the same year he became a professor at the Moscow Institute of History, Philosophy and Literature.
Porshnev's works have been translated into many foreign languages. He held an honorary doctorate from the University of Clermont-Ferrand.
Scientific activity
Peru BF Porshnev owns two dozen monographs and more than 200 articles.
Porshnev believed that the study of history as a set of facts is fundamentally wrong, that this science is just as logical and regular as the exact sciences. He was going to describe human history from this point of view. However, Porshnev managed to write only the beginning of this "rewritten" history - "On the beginning of human history." The uniqueness of this monograph lies in the fact that the author for the first time tried to explain one of the most difficult questions of the formation of Homo sapiens in the historical period of his separation from monkey ancestors, relying not on mythological guesses, but on strict patterns of development and dynamics of higher nervous activity. All the outstanding achievements of the world and, especially, domestic physiology of nervous and higher nervous activity, related not only to paleopsychology, but to the entire psyche of Homo sapiens, entered the structure of his theoretical constructions.
The history of the publication of this book is very tragic, because it cost Porshnev his life. He hardly managed to get the book published, agreeing for this to remove entire chapters important for expressing his main idea. However, the set was scattered, and the book came out only after Porshnev's death, in. This edition is also incomplete.
The first complete edition of Porshnev's book was published in 2006, edited by B.A. Didenko. Then, “On the Beginning of Human History” was published in its entirety under the scientific editorship of O. T. Vite, who restored the manuscript in its original version, and also did a great job of expanding the scientific apparatus of the book.
Porshev's works demonstrate his education not only in the humanities, but also in special ones, such as general physiology of nervous activity, higher nervous activity, pathopsychology and psychiatry, linguistics and psycholinguistics. Deep knowledge in these areas of science allowed Porshnev to reveal the concepts of instinctive and conscious labor, touched upon by Marx and Engels, and their role in the humanization of anthropoid apes.
The use of the dominant by A.A. by the author of the law is also impressive. Ukhtomsky and inadequate (side) reflexes (in passing noted by IP Pavlov) when revealing the mechanism of formation of the second signal system - the physiological basis of speech activity.
In his works, Porshnev comes to the non-trivial conclusion that it is possible to combine the problem of studying the class struggle and the study of paleontropes:
In 1964, Porshnev completed work on the brochure "From higher animals to man." In it, he directly pointed out how, in the process of the divergence of paleoanthropists and neoanthropists, the opposition “we - they” was born: “... it was not so much natural selection that acted here, but a kind of artificial selection - repulsion of one variant from another, even if it did not differ much at first . Against this background, the further, the more unfolded the second process. It consists in the formation of certain relations of generic groups. But in these relations the first process is reproduced, as it were: each group relates both to its neighbor and to others as, to some extent, “non-humans”. People call and consider only their own group. In relation to the nearest links, this is not so pronounced, but the more distant the link in the chain, the more clearly it is treated as “non-humans” ”
The concept of B. F. Porshnev
The concept of BF Porshnev is based on a suggestive approach to historical analysis. He substantiates the interpretation of historical events and the historical process as a whole as a successive change of phases of "suggestion-counter-suggestion-counter-counter-suggestion".
The idea that there are interdisciplinary links between history and psychology is not new. The concept of B.F. Porshneva represents one of the original perspectives of this idea and has repeatedly become the subject of scientific controversy and influenced the development of both historical and psychological science.
Explanations of history based on the psychological mechanism of suggestion have always aroused interest and questions in the scientific community. This concept was developed by Porshnev in the mid-1960s, when such a clearly expressed psychological idea was "introduced" into the field of history, which at that time could not yet be interpreted outside the conceptual framework of the Marxist-Leninist theory of society. The book (collection of articles) "History and Psychology", published under the editorship of B.F. Porshnev and L.I. Antsyferova in 1971. It was an attempt to consolidate the position of the original scientific school based on the union of the two sciences.
The essence of B. F. Porshnev's position is best described by the author in his article on the essence of the suggestive approach to historical analysis in the above-mentioned collection. It consists in the fact that suggestion, being a cell of social psychology, is not observed in everyday life in its pure, isolated form. Therefore, firstly, it is difficult for a researcher to get close to it and, secondly, it is difficult to be convinced of its significance for the historical activity of man. But Porshnev considers that “suggestion is more powerful over a group of people than over an individual, and also if it comes from a person who somehow personifies a group, society, etc., or from direct verbal influences of a group of people (shouts of the crowd, chorus, etc.)”. Given this circumstance, Porshnev establishes the importance of suggestion for the formation of a person as a social being and argues that "suggestion as such, in its pure form, should once have had an automatic, irresistible or, as psychologists and psychiatrists say, fatal character." From this it follows that the mental community (“we”) is ideally a field of absolute faith, and “complete suggestion, complete trust, complete we are identical to non-logic (fundamental unverifiable.” But (by analogy with the law of reverse induction of excitation and inhibition) suggestion is not receives absolute power over a person: a suggestive influence encounters protective mental anti-actions, and the first of such phenomena is distrust. The antithesis of suggestion becomes counter-suggestion. the objective life of society, the contradictions and antagonism of economic and other relations, ”says Porshnev and notes that he is considering here not the reasons that led people in different historical conditions to disrupt the coercive power of the word, but the psychological mechanism of a negative reaction to suggestion, which intensified in the course of history and through which history has changed.
According to Porshnev, suggestion does not disappear in the course of history; as countersuggestion grows and becomes more complex, it takes on other forms. But the countersuggestion itself is changing: from a simple refusal to obey people's words, it turns into a restriction of obedience by various conditions. In the course of history, it is more and more important for a person not only from whom the instructions that require obedience come. “He wants the words to be understandable to him not only in their inspiring part, but also in the motivational part, that is, he asks why and why, and only when this condition is met, he turns on the suggestion switch that has been turned off for a while.”
The main ideas of B.F. Porshneva
1. There is a fundamental gap between man and all other animals.
2. Anthropogenesis is not an ascending process of gradual humanization of ape-like ancestors, but a steep turn over the abyss, during which Something appeared in nature and then disappeared, something fundamentally different from both monkeys and people.
3. "Remnants of the past" in human behavior are associated not so much with the "monkey" inheritance, but with what arose in the process of anthropogenesis.
4. Human thinking is not a development of information processing methods that exist in other animals, but a fundamental new formation.
