The golden age of Russian literature review. The Golden Age of Russian Literature: Russian Classical Literature of the 19th Century

The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.

But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.

A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" (1833), "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem "Mtsyri", the poetic story "Demon", many romantic poems are known. Interestingly, Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets urged the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin "Prophet", ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the Death of a Poet" and many others.

Along with poetry, prose began to develop. The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story "The Captain's Daughter", where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the time of the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a tremendous job exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power.

A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".

Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls", the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism affects). In the same plan, the comedy "The Inspector General" is sustained. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".

Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which is being created against the backdrop of a tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis in the serf system is brewing, and contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development.

Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.

The development of poetry somewhat subsides. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. Known for his poem “Who in Russia to live well? ”, as well as many poems, where the hard and hopeless life of the people is comprehended.

The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of a small literary genre - a story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.

The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the hallmarks of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

"Golden Age" of Russian Literature. Romanticism, realism

Introduction

1. Romanticism as a reflection of Russian national identity

2. A realistic approach to the problem of Russia's historical choice

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

To understand the features of Russian culture of the XIX century. essential knowledge of the nature of politics, economics and law of the Russian Empire. As a result of Peter the Great's reforms in Russia, an absolute monarchy was established and the bureaucracy was legalized, which was especially pronounced in the "golden age" of Catherine II. Early 19th century was marked by the ministerial reform of Alexander I, who in practice pursued a line of strengthening the feudal-absolutist order, taking into account the new "spirit of the times", primarily the influence of the Great French Revolution of 1789 on the minds, on Russian culture. One of the archetypes of this culture is the love of freedom, sung by Russian poetry, from Pushkin to Tsvetaeva. The establishment of the ministries marked the further bureaucratization of administration and the improvement of the central apparatus of the Russian Empire. One of the elements of the modernization and Europeanization of the Russian state machine is the establishment of the State Council, whose function was to centralize the legislative business and ensure the uniformity of legal norms. Ministerial reform and the formation of the State Council completed the reorganization of the central administration, which existed until 1917. After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, Russia firmly embarked on the path of capitalist development.

The relevance of this topic is determined by the colossal influence exerted by this period of Russian culture, both on the modern culture of Russia and on the culture of Western countries.

aim This work is a study of the main features of Russian culture of the 19th century.

In connection with this goal, the following research tasks can be formulated:

· consider the features of the formation of Russian culture in the 19th century;

· due to the extensive material, consider only the work of the greatest Russian writers, their view of the historical choice of Russia and the problem of man.

The abstract consists of 5 sections. The first one formulates the purpose and objectives of the study, the second describes the features of the formation of the Russian national idea, the third gives an overview of the work of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky, in the fourth, the main conclusions on the content of the work are made, in the fifth, primary sources on the topic of the work are indicated.

1. Romanticism as a reflection of Russian national identity

The significance of the 19th century for the development of Russian culture is due to the processes that predetermine the nature of the mindset of Russia and its main contradictions. These processes include the formation of Russian national identity, the formation of the nation, the reflection of these processes and the social thought of the 19th century.

If for Western Europe the 19th century is the century of the development of capitalist society, the complete collapse of absolutist monarchies, the destruction of the class division of society, then for Russia this is the time to create conditions for the destruction of feudal relations. V.G. Belinsky sees in Russia a country “where people trade in people, not even having the justification that American planters use, he argued that the Negro is not a person ... where people call themselves not by names, but by nicknames: Vanki, Steshki, Palashki; ... where ... there are not only no guarantees for the person, honor and property, but there is not even a police order, but there are only huge corporations of various official thieves and robbers. "The country's public execution is developing in conditions of despotism and the omnipotence of the state, class division of society, the absolute lack of rights of the population, the existence of serfdom.

Russian national identity is forged from the contradiction "between the idea of ​​an empire, a powerful state of a military-police type, and the religious-messianic idea of ​​a kingdom that went into the underground layer, the layer of the people." Russian spirituality is characterized by an understanding of statehood that is not ethnic, geopolitical , geographical, i.e. the state is not a power that extends to a certain territory with clearly defined boundaries, statehood for Russian spirituality is a religious phenomenon, in the popular vocabulary called Holy Russia, behind this concept "is by no means, to put it in the present, a national idea, not a geographical and not an ethnic concept. Holy Russia is an almost cosmic category. At least, within its limits (or its infinity) both the Old Testament Eden and the Evangelical Palestine fit in." Holy Russia has no local features. It has only two signs: the first is to be, in a sense, the whole world, containing even paradise; the second is to be a world under the sign of true faith. The Russian national self-consciousness of the 19th century absorbs these two incompatible phenomena: the Holy Russian Land and the idea of ​​Russia as a national state. Russian self-consciousness has managed to see in Russia, identified geographically and ethnographically, the "special become" of Holy Russia.

