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The state of Kievan Rus arose in what century. Old Russian state of Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus - one of the largest states of medieval Europe - developed in the 9th century. as a result of a long internal development of the East Slavic tribes. Its historical core was the Middle Dnieper region, where new social phenomena characteristic of a class society arose very early.

Due to the fact that Kyiv was the center of this powerful state for several centuries, in historical literature it was called Kievan Rus.

Kievan Rus played an outstanding role in the history of the Slavic peoples. The formation of feudal relations and the completion of the formation of a single Old Russian state had a positive effect on the ethnic development of the East Slavic tribes, which gradually formed into a single Old Russian people. It was based on a common territory, a single language, a common culture, and close economic ties. Throughout the entire period of the existence of Kievan Rus, the Old Russian nationality, which was the common ethnic basis of the three fraternal East Slavic peoples - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, developed through further consolidation.

The unification of all East Slavic tribes in a single state contributed to their socio-economic, political and cultural development, significantly strengthened them in the fight against a common enemy. The cultural values created by the genius of the ancient Russian people have withstood the test of time. They became the basis of the national cultures of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples, and the best of them entered the treasury of world culture.

In the international arena, the Old Russian state occupied one of the leading places. It maintained broad economic, political and cultural ties with many countries of the East and West. The contacts of Russia with Poland, the Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Armenia, Georgia, Central Asia, the countries of Western Europe - France, England, Scandinavia, the Byzantine Empire, etc. were especially close. The existence of Kievan Rus covers the period from the 9th century. to the 30s of the XII century.

It is known that the first words of Nestor's historical work were the words about the origin of Russia: "Where did the Russian land come from." There are about twenty different answers to this question in the literature, mutually exclusive. According to B. A. Rybakov, “the Rus were considered both Varangians, and Lithuanians, and Baltic Slavs, and Finns, and Slavs, and Central Asian Aors, etc.” The main struggle in historiography on this issue, which does not stop today, was between the Normanists and their opponents. The duration of the disputes about the origin of Russia was largely due to contradictions in the sources, an abundance of conjectures and conjectures among the ancient authors themselves. In these sources there are direct indications that the Rus are Varangians, and equally direct evidence of their Slavic origin. The Ruses are sometimes called nomads, sometimes they say that they are from the Slavic tribe, sometimes they oppose them to the Slavs, etc. Opinions on this matter are diverse, obviously, historians will continue to work in this area, express their hypotheses and various judgments. However, it must be taken into account that in Nestor's Tale of Bygone Years, the use of the words "Rus", "Russian Land" is associated with the concept of Eastern Slavs, a single Russian people, a single Russian state. The same concept is also characteristic of the later judgments of the chroniclers. On this "Russian land" there were several principalities that were at war with each other: Kiev, Pereyaslav, the patrimony of the Yuryevichs, the Chernigo-Seversk patrimony of the Olgovichs, etc. Of the various judgments about the concept of "Russian land", the point of view of academician B. A. believable. Russian land IX-XIV centuries. in the broad sense of the word, this is an area of ancient Russian nationality with a single language, a single culture, and a temporary single state border. The beginning of the state of Russia is associated with the founding of the city of Kyiv in the land of the glades. Even in ancient times, Kyiv was considered "the mother of Russian cities." The founder of Kyiv, as noted by the chronicler Nestor, was Kiy - a historical figure.

Kiy is a Slavic prince of the Middle Dnieper region, the ancestor of the Kievan princes. He was known to the emperor of Byzantium himself, who invited Kiy back in the 5th century. to Constantinople and sought to enlist him as a military ally.

Of certain interest in these subjects is another point of view, set forth in the book "History of the Fatherland: people, ideas, decisions. Essays on the history of Russia in the 9th - early 20th centuries." In the article by S. V. Dumik and A. A. Turilov "Where did the Russian land come from" one can find interesting judgments on these issues, with which one can agree, or one can argue. The authors write that we should be aware that the origin of the country's name in itself is by no means decisive for assessing the genesis of its statehood. There are many examples in history when a people borrows its name from a completely different ancestor from which it inherits language and material culture, and the combinations here can be very different. Slavic-speaking Bulgarians bear the name of a Turkic tribe, in the 7th century. who created the first Bulgarian kingdom in the Balkans and disappeared without a trace among the Slavic tribes that make up the majority of its population. At the same time, the authors note, the presence of a third ethnic group, the ancient Thracians, Hellenized during the Roman Empire, is very noticeable in their material culture.

The unification of the East Slavic lands into the Old Russian state was prepared by internal socio-economic processes.

But this happened, according to the authors, as a result of the campaign of Prince Oleg, together with other tribes, against Kyiv in 882 with the active participation of the Varangian squad. The relatively easy assertion of Oleg's power in the Dnieper region indicates that by this time the internal conditions for unification were ripe. What role did the Vikings play in this? Undoubtedly very important. It's not about some organizational and state qualities of the Scandinavians. As a confirmation of this position, one can pay attention to the fact that in Iceland and Greenland, the descendants of the Normans who settled there in the Middle Ages, left to their own devices, did not create states at all. But in Eastern Europe, the appearance of the Varangian squads, apparently, significantly accelerated the process of state formation. They were a consolidating element and at the first stage formed the support of the Grand Duke, their representative. Slavic at its core (together with the Baltic, Finno-Ugric tribes), the ancient Russian state was not a purely Varangian "brainchild". However, elements of the active participation of the Varangians in the life of the Slavs contributed to the strengthening of this process.

Established by the IX century. The ancient Russian feudal state (also called Kievan Rus by historians) arose as a result of an extremely long process of splitting society into classes, which took place among the Slavs during the 1st millennium AD. e.