5. Human thinking is primarily collective and was originally carried out by a network of brains connected by speech signals. Only as society develops, individual thinking is formed.
6. Human labor is fundamentally different from the labor of bees and beavers in that a person first thinks and then does. This work is peculiar only to Homo sapiens. The work of Pithecanthropes and Neanderthals was like the work of a beaver, not Homo sapiens.
7. Man is not a biosocial, but a completely social being.
Criticism of Porshnev's concept
According to a number of researchers, Porshnev's theory does not answer the question of why the same suggestive influence causes a different reaction, even when it comes to suggestions coming to the crowd or from the crowd.
The counter-suggestive mechanism of mistrust is also not entirely clear: the problem of including logic should be comprehended taking into account the achievements of ethnomethodology (G. Garfinkel and his followers showed that everyday logic, common sense, have a different nature than formal logic). Understanding as a necessary part of the countersuggestive response also differs in its mechanism and results.
The meaning of the concept of Porshnev
Porshnev's concept outlined a promising way to combine socio-psychological research with historical research, which can enhance its heuristics when supplemented with other approaches to solving similar research problems.
Major works
- Popular uprisings in France before the Fronde (1623-1648). M.-L., 1948.
- Essay on the political economy of feudalism. M., 1956.
- The current state of the issue of relic hominoids. M., 1963.
- Mellier. M., 1964., in HTML and RTF format
- Feudalism and the Popular Masses. M., 1964.
- Social psychology and history. M., 1966. (1st, abridged ed.)
- France, the English Revolution and European politics in the middle of the 17th century. M., 1970.
- History and psychology. Sat. articles. Ed. B.F. Porshnev. M., 1971.
- The Thirty Years' War and the entry into it of Sweden and the Muscovite state. M., 1976.
- Social Psychology and History. Ed. 2nd, add. and correct. M., 1979.
- About the beginning of human history (problems of paleopsychology). St. Petersburg, 2007. (Restored by O. Vite to the original author's text.) First edition - 1974, second - 2006
Notes
Literature
- Porshnev BF On the beginning of human history. - M.: FERI-V, 2006. - 640 pages.
Sources
- Berse I.-M. Reflections on how history is written
- Vite O. T. Boris Fedorovich Porshnev and his criticism of human history
- B. F. Porshnev in the discussion about the role of the class struggle in history (1948-1953) // French Yearbook 2007. M., 2007.
- Kondratiev S. V., Kondratiev T. N. B. F. Porshnev - an interpreter of French absolutism // French Yearbook 2005. M., 2005.
- Shadrin S.S. Faculty of History of Kazan University (1939-2007): reference book. - Kazan: KSU, 2007. 46 p.
- Shadrin S. S. The Faculty of History in 1939-2004. // Kazan University as a research and socio-cultural space: Sat. scientific articles and messages. - Kazan: KSU, 2005. S. 63-69.
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Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………. 3
Chapter 1. Historical views of B. F. Porshnev ………………………………… 6
Chapter 2
Chapter 3. Society, culture, religion in the historical constructions of B. F. Porshnev ………………………………………………………………………….. 21
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………... 25
List of sources and literature …………………………………………….. 26
Notes …………………………………………………………………….. 28
Appendix …………………………………………………………………….. 31
Introduction
The name of Professor Boris Fedorovich Porshnev is well known to the scientific world both in our country and abroad. Historian and philosopher, anthropologist and economist, psychologist and physiologist - his range of interests is truly boundless.
Porshnev's universalism is absolutely unprecedented for the science of the 20th century in its scope. The age of specializations, fragmentation, emergence and separation of new sciences cannot bring many names of encyclopedic knowledge and comprehensive interests. Therefore, it seems interesting to us to turn to the figure of B. F. Porshnev, who, from the height (and width) of his various knowledge, could draw generalizing conclusions about the development of mankind.
Deepening a scientist into a narrow field undoubtedly allows him to achieve the highest results in his field of activity. However, it has been noticed that many discoveries are made at the intersection of sciences. In addition, generalizations of a global scale require a breadth of fields of activity. Therefore, the "dispersion" of a scientist in various fields of knowledge has its advantages.
Generalizations of a connoisseur of a number of disciplines can lead to great discoveries - or they can remain misunderstood by contemporaries. This happened, for example, with L. N. Gumilyov. B. F. Porshnev, perhaps, found himself in exactly the same situation, with the only difference that the legacy of L. N. Gumilyov was recognized and he found many followers of the case, but many of B. F. Porshnev’s conclusions still only the property of the "history of science". (By the way, as will be shown below, B.F. Porshnev, on the basis of completely different data than L.N. Gumilyov, using different methods, sometimes comes to the same conclusions - for example, with regard to the spread of two streams of aggression - the Crusaders and the Tatars - Mongol - in the XIII century and, in this regard, the historical choice of Russia).
It seems to us interesting and important to dwell in more detail on the scientific activity of this outstanding person, especially since gradually much of what he worked on is recognized by science. No one will be surprised by such a discipline as historical psychology, which is taking shape as a separate science of the so-called. human science is a science that comprehensively studies a person from all points of view - from anthropological to philosophical and social.
The purpose of this work is to analyze the views of B. F. Porshnev, to determine his contribution to historical science.
The tasks are:
1) study and analyze the main works of B. F. Porshnev;
2) determine the innovative conclusions of the scientist.
In this work, we relied on the works of B. F. Porshnev. Of course, it was not possible to cover all of them, because the scientist wrote more than 200 scientific papers. First of all, it is necessary to name such monographs as "People's uprisings in France before the Fronde (1623--1648)" Porshnev B.F. People's uprisings in France before the Fronde (1623--1648). M., 1948. (published in 1948, she was awarded the State Prize in 1950), "Essay on the political economy of feudalism" (1956), Porshnev B.F. Essay on the political economy of feudalism. M., 1956. “Feudalism and the masses” (1964), Porshnev BF Feudalism and the masses. M., 1964. "Social psychology and history" (1966), Porshnev BF Social psychology and history. M., 1966. "France, the English Revolution and European Politics in the Middle of the 17th Century." (1970) Porshnev BF France, The English Revolution and European Politics in the Middle of the 17th Century. M., 1970. and many others. A complete list of the works of B. F. Porshnev used in this abstract is given at the end of the work.