Gogol wrote from Italy: "Rus! Rus! I see you, from my wonderful, beautiful far away I see you poorly, scattered and uncomfortable for you; the impudent divas of nature, crowned with impudent divas of art, cities with multi-window high palaces, ingrown into cliffs, picture trees and ivy grown into houses ... Openly deserted and even in you; like dots, like icons, your inconspicuous cities stick out inconspicuously among the plains: nothing will seduce and charm the eye. But what incomprehensible, secret force attracts you? What is calling and . sobbing, and . grabs by the heart?... Is it not here that an aimless thought is born in you, when you yourself are without end?... Wow! what a believing, wonderful, unfamiliar distance to the earth! Russia! This duality in the perception of Russia will leave a special imprint on Russian self-consciousness, give rise to contradictions in it, often insoluble, create a special Russian literature, which, being a purely Russian national phenomenon, will raise global, cosmic questions.

Freemasonry played a special role in the development of Russian consciousness in the 19th century. Russian freemasonry set as its task the search for true Christianity, inter-confessional Christianity. Masonic lodges became the first forms of self-organization of society in the early nineteenth century. It is through the Masonic lodges that the ideas of universal equality penetrate into the social thought of Russia, and the moral ideal of the individual, the ideas of humanism, and nobility are formed in the organizations of free masons. It was within the Masonic lodges that future secret societies matured.

The war of 1812 and the foreign campaign contributed to the formation of Russian national identity. The Patriotic War rallied people of various classes, revealed the origins of national unity. M.I. Muravyov-Apostol wrote: "We were the children of 1812, it was 1812, and not at all a campaign abroad, that created the subsequent social movement, which was in essence not borrowed, not European, but purely Russian." "It was the growth of national self-consciousness, a sense of unity and closeness with their people, the rise of national patriotism could not but create a new spiritual atmosphere among the most conscientious Russian people, who considered Russian problems as their own.The layer of these people was not numerous, it was a narrow layer of the Russian educated nobility, who found themselves between the autocratic monarchy and the dark "The Decembrist movement was purely Russian. A nation cannot take shape in conditions of class division of society. The medieval idea of ​​the divine illumination of the social inequality of people was finally destroyed by the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th-18th centuries. The Russian consciousness absorbs these ideas under the influence of the events of 1812-1815.

The growth of national self-consciousness finds its expression in Russian romanticism. If Western European romanticism was a reaction to the era of reason, the bloody consequences of the Great French Revolution, then Russian romanticism reflected the process of turning the Russian people into a nation, and therefore it becomes a completely original phenomenon. The aesthetic expression of romanticism was the desire to portray the national character and national color of the life of the people. "May purely Russian poetry be created for the glory of Russia, may Holy Russia not only in the civil, but also in the moral world be the first power in the universe! The faith of the forefathers, domestic customs, chronicles, songs and folk tales are the best, purest sources for our literature" - this is the program of Russian romanticism of the early 19th century, formulated by B.K. Kuchelbecker.

Romanticism managed to go beyond the limits of the estates of evaluating people, switch to moral characteristics, show interest in the human person, found the courage to recognize the same right to moral dignity in both peasants and nobles, V.M. Karamzin V.A. Zhukovsky, A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, M. Koltsov constituted a powerful trend of literary romanticism in Russian culture, reflecting the formation of the nation.

2. A realistic approach to the problem of Russia's historical choice

An important role in the development of national self-consciousness was played by the delivery of the work of N.M. Karamzin "History of the Russian State". The basis of this process is imbued with "Philosophical Letters" P.Ya. Chaadaev, who created the first philosophy of Russian history. The beginning of the controversy between Westerners and Slavophiles was laid by the articles of A.S. Khomyakov "On the Old and the New" and Kireevsky I.V. “In response to A.S. Khomyakov”, published in 1939. The pathos of this controversy consisted in the search for ways to transform the Russian people into a Russian nation.

The answer to this question lay through the solution of the problem of the place and fate of Russia in the world cultural process. Who are we? Europeans and our path is a repetition of the path of Western Europe: or a new, young civilization that goes its own way and is able to show the world examples of morality. The founders of the Western trend can be considered as revolutionary - democratically minded A.I. Herzen and V.G. Belinsky, and liberal thinkers D.L. Kryukova, T.N. Granovsky, I.S. Turgenev, K.D. Kavelina, B.I. Chicherin. The Westerners believed that the Russian people were a European people and their path was connected with the development of the freedom of the human person, just like the path of Western Europe. Russia is a backward country, it needs enlightenment, this is precisely the uniqueness of Russia. According to N. Berdyaev, Westerners had very little idea of ​​the features of the real life of modern Europe and were guided by the utopian ideal of European life.

The Slavophiles linked their hopes for a special, different development of Russia with the fact that Russian culture is being formed on a unique spiritual soil - Orthodoxy. It is the difference from Europe of the basis of Russian spirituality that allows it to take a special place in world civilization. Orthodoxy provides Russian culture with integrity, while the splitting of European culture rests on Catholicism. Catholicism and Catholic scholasticism, which led Europe to the religious, deprive European culture of the integrity necessary for the existence of civilization. Europe with its rationality, mechanization, violent statehood is deeply hostile to Russian culture. Therefore, evaluating the Petrine reforms, the Slavophiles see in them deeds that carry a danger to the organicity and integrity of Russian life. Pre-Petrine Russia possessed these qualities from the point of view of the Slavophiles.