The political system of Ancient Russia IX-X centuries. characterized as an early feudal monarchy. At the head of the state was the prince of Kyiv, who was called the Grand Duke. The prince ruled with the help of the advice of other princes and combatants. Somewhat later, this form of government entered the history of Russia under the name of the Boyar Duma. The prince had a significant military force, which included the fleet, which operated both on the rivers and on the Black Sea. An important role in strengthening the state was played by legal norms developed in the 10th century. The norms of early feudal law were reflected in the so-called "Ancient Truth", published at the beginning of the 11th century. Prince Yaroslav the Wise, which reflected the basic legal provisions governing many aspects of life.

Russia of that time was a vast state, which already united half of the East Slavic tribes. The Russian tribal union, which turned into a feudal state, subjugated the neighboring Slavic tribes and equipped distant campaigns. In the literature there is also information about the Rus, who lived at that time on the Black Sea coast, about their campaigns against Constantinople and about the baptism of part of the Rus in the 60s. 9th century With all the variety of judgments and points of view on the origin and formation of the ancient Russian state, the main thing is still obvious: the Russian state developed independently of the Varangians.

Simultaneously with the Russian in the same period, other Slavic states arose - the Bulgarian kingdom, the Great Morovian state and other states. Kievan Rus is the first stable large state association of the Eastern Slavs during the formation of feudalism. It occupied a vast territory from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from the Western Bug to the Volga. Under the rule of the Kiev prince there was a number of Slavic tribal unions of the Middle Dnieper, and then several Lithuanian-Latvian tribes of the Baltic region and numerous Finno-Ugric tribes of north-east Europe were subordinate to him. The tribe of Polyans served as the center of the association, which in the second half of the 9th century. was the strongest economically.

Kievan Rus was an early feudal monarchy. The Grand Duke was at the head of the state. He had with him a council (duma) of the most noble princes and senior combatants (boyars), who acted as governors, as well as a management apparatus that was in charge of collecting tribute and taxes, court cases, and collecting fines. In this apparatus, the duties of officials were performed by junior combatants - swordsmen (bailiffs), virniki (fine collectors), etc. during the hostilities of the people's militia.

To exercise power over the population, expand the borders of the state and protect it from external enemies, the Grand Duke had significant military forces. They consisted primarily of the retinue of the Grand Duke himself, as well as of the troops of the vassal princes, who also had their own retinues.

The princes of individual lands and other large, medium and small feudal lords were in vassal dependence on the Grand Duke. They were obliged to supply soldiers to the Grand Duke, to appear at his request with a squad. At the same time, these vassals themselves fully exercised the functions of government in their estates and the grand ducal governors had no right to interfere in their internal affairs.

In the early feudal society of Kievan Rus, two main classes stood out - peasants (primarily smerds) and feudal lords. Both classes were not homogeneous in their composition. Smerds were divided into free community members and dependents. Free smerds had their own subsistence economy, paid tribute to princes and boyars, and at the same time were a source of replenishment for the feudal lords of the category of dependent people. The dependent population consisted of purchasers, ryadoviches, outcasts, pustniks and serfs. Purchases were called those who fell into dependence by taking a kupa (debt). Ryadovichi became those who fell into dependence after the conclusion of a series (agreement). The outcasts are impoverished people from the communities, and the freedmen are freed slaves. Kholops were completely disenfranchised and were actually in the position of slaves.

The class of feudal lords consisted of representatives of the grand ducal house headed by the grand duke, princes of tribes or lands, boyars, as well as senior combatants.

Somewhat later, in the second half of the X and especially in the XI centuries. the upper clergy also joined this emerging ruling class, who also exploited the peasants and townspeople. The interests of the feudal lords were protected by the laws of the state; they had power and military force on their side. But the peasants did not remain passive to feudal oppression. In the history of that period, many uprisings of peasants and townspeople are known, especially in the 11th - early 12th centuries. The largest of them were the uprisings in Kyiv during this period.

The main branches of production in Kievan Rus at that time were agriculture and handicrafts.

If we keep in mind the socio-economic structure of Russia of that period, we should first of all pay attention to the state of agriculture. The basis of agriculture in the period of early feudalism was agriculture of various types. During this period, farming techniques were greatly improved. And yet, in general, the technique of agriculture was rather archaic. In agriculture, an important place was occupied by the peasant community, which consisted of both one large massif and a number of scattered settlements, including both small and large peasant farms that jointly cultivated land, were bound by mutual responsibility, mutual responsibility for paying tribute, etc. Peasant communities existed in Russia throughout the history of feudalism.

The number of such communities gradually decreased and subsequently they remained only in the far north of the country. Feudal relations expanded over time due to the enslavement of personally free community members. Feudal ownership of land arose in the process of property inequality in connection with the transfer of a significant part of the arable land of the community members. At the same time, the appearance of feudal castles with their stocks of grain and other products was, to a certain extent, a progressive phenomenon, since it created certain reserves in case of crop failure or war. The main productive unit of feudal society were the peasants. The landowners, or feudal lords, of Ancient Russia, as well as in Western European countries, differed in the amount of land they owned, dependent people and military servants. After the adoption of Christianity (which will be discussed below), church and monastic land ownership also becomes a special type of land ownership. With the development of feudal relations, the struggle of the peasants against the ruling class intensified. For many regions of Ancient Russia X-XII centuries. were characterized by the discontent of the peasants and their open speeches.

Along with the peasant community, an important element of feudal society was the city, which was a fortified center of handicraft production and trade.

At the same time, the cities were important administrative centers, in which wealth and large food supplies were concentrated, which were brought here by the feudal lords. The largest cities of Ancient Russia were Kyiv, Novgorod, Smolensk, Chernigov, etc. The cities founded by the princes usually retained the names of these princes: Yaroslavl, Izyaslav, Vladimir, Konstantinov. Many of these names of cities have survived to our time.