In addition, those few articles that were written about B. F. Porshnev, in particular, the preface by N. Momdzhyan and S. A. Tokarev in the book by B. F. Porshnev “On the beginning of human history. Problems of paleopsychology” Momdzhyan N. and Tokarev S. A. Preface // Porshneva B. F. On the beginning of human history. Problems of paleopsychology. M., 1974. S. 2 - 11. and an article by O. T. Vite “B. F. Porshnev: the experience of creating a synthetic science of social man and human society” in the journal “Politia”. Vite O. T. B. F. Porshnev: the experience of creating a synthetic science of social man and human society // Politiya. 1998. No. 3.
The article by N. Momdzhyan and S. A. Tokarev highly appreciates the overall contribution of B. F. Porshnev to science, primarily historical, but his generalizing conclusions about the development of mankind, philosophical-anthropological and historical-psychological observations are carefully characterized as, undoubtedly, very controversial, but interesting: “In the interesting and very valuable work of B. F. Porshnev, there are many controversial provisions. The reader should be prepared from the outset for a critical perception of the original research. As is often the case in scientific work, the author, carried away by a new and very important hypothesis, sometimes shows a tendency to overly absolutize this or that idea, to turn it into the original one, decisive in understanding the range of issues under consideration ... Making such a warning, we are firmly convinced that that everything said by B.F. Porshnev will undoubtedly benefit science, forcing scientists to reconsider, recheck, and perhaps, armed with new data, refute the hypotheses put forward by him. Momdzhyan N. and Tokarev S. A. Decree. op. S. 5.
On the other hand, O. T. Vite examines B. F. Porshnev’s contribution to the development of science in more detail precisely in “controversial” works, highly appreciating the advanced observations of the scientist.
Chapter 1. Historical views of B. F. Porshnev
B. F. Porshnev (1905 - 1972) was born in Leningrad, graduated from the Faculty of Social Sciences of Moscow State University and postgraduate studies at the RANION Institute of History. In 1940 he defended his doctoral dissertation in history, and in 1966 his doctoral dissertation in philosophy. Since 1943, B. F. Porshnev worked at the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1968 - the Institute of General History) as a senior researcher, head of the sector of modern history, and then the sector of the history of the development of social thought. Along with his scientific activities, B. F. Porshnev carried out a great deal of pedagogical, scientific and editorial work.
B. F. Porshnev's extensive research in the field of history was combined with the development of problems of anthropology, philosophy and social psychology and was aimed at developing an integrated approach to the study of man in the socio-historical process. The works of B. F. Porshnev were translated into many foreign languages. He held an honorary doctorate from the University of Clermont-Ferrand.
It has already been said above that the research of Boris Porshnev affected almost all areas of social sciences, as well as some related areas of natural sciences. Research in all these areas was considered by Porshnev as closely related aspects of the formation of a single synthetic science - "about a social person or human society." Porshnev's universalism is completely unprecedented for the science of the 20th century. in its scope and at the same time it assumes reliance on the most accurate empirical facts in accordance with the most stringent scientific criteria formed in this century.
In one of the articles on the so-called Bigfoot, Porshnev included a brief autobiographical essay. In it, he writes that from his youth he sought to be educated in many different fields of knowledge. Multilateral education helped, writes Porshnev, working in certain areas of science, "to see what should not be seen" that others did not notice.
According to his convictions, B. F. Porshnev was a Marxist, and, according to O. T. Vite, he was an orthodox, conscious, consistent and convinced, but at the same time anti-dogmatic Marxist. Vite O. T. Decree. op. He took the liberty of deciding on his own, without waiting for the sanction of the Politburo, what is Marxism, did not give up his views under the influence of the political situation or the change in the scientific predilections of the new ideological bosses, in relation to whom he made only stylistic concessions. Therefore, he was never able to make a scientific career adequate to the scale of his creative personality, and did not see the main work of his life published: the set of the book “On the Beginning of Human History” prepared in 1968 was scattered.
At the same time, Marxism was not a husk in his studies, which now, after the collapse of the power of the CPSU, can be easily discarded. Marxism is present in his research as a key scientific paradigm, as a foundation, as a universal methodology. Outside of Marxism, according to O. T. Vite, Porshnev’s scientific heritage crumbles, that is, from his point of view, it loses the most valuable thing - a common connection, integrity. There.
History is one of the few sciences where Porshnev enjoys the unconditional authority and respect of most specialists, even those who disagree with him on many specific issues.
An important contribution of B. F. Porshnev to historical science is his justification the unity of the historical process simultaneously in synchronic and diachronic terms.
He proved synchronic unity on a whole series of special studies that revealed the connection of events that took place at the same time in different countries, which, as it seemed to many historians, were not even too aware of the existence of each other. The unity of history in the diachronic sense was then much easier to defend than today (Marxism, formational theory). However, it is one thing to abstractly proclaim fidelity to the formational approach that ensures the unity of the progressive development of mankind, and another to demonstrate the specific mechanisms of such unity.
Porshnev explored two related problems (or difficulties). First, the role of the class struggle and social revolutions as mechanisms for the progressive development of mankind. Secondly, the features of those synchronic connections that allow us to talk about the transition of humanity, and not of isolated countries.
Porshnev outlined the evolution of the ties that united humanity into a single whole in the most detailed way in the report “Is the history of one country conceivable?”. Porshnev BF Is the history of one country conceivable? // Historical science and some problems of the present. Articles and discussions. M., 1969.
P. 310. (Today it is difficult to imagine the boldness of the declared topic, but one has only to remember the background against which it was expressed - the fundamental ideological postulate of building socialism "in one single country").
In this report, Porshnev identifies “three types of connections between human communities”: “The first type consists mainly in mutual isolation from neighbors. History, starting from primitive times, was universal mainly in this negative sense: the culture and way of life of any tribe developed by opposing their own to someone else's. Each population not only, if possible, moved away from its neighbors, but mainly because of the impossibility of settling, it isolated itself from everything - starting from dialect and utensils. Each knew, of course, only its closest neighbors, but cultural and ethnic contrasts with neighbors created a general network, because none of them, of course, lived in isolation ... The second type of world-historical connection develops as a kind of antithesis to the previous one. Is it possible to find a common denominator in all this diversity of local cultures? Yes, that is what war is. Qualitative differences are translated into quantitative language by war: who is who, who is stronger... Wars or political equilibrium between states become an important expression of world history for a long time... establish direct relations with them... Starting from the era of great geographical discoveries, international trade (aka international robbery) begins to intensively construct this third type of interconnection in world history. The first two are preserved and develop further, but the third type, as it were, denies them: this is not a chain connection, but a gradually emerging connection of all countries with all. Trade entails the growth of all types of communication and information, the exchange of goods gives rise to this or that exchange of people. In this sense - a direct universal connection - history becomes world-wide only from the era of capitalism. There. pp. 310 - 311.