The Slavophiles associated the future of Russia only with the common people, since the educated part of society was infected with Western rationalism and state absolutism. The Slavophiles declared three principles to be the sources of the health of the Russian people: Orthodoxy, nationality, and autocracy. The undistorted Orthodox faith and genuine nationality were preserved only among the peasantry. Being anti-statists, the Slavophils defended the monarchy, since power seemed to them an absolute sin, evil, and therefore, the fewer people will be stained by power, the more reason not to worry about the moral health of the people. Democratic government, on the other hand, involves the people in evil, therefore it is less preferable than autocracy, where one person takes upon himself the sin of political power. The Russian people have no desire to form a state, they have a different vocation - religious, spiritual. The Slavophiles believed that the Russian peasant did not have the sin of possessiveness, unlike the European. This is due to the special way of Russian life - with the community.

The camp of Slavophiles was made up of such thinkers as A.S. Khomyakov, I.V. Kireevsky, B.I. Kerimov. Their views were not united, they had different attitudes towards the nature of Russian culture and its place in history, but they were united by a critical attitude. to Western European civilization, the belief in the fundamental originality of Russian history and culture, the general Orthodox-Christian cultural orientation, the ardent defense of individual freedom, freedom of conscience, thought, and speech.

Reflections on the place of Russia in the world cultural process are just beginning in the controversy between Westerners and Slavophiles. The second half of the 19th century is marked by the rapid development of cultural thought, where the problem of Russia's development is also studied by such thinkers as B.S. Solovyov, B.I. Chicherin, S.M. Solovyov, G.V. Lekhanov, N.Ya. Danilevsky.

Many philosophers and historians associate special hopes for the development of the world process with Russia, for example, for N.Ya. Danilevsky, it is the Slavic cultural-historical type that can link together the four spheres of socio-cultural life (religious, proper cultural, political, economic), which has not yet been possible for any nation in the foreseeable historical process. CM. Solovyov sees in Russia a "model of a Christian state", the center of world development, V.S. Solovyov in the triad "East-West-Russia" believes that the peculiarities of the national character of the Russian people can turn Russian civilization from national to universal.

The spiritual atmosphere of Russia in the 19th century is imbued with faith in the special destiny of Russia, faith in the special path of the Russian people, whose spirituality and moral character should set an example of creating a new society, devoid of the shortcomings of the societies of the West and East. This idea permeates Russian literature of the 19th century, which follows the path of painful searches for the realm of love and truth.

A special place in the culture of the nineteenth century is occupied by Russian; literature, it was in Russian literature of the 19th century that the most important questions that tormented a person were raised: questions of life and death, the value of human life, the place and weight of spiritual life and universal values. All questions of moral and political life are comprehended precisely in the artistic word. Literature acquires the status of a universal form of social self-consciousness. This gave the writers in society a special weight and special functions. The writer became a teacher of life; his opinion was not just the opinion of a private person, he shaped the minds of people, created the ideals that the youth of that time tried to imitate.

The romantic idea of ​​transforming the world through art was closest to the great Russian writer. N.V. Gogol. The transformation of life can be achieved by pointing out to society its shortcomings, therefore "The Government Inspector" and "Dead Souls" are a path that society should not follow. Phantasmagoric, like Hoffmann's, images of "dead souls" come out from under his pen. But faith in the transformation of the world is lost by Gogol, he is disappointed in his work. “Selected passages from correspondence with friends”, which caused Belinsky such indignation, is a search for ways to achieve a better life, which is impossible without personal moral perfection. At the heart of his sermon is the idea of ​​social Christianity. Gogol's theocratic utopia bears the stamp of religious and moral teaching, so characteristic of the literature of the 19th century. The educated world is presented to the writer as an authoritative society where serfdom still dominates, but if the appearance of utopias is no different from contemporary Russia, then the people who live in it are ruled by virtuous governor generals, and the lower strata are distinguished by humility and obedience. . The essence of Gogol's idea is that it is Russia that is vested and recognized to bring brotherhood to people and should become an example of moral perfection for people all over the world. Gogol is the true bearer of Russian spirituality, for which it is so characteristic to seek the Kingdom of God on earth. Gogol lays the foundation for the religious and moral searches of Russian literature, its messianic service.

Dostoevsky said of Gogol that his works "press on the mind with the deepest overwhelming questions, evoke the most restless thoughts in the Russian mind."

40 Russian writers of the 19th century made up the world glory of Russian literature, which strives for the creative perfection of life, raises the problem of the social mission of art, calls on the writer to serve the public cause with a word. All Russian literature is imbued with the search for social truth. F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy. Both titans of Russian literature strove for social truth, they were looking for the Kingdom of God on earth, since only in it can social truth enter. For them, the social theme is inseparable from the religious one.

A special sense of justice pushes Dostoevsky to the problem of theodicy. Is it possible to unite the all-good God and the world created on evil and suffering? In The Brothers Karamazov, Ivan Karamazov is tormented by the problem of the price that can be paid for the creation of world harmony. Is it possible to build harmony by sacrificing innocent people, for Ivan, as well as for Dostoevsky, the answer is obvious: “The highest harmony is completely abandoned. It is not worth a tear even if only one tortured child.