The Russian craft of that time, in terms of its technical and artistic level, was not inferior to the craft of the advanced countries of Western Europe. In the same years, the number of cities began to grow. More than 220 cities were mentioned in the annals (until the 13th century). It is interesting that even in Scandinavia Russia was called "Gardaria" - a country of cities.

A large place in the history of ancient Russia was occupied by internal and external trade. Foreign trade especially intensified from the end of the 9th century. Russian squads mastered the way to the most advanced countries of that time - to Byzantium, the Caucasus, Central Asia and other parts of the outside world.

The structure of the church hierarchy has developed mainly as follows. At the head of the church was the Metropolitan of Kyiv, who was appointed from Constantinople or by the Kiev prince himself, with the subsequent election of bishops by the cathedral. In the large cities of Russia, all the practical affairs of the church were in charge of the bishops. The metropolitan and bishops owned lands, villages, and cities. The princes donated almost a tenth of their tribute and dues for the upkeep of the churches. In addition, the church had its own court and legislation, which gave the right to interfere in almost all aspects of the life of its parishioners. One of the strongest organizations of the church was the monasteries, which generally played an important role in the history of medieval states, including the ancient Russian state. All this came to Russia with the strengthening of the influence of Christianity.

The baptism of Vladimir is a turning point in the Christianization of Kievan Rus, but the Christianization itself did not take place immediately, it stretched out, as S. V. Bakhrushin noted, for a number of decades. Under Vladimir, the princely family and the princely squad were baptized. In large cities, such as Kyiv, Novgorod, and others, the inhabitants were driven into the river and, as noted in one of the ancient legends that have come down to us, "pushing them into the river, like herds", "and even unloving, but and I am baptized by the fear of the commanded." Despite the measures taken by the ruling class, a significant part of the Russian population in the XI century. remained pagan. The introduction of Christianity met with active resistance from a large number of the population. The introduction of Christianity started by Vladimir in the 10th century. was actively pursued. basically completed by Prince Yaroslav already in the 11th century. By the time of Yaroslav's reign, the final design of the church as an organization also belongs.

The change of religious cults was accompanied by the destruction of images of the gods once revered by pagans, the construction of churches on the sites where pagan idols and temples stood. First of all it concerned the marriage law. Polygamy prevailed in the highest circles. For example, Prince Vladimir had five "led", that is, legal wives, not counting the concubines. The Christian Church from the very beginning contributed to the elimination of the old marriage forms and consistently put this line into practice. And if already in the XI century. monogamous marriage received final recognition in Russia, then this was a considerable merit of the Christian church.

By accelerating the process of eliminating the remnants of the tribal system, Christianity contributed to the acceleration of the development of the feudal mode of production in Ancient Russia. In Byzantium, the church was a major feudal institution and landowner. With the adoption of Christianity, these same methods were introduced into Kievan Rus, where church institutions, along with princely ones, create large landed property, concentrating large landed estates in their hands. The progressive side of the activity of the Christian church was its desire to eliminate the elements of slave labor that survived in some regions of Ancient Russia. To a certain extent, the Christian Church also fought against the illegal enslavement of people. The influence of the Byzantine clergy was also reflected in the development of feudal legislation in Russia. Christianity played a big role in the ideological substantiation and thus in strengthening the power of the Kievan princes; the church assigns to the prince of Kiev all the attributes of Christian emperors. On many coins minted according to Greek models, princes are depicted in Byzantine imperial attire.

Baptism also influenced the cultural life of Russia, the development of technology, crafts, etc. From Byzantium, Kievan Rus borrowed the first experiences of minting coins. A noticeable influence of baptism manifested itself in the artistic field. Greek artists created new masterpieces in the newly converted country, which were equated with the best examples of Byzantine art, for example, St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, built by Yaroslav in 1037. Currently, it is a major museum. Who has been to Kyiv, could not help but admire this masterpiece of ancient Russian art. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, built in 1050, is still a model of architectural art. Painting on boards also penetrated from Byzantium to Kyiv. In connection with baptism, samples of Greek sculpture also appeared in Kievan Rus. Baptism also left a noticeable mark in the field of education and book publishing. According to Academician M.N. Tikhomirov, book education in Russia began to spread with the introduction of Christianity. The Slavic alphabet became widespread in Russia at the beginning of the 10th century. Initially, the Slavic alphabet was represented by two alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. Both of these alphabets have been known in Russia since the beginning of the 10th century. Writing in Ancient Russia developed on the basis of the Cyrillic alphabet, the letters from which entered the modern Russian alphabet. The rapid development of Russian writing took place in the 11th century, after the recognition of Christianity as the official religion in Russia. The need for church books in the Slavic language increased dramatically, as Christianity penetrated not only the city, but also the countryside.

The adoption of Christianity as the state religion in Russia was determined by a number of reasons. Appearance in the 7th - 9th centuries. the class early feudal system and the state religion was the result of interconnected processes. The formation of local principalities and the creation on their basis in the 9th century. the ancient Russian state with its center in Kyiv demanded, in turn, changes in the ideological field, in religion. The attempt to counter Christianity with a reformed pagan cult did not lead to success. Russia in the IX-X centuries. traditionally was associated with Constantinople - Constantinople and with the Slavs in Central Europe and the Balkan Peninsula, which was also in close contact with Byzantium. These connections largely determined the church orientation of Russia towards the Eastern Christian world and towards the See of Constantinople. The princes of Kiev could themselves choose the direction of Christianity that best met the political and cultural needs of the state.