Let us dwell on the results of B. F. Porshnev’s synchronic studies related to three chronological points: the 17th century. (Thirty Years' War), XIII century. (Battle on the Ice) and the heyday of the slave system.
The Thirty Years' War was studied by Porshnev for many years. The results of this work are reflected in many publications, including the fundamental trilogy, of which only the third volume appeared during his lifetime, and the second did not appear at all. Porshnev BF France, the English Revolution and European Politics in the Middle of the 17th Century. M., 1970; Porshnev B. F. The Thirty Years' War and the Entry of Sweden and the Muscovite State into It. M., 1976.
This fundamental trilogy was for Porshnev an experience of historical research of a specially selected "synchronous slice", several decades thick and covering - ideally - the entire space of the human ecumene.
The core of research into the events of the Thirty Years' War was a thorough and scrupulous analysis of the synchronous interaction of various countries, the connection between their foreign and domestic policies, and not only the countries of Europe, but partly of Asia as well. Among other things, Porshnev also proposed special tools - graphic diagrams demonstrating the structure of "geopolitical" intercountry ties and the dynamics of this structure. Porshnev B.F. France, English Revolution and European Politics… S. 39 - 40.
It was the analysis of synchronic connections that allowed Porshnev to “see” (and prove) that the famous “blitzkrieg” of Gustavus Adolf was largely financed by the Muscovite state, while previously many believed that in Muscovy they were not even aware of the war going on in Europe. Financing was carried out according to a simple and well-known scheme for many today's Russian entrepreneurs, which in modern economic jargon should be called "exclusive liberalization of foreign trade": the Swedes received the right to buy grain in the Moscow State at domestic prices, then export it through Arkhangelsk for sale on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange already at European prices. Porshnev B. F. Thirty Years' War ... S. 202 - 229.
As a result, by 1631, Gustavus Adolphus managed to deploy large military forces in Germany and in the autumn of this year to carry out a swift throw into the depths of its territory. Further, however, everything stalled and, in the end, the success of Gustavus Adolphus was nullified. One of the most important factors in this outcome (although not the only one) was the sequence of events that determined each other, for the sake of discovering which (these sequences) Porshnev, in fact, proposed to study “synchronous sections”: under the pressure of growing social discontent, the Moscow state reduces subsidies to Sweden (emission financing of public spending was not practiced then), and also ends the war with Poland. As a result, Gustavus Adolphus' resources are simultaneously reduced and a serious adversary appears, freed from "Eastern" problems.
Using the example of the events that culminated in the Battle of the Ice, Porshnev showed not only the synchronic connection of what was happening at that time throughout the Eurasian space, but also the significance of those events for the diachronically unified historical path of the countries and peoples involved in this synchronic connection: “The Chingizid Empire, which put pressure on Russia from the east, from Asia, and the Hohenstaufen empire, which threatened it from the west, from Europe - ... both of these conquering empires, which arose almost simultaneously ... were nothing more than relapses of barbarian states in the 13th century. It is no coincidence that the founder of one of these empires, Genghis Khan, declared himself the heir to the emperors of ancient slave-owning China, while the founder of another, Frederick Barbarossa, imagined himself the direct successor of the emperors of slave-owning Rome. Both empires were nothing more than attempts to turn off the main road of history, to abandon the difficulties of the feudal restructuring of society and, turning to face the irrevocable past, to rely on the ruins of the ancient slave-owning order, on the indelible remnants of the past that hampered feudal progress. Porshnev B.F. Battle on the Ice and World History // History Faculty of Moscow State University. Reports and messages. M., 1947. Issue. five.
Porshnev analyzes in detail the “striking similarity of the historical fates of these two reactionary empires”, two “historical twins”, who succeeded in “enormous conquests”: two conquering empires, spreading towards each other with gigantic force. After analyzing numerous direct and indirect evidence of the positions of the “two predators” in relation to each other, Porshnev comes to the conclusion: “If Russia had been crushed and the borders of the two empires had converged on its devastated territory ... we can confidently assume that both predators would not have entered in a fight with each other - at least immediately - and, having mutually tested their strength, they would amicably divide the world among themselves.
Since Russia could not give a simultaneous rebuff to both empires, "Alexander Nevsky made a choice: to strike at the western aggressor and compromise with the eastern." And such a choice, according to Porshnev, had the deepest "diachronic" consequences for all mankind. Although the Teutonic Order survived after the Battle of the Ice, its importance as an "iron fist", which all European countries had to reckon with, fell sharply. Less than 20 years later, "the gigantic conquering power of the Hohenstaufen ceased to exist." The recurrence of destructive and aggressive barbarian statehood ceased to slow down the development of Europe along the path of "feudal progress". There.
On the contrary, in Asia, the elimination of such a relapse was extended for another two centuries: “Russia was forced not only to allow the preservation of the immense and deadening Mongol Empire, but also to become, at least to a certain extent, its integral part. Only at such a price could the forward movement of the rest of humanity be bought at that moment. There. So, concludes B., F. Porshnev, “until the 13th century, universal history cannot “ascertain the unconditional backwardness of the social system of the East in comparison with the West, or, in general, the cardinal dissimilarity of the historical destinies of the East and West. Only since the 13th century has this phenomenon appeared on the historical stage. Europe is moving fast. Asia is sinking into stagnation. It is impossible not to explain this by the different fate of the two reactionary empires, which had previously developed with such amazing symmetry. The choice made by Alexander Nevsky, although itself determined, to a large extent in turn determined the divergence of the paths of the West and the East. There. Thus, from the point of view of Porshnev, an important clarification must be made to the famous phrase "Rus saved Europe from the Mongols": first of all, from their own, European "Mongols".
Porshnev also proposed a resolute revision of the content of the concept of "slave-owning society". Porshnev B.F. Feudalism and the masses. M., 1964. He showed that a slave-owning society as an internally connected social organism, as a single developing whole, cannot be reduced to a slave-owning state. Too many connections and contradictions, which are certainly purely internal for the classical slave economy system cannot be detected inside state borders.