The most intimate strings of the human soul, its heights of confluence attract the attention of the writer. In the fallen man himself, the writer is looking for the image of God, no matter what vices the person is mired in - he is God's creation. The last of men has absolute significance, but only because he is the likeness of a god. Only faith allows people to preserve the human in themselves. Dostoevsky sees that self-deification of man grows out of unbelief, this godless freedom results in inhumanity and cruelty, for which individual human life is a trifle, which can easily be sacrificed to the general welfare. This idea of ​​universal happiness turns into a bloodthirsty Moloch, who requires more and more human sacrifices in the name of a great idea.

No one has the right to dispose of someone else's life, no matter how unnecessary and insignificant it may seem, nothing can justify homicide - neither the high idea of ​​\u200b\u200bgeneral welfare, nor the personal benefit or viability of an individual. For Raskolnikov, the hero of the novel Crime and Punishment, doubting this truth leads to the destruction of his own soul.

Dostoevsky is looking for the truth and finds it in the Russian people. The bourgeois world, capitalist relations do not carry the truth, therefore the writer opposes bourgeois relations, because satiety will not replace the freedom of the spirit. But even revolutionary activity appears to Dostoevsky as a denial of freedom and personality. Where freedom of the spirit is renounced, the kingdom of the Antichrist begins. He sees this beginning both in authoritative Christianity and in authoritarian socialism. Violence should not be the way of world unity. "The Legend of the Grand Inquisitor" - but the writer's brilliant clairvoyance about the grief and destruction that brings both authoritarian Catholicism, and authoritarian communism and fascism, all totalitarian regimes. "The Legend of the Grand Inquisitor", "Demons", "Notes from the Underground" raise the terrible question of what the price of progress can be; if this progress leads to the construction of world harmony, where millions are happy, having abandoned the individual and freedom. All the kingdoms of the world are based on coercion and on the denial of the freedom of the spirit.

Dostoevsky creates his own utopia, a theocratic utopia, in which the church completely absorbs the state and realizes the kingdom of freedom and love. For the writer, the question of the reorganization of society lies not in the plane of politics or economics, but in the field of religion. The writer identifies three ways to resolve the issue of world harmony, paradise, paradise, the final triumph of goodness:

the first way is the achievement of harmony, paradise, life in goodness without freedom of choice, without world tragedy, without suffering, but also without creative work;

the second path is harmony, paradise, life in goodness at the peak of earthly history, bought at the cost of incalculable suffering and tears of all human generations doomed to death, turned into a means for the future happy ones;

the third way is harmony, paradise, life in goodness, to which a person will come through freedom and suffering in a plan that will include all who have ever lived and suffered, i.e. but the Kingdom of God. Dostoevsky can only make a third decision about world harmony.

There has never been a writer about world literature who so nakedly personally perceived social and moral conflicts with such heartache and, on the other hand, experienced his personal tragedies so universally, on a global scale, as F.M. Dostoevsky.

LN Tolstoy, a great truth seeker, passionately and radically opposes historical Christianity, the historical church, which adapts the precepts of Christ to the law of this world, replacing the Kingdom of God with the kingdom of Caesar.

Why does a person live, what is his purpose in this world? These questions torment the writer, he seeks answers to them in his treatises "Confession", "What is my faith?", "The Kingdom of God is within us", "On Life". People very often chase after ghosts, after false values, while not sparing either their own or others. Tolstoy believes that the life that a person wastes in the name of self-interest, a career, the acquisition of wealth, is wasted in vain. People live without thinking about death, they roll on the sleigh of life, not noticing that they are flying into the abyss. They push each other, quarrel among themselves, not thinking about the meaning of everything that happens. But it is difficult for a person to understand moral guidelines and values. And teachers of life - writers, philosophers, cultural figures are called to help in this difficult process of developing ideals, since it is their duty to society to show a person the way in his difficult path of moral choice.

In the treatise "What is my faith?" Tolstoy also wrote that a person must live in such a way that death cannot disturb life. To do this, you need to minimize the "corporal" life, bodily needs. Genuine life is a spiritual life, in goodness and moral perfection. If a person could not find the way from a mechanical and insignificant life to the life of the soul, then he will remain on the threshold of human life, without transgressing it.

The problem of death and immortality in Tolstoy is connected with the problem of the meaning of life. Death is the destiny of the lower consciousness. "Life in the body" ends with the death of the body. Overcoming death is connected with overcoming life, connected only with material needs. You can overcome death only with the help of the deed of love, i.e. activities of mercy and compassion. In the process of life, according to Tolstoy, a person goes through three stages of self-consciousness: the first stage is vegetative, unconscious life, the second is individual life, aware of itself as a separate being, the third is divine, genuine life. The first stage is a life devoid of any spiritual interests. The second is a life for pleasure and glory. Only the third stage is life in spiritual activity, work to improve oneself and the life around. It is this life that Tolstoy calls "the solution of the mystery and the polar star for the moving humanity, because it gives the true good." ("The Way of Life")

Tolstoy connects the future of mankind with the growth of morality, lack of spirituality destroys life. Only self-improvement of a person creates the conditions for a genuine change in the circumstances of life, without self-change, external changes - simply shifting "without lime, but in a new manner" a crumbling building of unhewn stones. This thought permeates the entire Russian culture of the 19th century, which appeals to the moral perfection of mankind.