In the history of Ancient Russia, Christianity was a progressive phenomenon. Borrowed from the Greeks and at the same time not completely dissociated from the West, it ultimately turned out not to be Byzantine or Roman, but Russian. In the history of Russia, the Russian Church played a complex and multifaceted role. However, its positive role consisted in the fact that, as an organization, it objectively helped to strengthen the young Russian statehood in the era of the rapid progressive development of feudalism.

Kievan Rus pursued an active foreign policy. Its rulers established diplomatic relations with neighboring countries. It was a time when the foundations of ancient Russian statehood were laid, cities and the culture of ancient Russia developed. It is no coincidence that even in ancient times Kyiv was called "the mother of Russian cities."

Ancient Russia, and later the early feudal state, had active ties with the outside world. The nature of these ties and relations with neighboring peoples varied depending on the specific historical situation in which the state found itself during these years. The external situation had a certain influence on the internal life of the state. Relations with individual states either aggravated for a certain period, then improved. In many respects, the nature of foreign policy was determined by the consequences of military operations conducted by the ancient Russian state. Russia fought with enemy squads, Byzantium, Khazaria and other states. The fight against external danger was one of the important factors that contributed to the formation of an early feudal state with a center in Kyiv. On the other hand, during this period, the ancient Russian princes, in turn, also sought to expand the territory of the state and conquer new trade routes. This was of great importance for a young, developing state.

At the end of the ninth and in the tenth century Russian troops made a number of campaigns on the coast of the Caspian Sea and in the steppe of the Caucasus.

The neighbor of the Old Russian state was the Khazar Khaganate, located on the Lower Volga and in the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov.

The Khazars were a semi-nomadic people of Turkic origin. Their capital Itil, located in the Volga delta, became a major trading center. During the heyday of the Khazar state, some Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars.

The Khazar Khaganate held in its hands key points on the most important trade routes: the mouths of the Volga and Don, the Kerch Strait, the crossing between the Volga and the Don. The customs posts established there collected significant trade duties. High customs payments had a negative impact on the development of trade in Ancient Russia.

Sometimes the Khazar Khagans (rulers of the state) were not content with trade fees, they detained and robbed Russian merchant caravans returning from the Caspian Sea. In the second half of the X century. the systematic struggle of the Russian squads with the Khazar Khaganate began. In 965 Kyiv prince Svyatoslav defeated the Khazar state.

After that, the Lower Don was again settled by the Slavs, and the former Khazar fortress Sarkel (Russian name Belaya Vezha) became the center of this territory. On the shores of the Kerch Strait, a Russian principality was formed with its center in Tmutarakan.

This city with a large navy became an outpost of Russia on the Black Sea. At the end of the X century. Russian squads made a number of campaigns on the Caspian coast and in the steppe regions of the Caucasus.

During this period, relations between Russia and Byzantium were of great importance. Russian princes tried to gain a foothold in the Black Sea region and in the Crimea. By that time, several Russian cities had already been built there. Byzantium, on the other hand, sought to limit the sphere of influence of Russia in the Black Sea region. For these purposes, she used warlike nomads and the Christian church in the fight against Russia. This circumstance complicated relations between Russia and Byzantium, their frequent clashes brought alternate success to one or the other side.

The development of the ancient Russian state took place in cooperation with the peoples of neighboring countries. One of the first places among them was occupied by the then mighty Byzantine Empire. Russian-Byzantine relations IX-X centuries. were complex. They included peaceful economic relations, political and cultural ties, and sharp military clashes. Despite its power, Byzantium was constantly invaded by the Slavic princes and their combatants. At the same time, Byzantine diplomacy sought to turn Russia into a state dependent on Byzantium. For these purposes, she decided to use the Christianization of Russia.

Russian squads, crossing the Black Sea on ships, raided the coastal Byzantine cities, and Prince Oleg even managed to capture the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople.

The chronicler tells how Oleg, having gathered a lot of Varangians, Slovenes, Krivichi, Mary, Drevlyans, Radimichi, Polyans, Northerners, Vyatichi, Croats, Dulebs, Tivertsy, moved to Byzantium "on horses and on ships." The Greeks closed the harbor with a chain and locked themselves in Constantinople. Oleg plundered the city district and did "a lot of evil", and then put the ships on wheels, unfolded the sails and moved with a fair wind to the city. The Greeks were horrified at the sight of the advancing Russian army and asked for peace, promising Oleg to pay the tribute he wanted. Oleg stopped the army. Negotiations began, which later ended with the conclusion of a peace treaty between Russia and Byzantium.

In the second half of the X century. a more active Russian-Byzantine rapprochement begins. Going to this rapprochement, the Byzantine emperors at the same time expected to use the Russian squads in the war against their neighbors.

A new stage in Russia's relations with Byzantium and with other neighboring peoples falls on the reign of Svyatoslav, who pursued an active foreign policy. He clashed with the powerful Khazar Khaganate, the defeat of which in 965 led to the formation of the Russian settlements on the Taman Peninsula of the Tmutarakan principality and the liberation of the Volga-Kama Bulgarians from the power of the Khaganate, who then formed their own state.

The fall of the Khazar Khaganate and the advance of Russia in the Black Sea region caused concern in Byzantium. In an effort to weaken Russia and Danubian Bulgaria, the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus II Phocas offered Svyatoslav to make a trip to the Balkans. The plans of the Byzantines did not materialize. Svyatoslav won a victory in Bulgaria and captured the city of Pereslavets on the Danube. Since this outcome was undesirable for the Byzantines, they started a war with Russia. Although the Russian squads fought bravely, the Byzantine forces far outnumbered them. In 971, a peace treaty was concluded: Svyatoslav's squad got the opportunity to return to Russia with all their weapons, and Byzantium was satisfied only with the promise of Russia not to attack. However, the events did not end there.