Referring to the works of the Soviet historian A. Malchevsky, Porshnev writes: “The process of reproduction in the ancient slave-owning society turns out to be impossible without regular and grandiose seizures “from outside”, and seizures not only of the products of labor of other peoples, but above all of a part of these peoples themselves, becoming within the slave state the main productive force, the main producing class. In these features, the slave-owning system differs from the feudal system and most clearly from the bourgeois one: in the latter, the "main producing class" completely "gets along" within the state borders. Porshnev emphasizes that the specificity of the slave-owning society described by him can be found all over the world: “The great slave-owning powers of ancient Iran, ancient India, ancient China, the Hellenic states of Asia were surrounded by the same oceans of barbarian peoples beating against their shores, either defending or attacking, expressing, no less than in the West, something by no means "external", but the internal antagonism of the ancient world as a polarized whole. The deeper this polarization became, the more clearly it materialized in the form of all kinds of "Chinese walls" and "Roman ramparts", the more inevitably the hour of the breakthrough approached. There. S. 512.
Thus, the hour of “feudal synthesis” was approaching, that revolutionary process of diffusion of the two halves or poles of the slave-owning whole, from which feudal society would already grow.
According to O. T. Vite, Porshnev could not but understand that the stated concept of the evolution of the slave-owning formation and its revolutionary transformation into a feudal one automatically casts doubt on one of the official subjects of “Soviet pride”: domestic history did not know slavery. After all, the nature of the connection of Kievan Rus with the Eastern Roman Empire, with Byzantium, obviously, fits into the general logic: Russia really was not a slave-owning state, since it was a source of replenishment of slaves for such a state within a single social organism.
Therefore, Porshnev limited himself to an extremely cautious discussion on this topic: “But it is by no means devoid of objective grounds and is by no means offensive either to Western European countries or to Russia that Kievan Rus stands in approximately the same historical relation to the Eastern Roman Empire as the Frankish state to the Western Roman Empire. There. S. 513.
B. F. Porshnev's contribution to economics, more precisely, historical economics, is significant. BF Porshnev wrote one of the first studies on the political economy of feudalism. Porshnev BF To the question of the basic economic law of feudalism // Questions of history. M., 1953. No. 6; Porshnev B.F. Essay on the political economy of feudalism. M., 1956. It still remains almost the only full-scale theoretical study of the economic basis of feudal society, written from a Marxist position.
Much less well known are the results of Porshnev's economic research on two specific economic topics that are closely related to each other: property and forced labor. Research on these topics is not presented systematically in special works, they are scattered over a number of articles and books written at different times.
The phenomenon of property is analyzed by Porshnev from the same positions as all other problems associated with "social man and human society." Porshnev is interested in how the “relationship” of property arose during the period of separation of a person from the animal world in conditions of divergence, how the emergence of this phenomenon is associated with those unusual neurophysiological mechanisms of interindividual interaction, the appearance of which accompanied the “pushing out” of a neoanthrope into social relations.
Porshnev specifically studied the formation of property relations under feudalism and in primitive society. For example, he analyzed the formation of personal peasant property under feudalism in the following way: “The personal labor property of a peasant is not so much a prerequisite, but a product of the gradual development of feudal society. In fact, after all, labor property is not yet property, as long as no one seeks to systematically take it away. A one-time attempt to take away property, for example, an attempt at military robbery, gives rise to defense, but such a sporadic saving of things from destruction is not at all the formation of property. Finally, peasant individual property reached maturity only with the advent of the possibility of alienating it for an equivalent, i.e. with the advent of cities ... Here it finally ceased to be only the defense of property and became its appropriation, ceased to be only property in the sense of refusing to give and became property in the sense of the desire to acquire. Porshnev B. F. History of the Middle Ages and Comrade Stalin's indication of the main feature of feudalism // Izvestia of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Series of History and Philosophy. M., 1949. T. VI. No. 6. S. 535 - 536.
Forced overwork is an absolutely necessary element of all human history. We are talking about the forms of external coercion, of which three are known: direct coercion - slavery, mixed - feudalism, and indirect - capitalism. Of these three forms, Porshnev was mainly concerned with the second. The problem was that under feudalism, one indirect coercion to work is not enough and it is supplemented by direct - the so-called incomplete ownership of the worker.
Chapter 2lsheepB. F. Porshneva
Porshnev himself considered the problems of anthropogenesis to be the subject of his main specialty. In the preface to the main work of B. F. Porshnev, summing up his research in the field of anthropogenesis and outlining a program for further research - “On the beginning of human history (Problems of paleopsychology)”, Porshnev B. F. On the beginning of human history ... N. Momdzhyan and S A. Tokarev write: “Which of all these diverse areas of knowledge was in the focus of the scientific interests of B. F. Porshnev? No matter how others look at it, the author himself believed that it was the content of this book, offered to the attention of readers, that expresses the deepest, most important layer of scientific thinking for him - the basis of his philosophical outlook. This area can be abbreviated (and the author calls it so) "problems of paleopsychology". Momdzhyan N. and Tokarev S. A. Decree. op. pp. 7 - 8.
BF Porshnev clearly understood the ambiguous role of special sciences in the study of the problems of anthropogenesis. Paleoanthropologists, paleontologists and paleoarchaeologists - hardly the main "legitimate" researchers of human origins - were extremely superficially familiar with serious scientific results obtained in zoology, psychology, neurophysiology, sociology. In order to break through this vicious circle, Porshnev resolutely set about filling in the gaps mentioned above.
According to Porshnev, two false postulates prevented a serious scientific breakthrough in the study of anthropogenesis. Porshnev B.F. Is a scientific revolution in primatology possible now? // Questions of Philosophy. 1966. No. 3. S. 113 - 116.
Firstly, the belief that the archaeological remains of the life activity of fossil hominids prove that they have abstract-logical (conceptual), creative thinking, and hence the recognition by people of not only neoanthropes, but also paleoanthropes (Neanderthals) and even more ancient species. This postulate has two main roots - the myth of hunting large animals as the main occupation of the human ancestor and the myth of the invention of fire by him.
Secondly, the conviction that the evolutionary form that preceded Homo sapiens "y died out disappeared from the face of the Earth immediately after the appearance of this latter.