Conclusion

Serfdom, which kept the peasantry in the dark and downtrodden, tsarist arbitrariness, which suppresses all living thought, and the general economic backwardness of Russia in comparison with Western European countries, hindered cultural progress. Despite these unfavorable conditions, and even in spite of them, Russia in the XIX century. made a truly gigantic leap in the development of culture, made an enormous contribution to world culture. Such a rise in Russian culture was due to a number of factors. First of all, it was connected with the process of formation of the Russian nation in the critical era of transition from feudalism to capitalism, with the growth of national self-consciousness and was its expression. Of great importance was the fact that the rise of Russian national culture coincided with the beginning of the revolutionary liberation movement in Russia.

An important factor that contributed to the intensive development of Russian culture was its close communication and interaction with other cultures. The world revolutionary process and advanced Western European social thought had a strong influence on the culture of Russia. This was the heyday of German classical philosophy and French utopian socialism, the ideas of which were widely popular in Russia.

Russian culture perceived the best achievements of the cultures of other countries and peoples, without losing its originality and, in turn, influencing the development of other cultures. A considerable mark was left in the history of European peoples, for example, by Russian religious thought. The rise of patriotism in connection with the Patriotic War of 1812 contributed not only to the growth of national self-consciousness and the formation of Decembristism, but also to the development of Russian national culture. V. Belinsky wrote: "The year 1812, having shaken the whole of Russia, aroused the people's consciousness and people's pride."

List of used literature

1. Gurevich P.S. Man and Culture M.: Bustard, 1998

2. Erasov B.S. Social cultural studies: In 2 parts. Part 1 - M .: JSC "Aspect Press", 1994. - 384 p.

3. Cultural studies. A course of lectures, ed. A.A. Rodugina Ed. Center Moscow 1998

4. Culturology / Ed. A.N. Markova M., 1998

5. Levinas E. Philosophical definition of the idea of ​​culture. // Global problems and universal values. - M.: Progress, 1990. - S.86-97

6. Polikarpov V.S. Lectures on cultural studies. M .: "Gardariki", 1997. - 344 p.

Sections: Literature

Class: 9

Romanticism as a literary movement

ROMANTICISM is a trend (direction) in European and American literature and art of the late 18th - 1st half of the 19th century.

In the 18th century, everything fantastic, unusual, strange, found only in books, and not in reality, was called romantic.

The main representatives of the literature of European romanticism:

• J. Byron, W. Scott (England).
• V. Hugo, (France).
• E. Hoffman, J. and W. Grimm (Germany).

The main idea of ​​romanticism

The struggle between good and evil is the basis for the development of all living things, i.e. good cannot exist without evil.

Romantics are interested in relationships:

- between people;

between the individual and society;

– between man and art;

- human inner world.

The main task of the writer: To reveal the complex and internally contradictory world in which a person lives, to show the dialectics of his soul.

romantic hero

• shown in development, i.e. the dialectic of his soul is depicted;
• opposed to society (this is the basis of romantic individualism);
• usually alone;
• is often on the road;
• this is a strong personality, a person obsessed with some kind of passion;
• r.g. shown in non-standard, extreme situations;
• can be both positive and negative.

Features of romanticism:

• The impossibility of an ideal world.
• The idea of ​​duality: feelings, desires of a person and the surrounding reality are in deep discord.
• The self-worth of a separate human personality with its special inner world, the richness and uniqueness of the human soul.
• The exceptional hero of romanticism is placed in special, exceptional circumstances.

Main genres

• novel (epic genre).
• poem (lyric-epic genre).
• drama (dramatic genre).

Features of Russian romanticism:

• historical optimism.
• Attention to the past of their country.

Ideal hero: a patriotic citizen or a humane person endowed with a feeling of love and deep Christian compassion.

Representatives of Russian romanticism:

• V.A. Zhukovsky (ballads).
• M.Yu. Lermontov ("Mtsyri", "A Hero of Our Time").
• N.V. Gogol (“Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”).

The topic of our today's lesson is the "golden age" of Russian culture. To do this, we will understand what period of Russian culture is meant and why it is called "golden". We learn the history of the origin of this concept and the features of its development.

Topic: Russian literature of the 19th century

Lesson:Golden age of Russian culture

The concept of "golden age" is metaphorical, and in order to understand the meaning of this metaphor, one must remember where the direct meaning came from. It will take us to antiquity, to antiquity, to Greek mythology, where the idea of ​​the "golden age" arose as a special state of life of people and gods, when they lived in harmony. These mythological representations were recorded by ancient authors. First of all, we are talking about the Greek poet Hesiod

and his poem "Works and Days", in which he speaks only of the generation of people created by the gods. This was the time when Kronos, or Chronos in the Greek tradition, and in the Roman - Satur created a special kind of "golden people". Much later, the Roman poet Virgil

in the poem "Aeneid" he will use exactly this expression - "golden age", meaning now not the qualities of people, but the quality of time. His contemporary Ovid

in the poem "The Science of Love", he ironically recalls the "golden age", saying that now you have to pay for everything in gold, because we live in the "golden age".