To weaken Russian influence in Bulgaria, Byzantium uses the Pechenegs. Initially, the Pechenegs roamed between the Volga and the Aral Sea, and then, under pressure from the Khazars, they crossed the Volga and occupied the northern Black Sea region. On the Dnieper rapids, the Pechenegs attacked the Russian army, Svyatoslav died in battle.

The next stage of Russian-Byzantine relations falls on the reign of Vladimir and is associated with the adoption of Christianity by Russia. The Byzantine Emperor Basil II turned to Vladimir with a request to help suppress the uprising of the commander Varda Foka, who captured Asia Minor and, threatening Constantinople, claimed the imperial throne. Vladimir's squad helped put down the uprising. However, the Byzantine emperor was in no hurry to fulfill his promise to marry Vladimir his sister Anna. Meanwhile, this marriage was of great political importance for Russia. The fact is that the Byzantine emperors at that time occupied the highest place in the feudal hierarchy of Europe at that time, and marrying a Byzantine princess noticeably raised the international prestige of the Russian state. To achieve the fulfillment of the treaty, Vladimir began military operations against Byzantium. By defeating Byzantium, he achieved not only the fulfillment of the agreement, but also the independence of his foreign policy from the Byzantine emperor. Russia became on a par with the largest Christian powers of medieval Europe. This position of Russia was also reflected in the dynastic ties of the Russian princes. In those years, ancient Russia with the German Empire and other European states were united by dynastic ties.

In the ninth century most of the Slavic tribes merged into a territorial union, called the "Russian Land". The center of the association was Kyiv, where the semi-legendary dynasty of Kiya, Dir and Askold ruled. In 882, the two largest political centers of the ancient Slavs - Kyiv and Novgorod united under the rule of Kyiv, forming the Old Russian state. From the end of IX to the beginning of XI, this state included the territories of other Slavic tribes - the Drevlyans, Severians, Radimichi, Tivertsy, Vyatichi. At the center of the new state formation was the Glade tribe. The Old Russian state became a kind of federation of tribes, in its form it was an early feudal monarchy.

The territory of the Kievan state was concentrated around several political centers that were once tribal. In the second half of the XI - the beginning of the XII century. fairly stable principalities began to form within Kievan Rus. As a result of the merger of the East Slavic tribes during the period of Kievan Rus, the Old Russian nationality gradually formed, which was characterized by a certain commonality of language, territory and mental warehouse, manifested in the commonality of culture.

The Old Russian state was one of the largest European states. Kievan Rus pursued an active foreign policy. Its rulers established diplomatic relations with neighboring countries. The struggle of Russia against the raids of nomads was of great importance for the security of the countries of both Western Asia and Europe. Trade relations of Russia were wide. Russia maintained political, commercial and cultural relations with Byzantium, and also established ties with France and England. The international significance of Russia is evidenced by dynastic marriages concluded by Russian princes. Feudal fragmentation in Russia was a natural result of the economic and political development of early feudal society. The formation in the Old Russian state of large land ownership - estates - under the dominance of natural economy inevitably made them completely independent production complexes, the economic ties of which were limited to the nearest district.

The emerging class of feudal landowners sought to establish various forms of economic and legal dependence of the agricultural population. But in the XI - XII centuries. the existing class antagonisms were mostly of a local nature; the forces of local authorities were quite enough to resolve them, and they did not require nationwide intervention. These conditions made large landowners - boyars-patrimonials almost completely economically and socially independent from the central government. The local boyars did not see the need to share their income with the great Kiev prince and actively supported the rulers of individual principalities in the struggle for economic and political independence. Outwardly, the collapse of Kievan Rus looked like a division of the territory of Kievan Rus between various members of the ruined princely family. According to the established tradition, local thrones were occupied, as a rule, only by the descendants of the house of Rurik. The process of advancing feudal fragmentation was objectively inevitable. He made it possible for the developing system of feudal relations to be more firmly established in Russia. From this point of view, one can speak of the historical progressivity of this stage of Russian history, within the framework of the development of the economy and culture.

Sources

Chronicles remain the most important sources for the history of medieval Russia. From the end of the XII century. their circle is expanding considerably. With the development of individual lands and principalities, regional chronicles spread.

The largest body of sources is made up of act materials - letters written on a variety of occasions. Letters were granted, deposit, in-line, bill of sale, spiritual, truce, statutory, etc., depending on the purpose. With the development of the feudal-local system, the number of current clerical documentation increases (scribe, sentinel, bit, genealogical books, replies, petitions, memories, court lists). Actual and office materials are valuable sources on the socio-economic history of Russia.

Russia in the period of feudal fragmentation (XII - XIII centuries)

1. Reasons

Feudal fragmentation is a new form of state. - political organization

From the second third of the 12th century, Russia began a period of feudal fragmentation that lasted until the end of the 15th century, through which all the countries of Europe and Asia passed. Feudal fragmentation as a new form of state political organization, which replaced the early feudal Kievan monarchy, corresponded to a developed feudal society.

a) Change of the early feudal monarchy

It was not by chance that feudal republics developed within the framework of former tribal unions, whose ethnic and regional stability was supported by natural boundaries and cultural traditions.

b) Division of labor

As a result of the development of productive forces and the social division of labor, the old tribes. centers and new cities have become economic and political centers. With the "reigning" and "charming" of communal lands, the peasants became involved in the system of feudal dependence.

The old tribal nobility turned into zemstvo boyars and, together with other categories of feudal lords, formed corporations of landowners.

c) Strengthening the political power of local princes and boyars

Within the limits of small states-principalities, the feudal lords could effectively protect their interests, which were little considered in Kyiv.