It is almost impossible to summarize the content of this book - the problems raised by the author are so diverse and complex. They are both complex and controversial. But if you still try to highlight its leitmotifs in the content of the book, they can be reduced to the following.
Speaking about the specific features of a person, the author considers such only truly human labor, that is, labor regulated by speech, directly connected with it. It is speech that makes labor possible as a specifically human, conscious, purposeful activity. Therefore, neither walking upright, nor the production of the simplest tools, according to the author, are not yet signs of man. As for the human ancestors from Australopithecus to Neanderthal, the author refers them, according to the classification of Carl Linnaeus, to the troglodytid family. Representatives of this family produced elementary tools, used fire, had an upright posture, but they did not have speech, so they cannot be called people, and their life together cannot be called a society. That is why the mystery of the origin of man is reduced to explaining the origin of human speech.
A special chapter is devoted to the phenomenon of speech, which is given the role of the most important regulator of human behavior, a determinant on the way to transforming prehuman levels of life activity into truly human ones. The psychophysiological correlate of such regulation is the second signaling system. The author attaches special importance to this concept, since in the psychophysiological plan the question of the formation of a person is transformed by him into the question of the transformation of the first signaling system into the second. In fact, Porshnev proved that in the biblical “In the beginning was the word” there is much more materialism than in references to “labor”, “collective hunting”, etc.
The second-signal interaction of people consists of two main levels and, in turn, is divided into the primary phase - interdictive and secondary - suggestive. The divisions carried out allowed the scientist to approach the disclosure of the subtle and complex process of the genesis of the second-signal connections between individuals. Revealing the mechanism of suggestion, B. F. Fedorov essentially joins the concept of the social origin of higher psychological functions of a person, developed by the famous Soviet psychologist L. S. Vygotsky in relation to the mental development of a child. According to B.F. Porshnev, the mechanism of "referring to oneself" turns out to be an elementary cell of speech-thinking. Dyplasia - an elementary contradiction of thinking - is analyzed by the author as an expression of the social relations "we - they" that are initial for a person.
Proclaiming the need to overcome zoological prejudices, Porshnev wrote: “The dispute will not be about facts, because most of the facts of paleoanthropology and paleoarchaeology have a high degree of reliability, but about the glasses through which they are used to looking at these facts.” There is no reason to consider the presence of fire and stone tools as a sign of the appearance of "man". Only a neoanthrope can be recognized as a man in the exact sense of the word.
Human culture, according to Porshnev, has grown from the divergence of paleoanthropes and neoanthropes, from the need for the latter, interacting with the former, to increasingly move away from the forms of interaction imposed on them. An analysis of zoological data (beginning with Darwin) on various forms of speciation leads Porshnev to the conclusion about a kind of "spontaneous artificial" selection underlying divergence.
Of course, some of the provisions put forward by B.F. Porshnev can be difficult to understand and accept for a person who is confident that he is the crown of creation. Exaggerating, the scientist claims that we owe our appearance on earth to some disgusting animal, which deliberately brought us out by artificial selection to perform the only function - to serve it as a food base! And, let's say, not only the initiation-mutilation of adolescents in primitive tribes, but also the beautiful custom of giving flowers is just the result of a deep and long-term transformation of our ancient and not at all beautiful main function - to present our own children produced by some vile animals as a "gift" for this, into the world in large numbers and personally killed?
And, consequently, all universal human values, both religious and secular, both "Western" and "Eastern", the entire cultural self-consciousness of a person was formed due to the need to distance oneself from one's past, from one's ancestor, but, on the other hand, really achieved distancing is reliably ensured by only one thing: the naive belief that "we" by definition, from "the very beginning" are "their" (real ancestors) opposite.
But since these disgusting animals are our direct ancestors, then
killing one's own kind is not a deviation, but the true human nature that distinguishes us from all other animals! (For the latter, this is still the exception, not the rule).
An analysis of the available data on ecological niches in which at different stages the human ancestor had to “fight for existence”, on the evolution of his brain, on an unprecedentedly close relationship with a huge number of other animals, leads Porshnev to a twofold conclusion: Porshnev B.F. About the beginning of human history ... S. 404 - 405.
The human ancestor had all the anatomical and physiological prerequisites for mastering interdiction;
Without the development of such tools, the human ancestor was doomed to extinction.
The transition from stage to stage occurred, of course, not without natural selection from numerous mutations, the scale and diversity of which were provoked by the crisis, and therefore not without a multitude of unstable transitional forms. And only in one of the mutations - the neoanthrope - the third stage (suggestion) was reliably and forever fixed by this selection.
Considering what has been said above about the peculiarities of the relationship of neoanthropes with paleoanthropes in the era of divergence, Porshnev’s resolute refutation of the widespread prejudice about the almost “bourgeois” behavior of primitive man is understandable: “According to this current idea, the economic psychology of any person can be reduced to the postulate of the desire for the maximum . The lower limit of alienation (goods or labor), which is psychologically acceptable in this case, is alienation for equivalent compensation ... Indeed, behavior contrary to the indicated postulate under capitalism cannot be anything other than an appendage. But even under feudalism, as can be seen from the sources, economic psychology contained much more of this reverse principle: a significant number of medieval legal and legislative acts prohibit or restrict gratuitous donation, offering, donation of real and movable property. The farther into the depths of centuries and millennia, the more convex this impulse. There. In fact, Porshnev outlines the contours of the science of the primitive economy. However, due to the fact that the traces of primitive economic culture that have survived in our time are more related to culture as such, this topic is classified under the section "culturology".
Chapter 3. Society, culture, religion in the historical constructions of B. F. Porshnev
On the basis of the same position on the development of mankind from the "food base" and opposition to "ancestors", B. F. Porshnev develops his sociological theories. Within the framework of this concept, the "nucleus" or "elementary cell" of socio-psychological processes defines the opposition "we - they". The origin of this opposition dates back to the time of the spread among neoanthropes of the practice of using those specific mechanisms of influence on each other that had previously developed in their relations with paleoanthropes. The awareness of oneself as a community (“we”) is formed, according to Porshnev, in the process of negative interaction with “them”, that is, with paleoanthropes. Such repulsion, being transferred inside the neoanthropes themselves, gives rise to many oppositions "we - they", each of which is based on the initial mutual "suspicion" that "they" are not quite human. Porshnev B.F. Social psychology and history. M., 1978.