Over time, it was Roman literature that began to be called "golden". The heyday of Roman culture in the 1st century BC was called the "golden age" of Roman culture, literature and was associated with several phenomena. On the one hand, with the problem of the Latin language, which at that time acquired a special quality of its classical completeness. Something similar will occur in Russian literature of the early 19th century. On the other hand, it was an era of special patronage of sciences and arts. First Roman Emperor Octavian Augustus

supported writers: Horace, Virgil - in a special way creating favorable conditions for the development of literature and culture.

When it comes to Russian culture at the beginning of the 19th century, there is reason to recall that Herzen,

reflecting on the originality of the historical path of Russian culture, which it passed from the time of the Petrine reforms to the beginning of the 19th century, with its characteristic beauty of expressions, it will notice that in a hundred years Russia will respond to the Petrine call for education with the genius of Pushkin. And in this sense, indeed, what we call the “golden age” of Russian culture begins in the first decades of the 19th century and, perhaps, most clearly manifested itself in the completeness of the ensemble of the northern capital, St. Petersburg. It was at this time that Petersburg acquires that classic look that we remember, first of all, from Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin". Indeed, the architect Zakharov

builds the building of the Admiralty,

Rice. 7. Admiralty building in St. Petersburg ()

from which the central avenues of St. Petersburg depart.

About the classical age in the history of Russian culture, which is also called the Petersburg part of its history. And not at all by chance. After all, the center of events will be the city of St. Petersburg itself with a very small history, because its foundation falls at the beginning of the 18th century. In the construction of St. Petersburg in the 18th century, the predominant architectural style was the Baroque style. So, the Peter and Paul Cathedral is being built

Rice. 8. Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg ()

Rice. 10. Francesco Rastrelli ()

builds the Winter Palace,

Rice. 11. Winter Palace in St. Petersburg ()

Catherine Palace.

Rice. 12. Catherine Palace in St. Petersburg ()

But by the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, the idea of ​​Russia as an empire in itself began to be emphasized by the approval of another architectural style - classicism. And if in literature Russian classicism was most clearly expressed in the middle of the 18th century, then in architecture and painting this style will reveal its most significant achievements precisely at the beginning of the 19th century, on the one hand. On the other hand, he will complete the architectural organization of St. Petersburg. Indeed, in this sense, there is a reason to recall the construction of the Admiralty, built by the architect Zakharov. It turned out to be a point from which the main avenues of St. Petersburg radiate in different directions, and first of all, Nevsky, where in the first quarter of the 19th century the Kazan Cathedral completes its decoration,

Rice. 13. Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg ()

built by the architect Voronikhin,

moreover, according to the model of Rome, in this case, according to the model of Peter's Cathedral,

Rice. 15. Peter's Cathedral in Rome

built by Michelangelo.

Rice. 16. Buonarroti Michelangelo ()

And again there are ancient, Roman associations. Of course, the finalization of Vasilyevsky Island requires special discussion.

Rice. 17. Vasilyevsky Island in St. Petersburg ()

with the construction of an exchange building on it, which was supposed to balance the water and island spaces. For this, the same ancient Greek style is chosen: the stock exchange is built in the style of an ancient temple. And, finally, a special topic is the work of the architect Carl Rossi, who had an amazing opportunity to build not individual buildings, as was usual, but to build entire urban ensembles, in the styles of which the same classicism prevails. Indispensable porticos, columns, arches, indispensable proportionality, harmony of architectural parts. In a word, the very thing that was imperceptibly reflected not only in architecture, but also in literature. Because just at this time in the formation of the Russian literary poetic language this tendency will prevail: the desire for clarity, for harmonious accuracy, completeness. And in this regard, we really find a sign of this classical direction, style.

French architect Thomas de Thomon

builds the stock exchange building in the form of a huge ancient temple.

Rice. 19. Exchange building in St. Petersburg ()

builds its famous ensembles: the Alexandrinsky Theater

Rice. 21. Alexandria Theater in St. Petersburg ()

with the famous Rossi street,

Rice. 22. Rossi Street in St. Petersburg ()

Mikhailovsky Castle,

Rice. 23. Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg ()

Rice. 24. Synod building in St. Petersburg ()

And all this will be architecture built in the style of classicism, which makes us recall the Greco-Roman tradition. And in this regard, indeed, there was a feeling that, at least, before our eyes, St. Petersburg was turning into a kind of Roman Empire. There is also a reason to recall that at the same time it was not only a city associated with the imperial theme. After all, with the ability to build not individual houses, but entire architectural ensembles, St. Petersburg turned into a kind of work of art. And then another association arose: northern Athens, if we mean Greece as a kind of symbol associated with the theme of art, philosophy, science and culture. It should be noted that the established Academy of Arts

Rice. 25. Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg ()

guided both architects and artists to recreate the classical style. It is worth remembering such personalities as Karl Bryullov,

if we mean the creators of the grandiose paintings: "The Last Day of Pompeii",

Rice. 28. "The Last Day of Pompeii" ()

Rice. 29. "The appearance of Christ to the people" ()

More modest portrait painters Orest Kiprensky,

Vasily Tropinin.