Selecting and securing suitable princes at their "tables", the local nobility forced them to abandon the view of the "tables" as temporary feeding for them.

d) The first strife

After the death of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich in 1015, a long war began between his numerous sons, who ruled over separate parts of Russia. The instigator of the strife was Svyatopolk the Accursed, who killed his brothers Boris and Gleb. In internecine wars, princes - brothers brought to Russia either the Pechenegs, or the Poles, or the mercenary detachments of the Varangians. In the end, the winner was Yaroslav the Wise, who divided Russia (along the Dnieper) with his brother Mstislav of Tmutarakan from 1024 to 1036, and then after the death of Mstislav became "autocratic".

e) Russia in the middle of the 11th century.

After the death of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, a significant number of sons, relatives and cousins of the Grand Duke ended up in Russia.

Each of them had one or another "fatherland", his own domain, and each, to the best of his ability, sought to increase the domain or exchange it for a richer one. This created a tense situation in all princely centers and in Kyiv itself. Researchers sometimes call the time after the death of Yaroslav the time of feudal fragmentation, but this cannot be considered correct, since real feudal fragmentation occurs when individual lands crystallize, large cities grow up to head these lands, when each sovereign principality consolidates its own princely dynasty. All this appeared in Russia only after 1132, and in the second half of the 11th century. everything was changeable, fragile and unstable. Princely strife ruined the people and the squad, shook the Russian state, but did not introduce any new political form.

f) The strife of the end of the XI century.

In the last quarter of the XI century. in the difficult conditions of an internal crisis and the constant threat of external danger from the side of the Polovtsian khans, princely strife acquired the character of a national disaster. The Grand Duke's throne became the object of contention: Svyatoslav Yaroslavich expelled his older brother Izyaslav from Kyiv, "initiating the expulsion of the brothers."

The strife became especially terrible after the son of Svyatoslav Oleg entered into allied relations with the Polovtsians and repeatedly brought the Polovtsian hordes to Russia for a self-serving decision between princely strife.

Oleg's enemy was the young Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, who reigned in the border Pereyaslavl. Monomakh managed to convene a princely congress in Lyubech in 1097, the task of which was to secure the "fatherland" for the princes, condemn the instigator of the strife Oleg and, if possible, eliminate future strife in order to resist the Polovtsy with united forces. However, the princes were powerless to establish order not only in the entire Russian land, but even within their princely circle of relatives and cousins and nephews. Immediately after the congress, a new strife broke out in Lyubech, which lasted for several years. The only force that, under those conditions, could really stop the rotation of the princes and the princely squabbles was the boyars - the main composition of the then young and progressive feudal class. Boyar program at the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries. consisted in limiting princely arbitrariness and excesses of princely officials, in eliminating strife and in the general defense of Russia from the Polovtsians. Coinciding in these points with the aspirations of the townspeople, this program reflected the interests of the whole people and was undeniably progressive.

In 1093, after the death of Vsevolod Yaroslavich, the people of Kiev invited the insignificant Turov prince Svyatopolk to the throne, but they miscalculated significantly, as he turned out to be a bad commander and a greedy ruler.

Svyatopolk died in 1113; his death was the signal for a widespread uprising in Kyiv. The people attacked the courts of princely stewards and usurers. The Kievan boyars, bypassing the princely seniority, chose Vladimir Monomakh as Grand Duke, who successfully reigned until his death in 1125. After him, the unity of Russia was still maintained under his son Mstislav (1125-1132), and then, in the words of the chronicler, "the whole Russian land" into separate independent principalities.

2. Essence
a) Weakening of the country on the eve of the Mongol-Tatar invasion

The loss of the state unity of Russia weakened and divided its forces in the face of the growing threat of foreign aggression and, above all, the steppe nomads. All this predetermined the gradual decline of the Kiev land from the 13th century. For some time, under Monamakh and Mstislav, Kyiv rose again. These princes were able to repulse the Polovtsian nomads.

b) The collapse of a single power

After the death of Mstislav, instead of a single state, about a dozen independent lands arose: Galicia, Chernigov, Smolensk, Novgorod and others.

ancient Russian state. The state that existed in the East Slavic lands from the end of the 9th century. to the second third (according to another point of view, to the middle) of the XII century. and uniting a significant part of the East Slavic lands (and at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th centuries - almost all of them).

Emergence. The Old Russian state was formed around 882 as a result of the unification of the Novgorod prince Oleg the Prophetic states, conventionally referred to in science as "Novgorod" and "Kiev".

Capital: Kyiv.

Self names: Russia, Russian land; "Old Russian state" (or "Kievan Rus") it is called in historical science.

Head of State: Grand Duke of Russia; until the middle of the 11th century. he was called the title “kagan” borrowed from the Khazars (in historical science, the head of the Old Russian state is called the Grand Duke of Kiev).

Coat of arms. For the period from 960s. until 1054, the coat of arms of the Grand Duke of Russia (Kagan) is known. Under Svyatoslav Igorevich (964 - 972) and Svyatopolk the Accursed (1015 - 1016 and 1018 - 1019) it was a bident, under Vladimir Svyatoslavich (978 - 1015) and Yaroslav the Wise (1016 - 1018 and 1019 - 1054) .) - a trident.

Legislation Old Russian state at the end of IX - X centuries. was oral ("Law Russian"). During the XI - early XII centuries. a set of written laws is being formed - Russian Pravda (formed by such legislative monuments as Yaroslav's Pravda, Pokonvirny, Lesson to bridgemen, Yaroslavich's Pravda and Vladimir Monomakh's Charter).

Functions state apparatus at the end of the ninth - the end of the tenth century. performed by the warriors of the Grand Duke (Kagan); from the end of the tenth century such officials as virniki, mytniki, swordsmen are known.

Social system. In Soviet historiography, the Old Russian state was considered early feudal - i.e. one whose character was determined by the formation of feudal relations at that time. According to the scientists of the Leningrad school I.Ya. Froyanov, the feudal system in the Old Russian state was by no means a backbone.