In the process of human history, the development of this initial opposition leads to the formation of a gigantic network of various communities (“we”), partly intersecting, partly absorbing each other, each of which is aware of itself as such, opposing itself to a certain “they”. Porshnev B.F. Is the history of one country conceivable… S. 314 - 315.
Also, Porshnev's research, affecting culture, mainly concerns its origin, neurophysiological, zoological, as well as socio-psychological prerequisites for its various manifestations.
Although the majority of comparative historical research on ethics and aesthetics deals almost exclusively with ideas of “good” and “beautiful”, from Porshnev’s point of view, on the contrary, the most interesting would be studies of precisely what was considered “bad” and “bad” by different peoples in different eras. "ugly".
On the other hand, this is a study of the very physiological and psychological mechanism for the implementation of the prohibition - the prohibition to do something "bad". Porshnev analyzes the most ancient prohibitions, highlighting their three most important groups.
To the first group, he refers prohibitions to kill one's own kind, i.e. restriction of the fundamental biological peculiarity of a person formed during the divergence: “Apparently, the oldest form of this prohibition was the prohibition to eat a person who died not by one or another natural death, but killed by a human hand. The corpse of a man killed by a man is untouchable.” Porshnev B. F. Problems of the emergence of human society and human culture // Bulletin of the history of world culture. 1958. No. 2. S. 40.
Porshnev refers to the second group of prohibitions as “prohibitions to take and touch certain objects, to perform certain actions with them. This group of prohibitions is especially closely connected with the formation of the social relation of property. There. S. 42.
Finally, Porshnev refers sexual prohibitions to the third group of prohibitions, in particular, the most ancient of them - the prohibition of sexual intercourse between mothers and sons, then brothers and sisters. Summing up his analysis of the way of life of the most ancient people, Porshnev writes: “At the dawn of the formation of society ... these prohibitions meant the preferential rights of male aliens. But the conflict that developed in this way between them and the younger men who grew up on the spot was resolved in the form of the emergence, firstly, of the isolation of the younger ones into a special social group, separated from the older ones by a complex barrier, and secondly, exogamy - one of the most important institutions of the emerging human society. ". There.
The scientist's views on the history of religious beliefs, the origin of ideas about "good" and "bad" deities also differ significantly from generally accepted views - both religious and secular.
For Porshnev, human culture is born in an era of divergence. In a number of special studies, he convincingly showed that the images of deities, proto-deities, various varieties of "evil spirits" are a reflection of the paleoanthrope with whom a person had to interact for a long time, as well as a reflection of the specific features of this interaction itself. And the more ancient these images are, the more literal physical features and behavioral features of a real, "living" paleoanthrope are in them. Porshnev B.F. A book about morality and religion of the oppressed classes of the Roman Empire // Bulletin of ancient history. M., 1963. No. 1 (63); Porshnev BF The search for generalizations in the field of the history of religion // Questions of history. M., 1965. No. 7.
In the functioning of the institution of the church, B. F. Porshnev is also looking for material prerequisites. In his opinion, the essence of the Christian doctrine as a complex of ideas that perform the function of protecting the economic basis of feudalism can be reduced, Porshnev writes, “to two main ideas that guide people’s behavior: first, to the doctrine of what they should do (about virtues), and secondly, about what they should not do (about sin). There. The main Christian virtue, with all the variety of separate prescriptions of religion, ultimately comes down to one point: “live for God”2, i.e. don't live for yourself.
Porshnev considers this virtue as a powerful tool that slows down the economic resistance of the peasant: “It is clear that this teaching, if accepted, should have served as a colossal obstacle to strengthening the peasant economy and the peasants’ desire to improve their standard of living. Moreover, it directly demanded: “Give,” and then it was not difficult to show that since in the end it is necessary to give to God, then it is most natural to give to those who represent God on earth - the church and the authorities (for there is no power other than from God )” Ibid. However, the main problem for the superstructure was open resistance. Therefore, although the principle of “life not for oneself” was brought to the fore by Christianity, the main thing was still the doctrine of sin: “The task of religion was not so much to persuade the peasant to give his labor and the fruits of his labor to the landowner and daily deny himself in satisfying vital needs, as much as in persuading him not to resist: after all, the very existence of feudal exploitation necessarily forced the peasant to defend his economy, strengthen it, in this sense, “live for himself” and resist. There.
And here it all comes down, ultimately, to one point - to sin. defiance. Porshnev emphasizes that the doctrine of sin was a powerful tool in the fight not only against uprisings, but also against the lower forms of open peasant resistance - partial resistance, departures. The doctrine of sin not only disarmed the peasantry, but also armed its opponents: “Since rebellion is the element of Satan, there should be no place for mercy; not only the right, but the duty of a Christian is to strike the rebels with the sword. There.
Summing up the analysis of the key ideas that religion inspired in the workers, Porshnev compares the role of the church and the state: “The essence of religion was, as we see, the same thing that was the essence of the state - the suppression of the threat of uprisings by the threat of punishment ... But there was a deep difference between them. The state had really enormous power to carry out its threats. Authority only reinforced this material force. On the contrary, the church had immeasurably less material resources and mainly acted by ideological suggestion. Why did they believe her?" There. Here the scientist again turns to the analysis of the socio-psychological nature of persuasion (sermon) as a form of counter-counter-suggestion - that is, in general, to the mechanism by which paleoanthropes initially forced their "food base" into obedience.
Conclusion
The research of Boris Fedorovich Porshnev touched on almost all areas of the social sciences, as well as some related areas of the natural sciences. Research in all these areas was considered by Porshnev as closely related aspects of the formation of a single synthetic science - "about a social person or human society." Porshnev's universalism is completely unprecedented for the science of the 20th century. in its scope and at the same time it assumes reliance on the most accurate empirical facts in accordance with the most stringent scientific criteria formed in this century.
However, the quote is quite applicable to the fate of the scientist - the statement of one biographer about the fate of the famous economist J. Schumpeter: "He had many students, but there were no followers." Vite O. T. Decree. op. Porshnev had and has many students and even supporters of his views in certain areas of knowledge. But there are no followers in the specialty “the science of a social person or human society”, because such a specialty did not work out with the Porshnev paradigm.
“Something needs to be done with all this gigantic heritage,” says O. T. Vite. - True, until the daredevil was found. There.