If we talk about the development of painting in this era of the "golden age", then there is a reason to pay attention to the grandeur of the ideas of our painters and cultural density. Because these pictorial ideas exert their influence and semantic pressure on other authors, writers for example. In this sense, it is worthy of special note that the outstanding masterpieces of, say, Karl Bryullov’s “The Last Day of Pompeii” are not only a grandiose canvas in itself, executed in a brilliant classicist manner with image accuracy, craftsmanship, and extraordinary subtlety. The "Golden Age" is golden not only because the authors here achieve the maximum perfection of form, but also differ in the depth of their ideas. So, looking at this canvas, Gogol thinks about what is needed for today's writer as a plot, an idea of ​​such an order that it captures everyone. Because the picture of Bryullov is made in such a way that the exploding Vesuvius terrifies a huge number of people. And this very fear, which at the same time unites people and makes them act as a kind of one force, turned out to be extremely important for Gogol's "Inspector General",

Rice. 32. Comedy "Inspector General" by Nikolai Gogol ()

because there is no love affair, and everything is tied to the fear of the characters. But, for example, Ivanov’s painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People” carried a mystical connotation, because with its vastness the viewer turned out to be included in the picture itself, and Christ, as it were, really walked towards you, which absolutely accompanies Gogol’s other brilliant idea: “The Dead souls."

Rice. 33. The poem "Dead Souls" by Nikolai Gogol ()

According to the author's idea, it was such a book that was supposed to turn all of us "dead" souls into people with "alive" souls. Therefore, the grandiosity of these ideas that arise both in painters and writers, in their interaction, is one of the features of the "golden age".

And if we have in mind the musical culture, it is impossible not to recall the brilliant work of Mikhail Glinka.

When we look at this layer of Russian culture associated with architecture and painting, then these classic Greco-Roman traditions are not only palpable here, they acquire their classical character here, completing the very idea of ​​an open window to Europe that Peter dreamed of.

On the other hand, it is easy to see that these authors, architects in the future will be perceived as the creators of national styles in one form or another of art. And therefore it is not at all surprising that in 1825 Pushkin's close friend Pyotr Pletnev,

a well-known poet, literary critic, teacher of Russian literature, rector of St. Petersburg University, in one of the articles published in Delvig's almanac "Northern Flowers", will write a short review related to the development of Russian poetry over the past decades, recalling the work of Zhukovsky,

Batyushkov

Rice. 38. Konstantin Batyushkov ()

and ending with a conversation about the brilliant Pushkin,

Rice. 39. Alexander Pushkin

who, according to the author of the article, "is the first poet of the "golden age" of our literature (if it is absolutely necessary that each literature should have its own "golden age")". Pletnev, of course, has in mind the very “golden age” of Roman literature, therefore, in the environment in which St. Petersburg writers and cultural figures found themselves at the beginning of the 19th century, this feeling of closeness to the Roman classical tradition of its golden age was quite understandable and obvious.

But much later, already in the 30s of the XX century, in Paris, the Russian poet and emigrant Nikolai Otsup

will write an article devoted to the "Silver Age" in the history of Russian culture and literature, in which he will try to identify the line that arose between the "Golden" and "Silver Ages" of literature. He started from the thought of the French writer and essayist Paul Valery,

discussing the originality of Russian literature of the XX century. He was struck by the sheer number of talents that surprisingly shone in the 19th century, referring to the "peak" authors and their "peak" achievements: Pushkin, Gogol, Lermontov, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky.

He compared this miracle of Russian art with what happened once in the development of the ancient theater, when literally in a century three playwrights created the entire European dramatic tradition. He compared this era with the Renaissance, with its titans. And so Nikolai Otsup, thinking about the same thing, collects all Russian literature in its world context in the “golden age”. But he discovers the border separating the 19th century from the future modernist 20th somewhere in the 80s of the 19th century. Thus, indeed, a broader idea of ​​the "golden age" of Russian literature arose, which includes an idea of ​​all the literature of the 19th century.

In the end, we can say that there is a narrow, more specific and historically justified idea of ​​the "golden age", which is associated with Russian culture and literature of the first quarter of the 19th century. The time that entered the history of Russian culture as Pushkin's time. And this, on the one hand, is an era that is largely built as a summing up of the results of the entire previous 18th century. And on the other hand, it is important here as the era of the formation of national traditions, schools, because we habitually call Pushkin the founder of the Russian literary language and new Russian literature. We traditionally call Glinka, a contemporary of Pushkin, the founder of Russian music, the founder of the national school of composers.