Periods of the history of the state. Four major periods can be distinguished in the history of the Old Russian state.

1) Around 882 - early 990s. The state is federal in nature; the territories of the East Slavic tribal unions included in it enjoy wide autonomy and are generally poorly connected with the center. Therefore, the Old Russian state of this period is often characterized as a "union of unions of tribes." After the death in 972 of Svyatoslav Igorevich, the state generally breaks up into three independent "volosts" (Kiev, Novgorod and Drevlyansk, reunited by Yaropolk Svyatoslavich only around 977).

2) Early 990s - 1054 As a result of the liquidation by Vladimir Svyatoslavich of most of the tribal principalities and the replacement of tribal princes by deputies (sons) of the Grand Duke of Russia (Kagan), the state acquires the features of a unitary state. However, as a result of strife between Yaroslav the Wise and his brother Mstislav Vladimirovich (Fierce), in 1026 it again splits - into two halves (with a border between them along the Dnieper), - and only after the death in 1036 Mstislav Yaroslav restores the unity of the state .

3) 1054 - 1113 According to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, the state again takes on the features of a federation. It is considered the common property of the princely family of Rurikovich, each of which has the right to reign in a particular area ("volost"), but must obey the eldest in the family - the Grand Duke of Russia. However, as a result of the beginning in the XI century. rapid growth of cities (potential regional centers) and the decline in the importance of the Dnieper trade route (now and then blocked by the Polovtsy), the role of Kyiv as a single center that controls the Dnieper route begins to decline, and the federation tends to turn into a confederation (i.e., to the collapse of a single states).

4) 1113 - 1132 Vladimir Monomakh (1113 - 1125) and his eldest son Mstislav the Great (1125 - 1132) manage to stop the disintegration of the Old Russian state that had begun and again give it the features of a federation (rather than a confederation).

Since the objective reasons for the growth of centrifugal tendencies (and, in addition to those listed above, were the weak controllability of a huge state with the then means of communication and communication), neither Vladimir Monomakh nor Mstislav the Great could eliminate, after the death of the latter in 1132, these tendencies triumphed again . City "volosts" one after another began to come out of subordination to the Russian Grand Duke. The last of them did so in the 1150s. (why the time of the final collapse of the Old Russian state is sometimes attributed to the middle of the 12th century), but usually the turn of the first and second thirds of the 12th century is considered the end of the existence of the Old Russian state.

Literature

Karpov A.Yu. Vladimir Saint. M., 1997.
Karpov A.Yu. Princess Olga. M., 2012.
Karpov A.Yu. Yaroslav the Wise. M., 2001.
Kotlyar N.F. Old Russian statehood. SPb., 1998.
Petrukhin V.Ya. Russia in the IX - X centuries. From the calling of the Varangians to the choice of faith. M., 2013.
Sverdlov M.B. Genesis and structure of feudal society in ancient Russia. M., 1983.
Froyanov I.Ya., Dvornichenko A.Yu. City-states of Ancient Russia. L., 1988.

***

Kievan Rus is an ancient Russian state in the west, southwest, and partly in the south of the East European Plain. Existed from the ninth to the early twelfth centuries AD. The capital was Kyiv. It arose as a union of Slavic tribes: Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, Polyans, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Polochans, Radimichi, Severyans, Vyatichi.

The year 862 is considered fundamental in the history of Kievan Rus, when, as the ancient written source “The Tale of Bygone Years” indicates, the Slavic tribes called the Varangians to reign. The first chief of Kievan Rus was Rurik, who took the throne in Novgorod.

Princes of Kievan Rus

864 - Varangians Askold and Dir seized princely power in Kyiv
882 - Varyag Oleg, who reigned in Novgorod, killed Askold and Dir, sat down to reign in Kyiv, united the northern and southern Slavic lands and took the title of Grand Duke
912 - Death of Oleg. Elevation Igor, son of Rurik
945 - Death of Igor. His wife is on the throne Olga
957 - Olga transferred power to her son Svyatoslav
972 - The death of Svyatoslav at the hands of the Pechenegs. Kyiv throne took Yaropolk
980 - The death of Yaropolk in the civil strife with his brother Vladimir. Vladimir- Kyiv prince
1015 - Death of Vladimir. Power in Kyiv was seized by his son Svyatopolk
1016 - A three-year struggle for supremacy in Russia between Svyatopolk and Prince Yaroslav of Novgorod
1019 - The death of Svyatopolk. Yaroslav, nicknamed the wise - prince in Kyiv
1054 - After the death of Yaroslav, the throne was taken by his son Izyaslav
1068 - The uprising of the Kiev people, the proclamation of the Polotsk prince by them Vseslav Grand Duke, Return Izyaslav.
1073 - Expulsion of Izyaslav by his brothers Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. Prince - Svyatoslav Yaroslavich
1076 - Death of Svyatoslav. Return Izyaslav.
1078 - The death of Izyaslav at the hands of his nephew Oleg Svyatoslavich, Prince of Chernigov. Kyiv throne took Vsevolod Yaroslavich
1099 - Prince Svyatopolk, son of Izyaslav
1113 - Prince Vladimir Monomakh
1125 - Death of Vladimir Monomakh. His son ascended the throne Mstislav
1132 - Death of Mstislav. Disintegration of Novgorod-Kievan Rus.