Appendix
List of sources and literature
Sources
Porshnev B.F. Fight for troglodytes // Prostor. 1968. Nos. 4-7. No. 7. P. 125
Porshnev B. F. History of the Middle Ages and Comrade Stalin's indication of the main feature of feudalism // Izvestia of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Series of History and Philosophy. M., 1949. T. VI. No. 6. S. 535 - 536.
Porshnev BF To the question of the basic economic law of feudalism // Questions of history. M., 1953. No. 6.
Porshnev B.F. A book about morality and religion of the oppressed classes of the Roman Empire // Bulletin of ancient history. M., 1963. No. 1 (63).
Porshnev B. F. Battle on the Ice and World History // History Faculty of Moscow State University. Reports and messages. M., 1947. Issue. five.
Porshnev BF Is the history of one country conceivable? // Historical science and some problems of the present. Articles and discussions. M., 1969.
Porshnev B. F. Popular uprisings in France before the Fronde (1623-1648). M., 1948.
Porshnev BF Essay on the political economy of feudalism. M., 1956.
Porshnev BF The search for generalizations in the field of the history of religion // Questions of history. M., 1965. No. 7.
Porshnev B. F. Problems of the emergence of human society and human culture // Bulletin of the history of world culture. 1958. No. 2. S. 40.
Porshnev BF Social psychology and history. M., 1966.
Porshnev B. F. The Thirty Years' War and the Entry of Sweden and the Muscovite State into It. M., 1976.
Porshnev B.F. Feudalism and the masses. M., 1964.
Porshnev B. F. France, the English Revolution and European Politics in the Middle of the 17th Century. M., 1970.
Literature
Vite O. T. B. F. Porshnev: the experience of creating a synthetic science of social man and human society // Politiya. 1998. No. 3.
Momdzhyan N. and Tokarev S. A. Preface // Porshneva B. F. About the beginning of human history. Problems of paleopsychology. M., 1974. S. 2 - 11.
Notes
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Boris Fedorovich Porshnev (03/07/1905 - 11/26/1972) - Soviet historian and sociologist.
Doctor of historical and philosophical sciences. Honorary doctorate from Clermont-Ferrand University in France.
At the beginning of the Great Patriotic War of 1941-45. was in evacuation in Kazan, where he worked as a professor and head of the department of history of the historical and philological faculty of Kazan State University (KSU) named after. V. I. Ulyanov-Lenin.
From 1957 to 1966, he was the head of the sector for the modern history of Western European countries at the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences, since 1966 he led the group for the study of the history of socialist ideas, and since 1968 he headed the sector for the study of the history of the development of social thought at the Institute of World History of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Supporters of cryptozoology consider him the founder of hominology (the so-called science of Bigfoot).
Main works: Essay on the political economy of feudalism, M., 1956., The current state of the issue of relic hominoids, M., 1963., Feudalism and the masses, M., 1964., Mellier, M., 1964., Social psychology and history , M., 1966., France, English Revolution and European politics in the middle of the 17th century, M., 1970., About the beginning of human history, M., 1974.
Books (12)
About the beginning of human history. Problems of paleopsychology
Revised edition 2007.
B. Porshnev's monograph is devoted to the problem of the origin of a social person and human society.
The author summarizes many years of research in the field of physiology of higher nervous activity, general and social psychology, history, political economy, sociology, political science, etc. In contrast to the approaches that are dominant in world science, analyzing the transition from animal to human in the “individual-environment” model , B. Porshnev puts the "individual-individual" model in the center.
The main place is occupied by studies of the transformation of an animal into a person from the point of view of the psychology and physiology of higher nervous activity, based on a rethinking of the data and conclusions obtained by Russian and foreign scientists belonging to the schools of I. Pavlov and A. Ukhtomsky, L. Vygotsky and A. Wallon.
Essay on the political economy of feudalism
The present book is a book on political economy, and not on economic history. Its task is to highlight, on the basis of the instructions of the founders of Marxism-Leninism, the main theoretical issues related to the characterization of social production, economic relations of feudal society and their development.
It is necessary to make a reservation that the political economy of feudalism is still based mainly on facts from the history of economic relations between Western Europe and the USSR and much less on the countries of the East, since the history of the economy of the countries of the East has not been sufficiently developed. However, the fundamental provisions and laws that characterize feudal relations of production are, of course, universal in nature, in their basic features they are undoubtedly applicable to the history of all countries, all peoples.
Social psychology and history
The author proves that the human psyche is social, because it is largely conditioned by the socio-historical environment. The first chapter is devoted to Lenin as a social psychologist. Lenin was engaged in social psychology as a theorist and practitioner of the revolutionary struggle. The rest of the chapters deal with the main categories of social psychology. Much attention is paid by the author to the category "us and them". “We and them” is more primary and deeper than “I and you”. "We and them" - the impulse of the initial settlement of people. The whole vast human history is also “us and them”.
Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War and the entry into it of Sweden and the Muscovite state.
The book deals with the complex problems of the social, political, diplomatic, military history of European states on the eve and at the first stages of the Thirty Years' War (1618 - 1648) - the first all-European war that broke out at the turn of the Middle Ages and modern times and took place against the backdrop of broad popular movements of this transitional period from feudalism to capitalism.
Using a wide range of sources in a new way, including rich materials from the Russian archives, B. F. Porshnev shows the place of Russia in the system of European states of that time, its role in the history of the Thirty Years' War.
Feudalism and the populace
In the book Feudalism and the Masses of the People, which is devoted to some theoretical questions of political economy and historical materialism, one of the leading and most promising ideas of Marxism-Leninism for concrete development is taken as a leitmotif - the idea of the decisive role of the masses in history.
At the same time, the book is an attempt to develop a doctrine of socio-economic formations by analyzing one of them - feudalism - as a whole.
France, the English Revolution and European politics in the middle of the 17th century
A strange and wonderful year: 1648.
The culmination of the English Revolution and the signing of the Peace of Westphalia; the Fronde in France and the People's Republic in Italy; national liberation action of the Ukrainian people and a wave of uprisings in the cities of the Muscovite state. The years surrounding from 1648 are also saturated with a thunderous atmosphere. The first all-European war, called the Thirty Years' War, covered Germany and other countries with the smoke of fires, and at the same time the revolution in England lit up Europe with its flame. Thus began the history of the new time.
In the book by B. V. Porshnev, two planes of the history of these critical years are compared: the struggle of states and the struggle of classes, in other words, international relations and internal social movements on a European scale.