But when this "golden age" is understood in a broad sense, then, of course, one has to remember the entire 19th century and include not only the Pushkin era, but also Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Chekhov. And then it becomes clear that this is a kind of result of the "golden age" in the sense that this Russian culture and literature takes on the character of sound. This is not only national achievements, but the emergence of Russian culture on the world stage.

The subsequent era, the era of Decadence, the era of modernity, puts a certain boundary between the emerging classical tradition of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.

On the other hand, in a narrow sense, since we are still talking about the Pushkin era, the golden age of Russian literature, which really sounded for the first time, was primarily associated with the poets of the early 19th century, and if we recall Pletnev, we are talking about the poetry of Konstantin Batyushkov, Vasily Zhukovsky, Alexander Pushkin, then with some obviousness we find a certain kind of ring composition associated with a strange outbreak of poetry at the beginning of the 19th century on the one hand and no less strange in scale, in terms of the volume of talents, in the number of poets, which, as it were, suddenly happens at the end XIX at the beginning of the XX century. In this sense, the “golden” and “silver” centuries of Russian poetry fit quite symmetrically into the beginning of the 20th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, because in the middle we will find Russian prose, where the formation of Russian realism in the middle of the 19th century will indeed be associated not only with poetry, how much with prose. Although almost exactly in the middle of the century (in the mid-50s) three collections of three amazing poets will be published: this will be the first collection of Nekrasov,

this will be Tyutchev's first big collection

Rice. 48. Fedor Tyutchev

and Fet collection.

Indeed, it turns out that these three authors are exactly in the middle, between the "golden" poetic age of Russian literature and the "silver" one. And they will turn out to be such authors who in a special way will unite these two poetic centuries, the two heydays of Russian poetry.

There is reason to recall that, in fact, the history of Russian poetry draws its origins from the 18th century. In the 30s of the XVIII century, thanks to the efforts of Lomonosov,

Trediakovsky,

Rice. 51. Vasily Trediakovsky ()

a little later at Sumarokov

Rice. 52. Alexander Sumarokov ()

a special system of versification will arise: the classical, so-called syllabo-tonic. And by the end of the 18th century, what is commonly called "noble culture" will achieve special development. And here we are not necessarily talking about some of its higher manifestations, but at the everyday level. It will be customary to write poetry, compose music, and not in order to publish it without fail or to be wonderful writers. It will be a household culture. You can recall the "ladies' albums", in which the gentlemen had to write poetry to the ladies without fail. And it was precisely at such a phase of highly cultured dilettantism that the highest poetic verse could grow, which would be formed by the efforts of the poets of the beginning of the 19th century.

1. Sakharov V.I., Zinin S.A. Russian language and literature. Literature (basic and advanced levels) 10. M.: Russian word.

2. Arkhangelsky A.N. etc. Russian language and literature. Literature (advanced level) 10. M.: Bustard.

3. Lanin B.A., Ustinova L.Yu., Shamchikova V.M. / ed. Lanina B.A. Russian language and literature. Literature (basic and advanced levels) 10. M.: VENTANA-GRAF.

1. Analyze the work of poets and writers of the "golden age" of Russian culture. On the example of several works, show the features characteristic of this period.

2. Prepare a report on the significance and influence of the "golden age" of Russian culture for the modern period.

3. * Make a comparative table of all directions of the "golden age" of Russian culture. Find commonalities.

"Golden Age" of Russian literature of the XIX century

The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" (1833), "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem "Mtsyri", the poetic story "Demon", many romantic poems are known. Interestingly, Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of ​​their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets urged the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin "Prophet", ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the Death of a Poet" and many others.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story "The Captain's Daughter", where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the time of the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a tremendous job exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls", the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism affects). In the same plan, the comedy "The Inspector General" is sustained. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".
Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which is being created against the backdrop of a tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis in the serf system is brewing, and contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development.
Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry somewhat subsides. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who is living well in Russia?” is known, as well as many poems, where the hard and hopeless life of the people is comprehended.
The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of a small literary genre - a story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the hallmarks of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

Directions in Russian literature of the 19th century

●Classicism - The term "classicism" in Latin means "exemplary" and is associated with the principles of imitation of images. Classicism arose in the 17th century in France as an outstanding trend in its social and artistic significance. In its essence, it was associated with absolute monarchy, the establishment of noble statehood...

●Sentimentalism - In the second half of the XVIII century. in European literature there is a trend called sentimentalism (from the French word sentimentalism, which means sensitivity). The name itself gives a clear idea of ​​the essence and nature of the new phenomenon. The main feature, the leading quality of the human personality, was proclaimed not the mind, as it was in classicism and the Enlightenment, but the feeling, not the mind, but the heart ...

●Romanticism is a trend in European and American literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century. The epithet "romantic" in the 17th century served to characterize adventurous and heroic plots and works written in Romance languages ​​(as opposed to those created in classical languages)...

●Realism - In any work of belles-lettres, we distinguish two necessary elements: objective - the reproduction of phenomena given in addition to the artist, and subjective - something that the artist put into the work from himself. Stopping on a comparative assessment of these two elements, theory in different epochs - in connection not only with the course of development of art, but also with various other circumstances - attaches greater importance first to one, then to the other of them.