A Brief History of Kievan Rus

Kiev was the center of Kievan Rus until 1169, when it was captured and plundered by the troops of the prince of Rostov-Suzdal Andrey Bogolyubsky

Cities of Kievan Rus

Novgorod (until 1136)
Pskov
Chernihiv
Polotsk
Smolensk
Lyubech
Zhitomir
Iskorosten
Vyshgorod
crossed
Pereyaslavl
Darkness

Until the Mongol-Tatar invasion of the middle of the 13th century, Kyiv continued to be formally considered the center of Russia, but in fact lost its significance. In Russia, the time of feudal fragmentation has come. Kievan Rus broke up into 14 principalities, ruled by the descendants of different branches of the Rurik tree, and the free city of Novgorod

Kievan Rus is briefly described as a centralized state of a feudal type, formed in Eastern Europe in the last quarter of the 9th century. It was formed as a result of the conquering activity of the Novgorod princes of the Rurik dynasty, Varangian in origin, who managed to establish their power in the two largest cities of that time - Novgorod and Kyiv. The name of Kievan Rus appeared after the capital was moved to Kyiv.

The Rurik dynasty ruled in ancient Russian cities for several centuries, one of the latest descendants of this dynasty was the Moscow Tsar Ivan the Terrible. Kyiv and Novgorod were in a strategically advantageous position, the so-called "path from the Varangians to the Greeks" passed through them. Passing along the river "roads" from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, Varangian and Russian merchant ships reached the shores of Byzantium, which contributed to the rapid enrichment of Kievan Rus, and increased its importance in the international arena of that time.

In the 10th century, Kievan Rus began to conduct campaigns abroad, including to Byzantium, which, however, did not prevent the two large states from establishing friendly relations in the future. The friendship between Byzantium and Kievan Rus resulted in the adoption of Christianity as the state religion. The Baptism of Russia was carried out by Prince Vladimir the Great of Kiev at the end of the 10th century, the grandson of Princess Olga (who was also known to be a Christian). The pagan cult was partly forced out of Russia (the “wizards”, who were especially stubborn in this matter, went far to the east), and partly woven into the Christian faith for faster assimilation.

During this period, Kievan Rus became interested in Western European countries, Kyiv began to conduct diplomatic negotiations with the leading states of that time. In Western sources, Kievan Rus was briefly mentioned as a country of cities - Gordarik. The fact is that for the early Middle Ages in Russia there really were many large cities, in the annals it was possible to find descriptions of 24 of them, but in fact there were much more of them.

Kievan Rus achieved its greatest flourishing under the rule of Yaroslav the Wise, who ruled in the first half of the 11th century. However, over time, the state weakened, primarily because of the kings themselves, who gave their sons equal rights. As a result, the fragmented state was mired in internecine struggle, and in the 13th century most of the Russian principalities were easily captured by the Golden Horde.

Kievan Rus was formed in the last quarter of the 9th century. In fact, this medieval state was formed by combining different cultures. During the reign of the Rurik dynasty, Finno-Ugric tribes joined a number of East Slavic tribes. In the period of its highest prosperity, the Kievan state extended over 800 thousand square meters. km, from the Taman Peninsula to the Northern Dvina.

At different times, Kievan Rus was called differently. From the very beginning of its appearance, it was an Old Russian state that arose on the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." The first information about this state is associated with the 9th century. According to some sources, the baptism of Russia took place precisely in 860 -x, immediately after the campaign against Constantinople. This event is mentioned in The Tale of Bygone Years. In the same period, the boyars Askold and Dir, sent by Rurik, took Kyiv into submission, thereby occupying the most important trade route. There is a version that Askold and Dir were not connected with Rurik in any way, but were descendants of the semi-legendary Kiy.

Thus, the first Slavic princes were considered to be Kiy (the founder of Kyiv), Rurik (the founder of the Novgorod principality), Askold and Dir (the conquerors of Kiev in the 9th century) and Prophetic Oleg (regent for the little son of Rurik). IN 882 year, on the orders of Oleg, Askold and Dir were killed in Kyiv, after which the throne passed to the Rurik dynasty. Many historians consider Oleg the actual founder of the Kievan state.

In those days, paganism was the dominant religion, but there was also a Christian community in Kyiv. Prophetic Oleg quickly extended his power to the lands of the Drevlyans and Northerners through a military invasion. With his campaign against Byzantium, he provided Russian merchants with preferential terms of trade, that is, without duties and tributes. For more than 30 years he bore the title of Grand Duke, and after his death in 912 year the throne was transferred to Igor - the grown-up son of Rurik.

During the reign of Igor Rurikovich there were two campaigns against Byzantium. First ( 941 year) was unsuccessful, and the second ( 944 year) ended with an agreement abolishing duty-free trade. IN 945 year the prince would have been killed. After his death, Princess Olga became the actual ruler, since Svyatoslav Igorevich was still small. She was the first ruler of the Kievan state who converted to Christianity. IN 960 year, power passed to the matured Svyatoslav. This ruler, first of all, took up the Khazar Khaganate and the eradication of its power. Death overtook the prince in 972 year in the battle with the Pechenegs.

After the death of Svyatoslav, his sons divided power among themselves: Yaropolk, Oleg and Vladimir. IN 980 Prince of Novgorod Vladimir Svyatoslavovich defended the right to the throne. During his reign, Christianity became the official religion in Russia, writing, architecture and crafts were developed. After his death, civil strife began in the state. FROM 1019 Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise became the ruler. It was the time of the highest prosperity of Russia. He managed to build relationships with many ruling European dynasties, defeated and expelled the Pechenegs forever, returned the Chernihiv principality.

IN 1054 the year before his death, Yaroslav the Wise divided the Russian lands between his five sons. Soon, two of the younger ones died, and the three survivors made up the "triumvirate of the Yaroslavichs." The principality of Polotsk was the first to separate from Kyiv, and in the first half of the 12th century the entire state broke up into separate principalities. The year of the collapse of Kievan Rus is considered to be 1132 th. In this year, the grandson of Vsevolod Yaroslavovich Mstislav the Great died, after which some cities ceased to recognize the Kiev authorities.

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