Military campaign of the Crimean war. Crimean War (briefly)

The article briefly describes the Crimean War of 1853-1856, which influenced the further development of Russia and became the direct cause for the reforms of Alexander II. The war revealed a significant gap between Russia and Europe both in the military field and in all spheres of government.

1. Causes of the Crimean War
2. Course of the Crimean War
3. Results of the Crimean War

Causes of the Crimean War

• The reason for the Crimean War was the aggravation by the middle of the 19th century. eastern question. The Western powers showed an increased interest in the territories of the weakening Ottoman Empire in Europe, and plans were made for the possible division of these territories. Russia was interested in seizing control over the Black Sea straits, which was necessary economically. The strengthening of Russia would allow it to expand its influence in this region, which worried Western countries. They adhered to the policy of maintaining a weak Turkey as a source of constant danger to the Russian Empire. Turkey was promised the Crimea and the Caucasus as a reward for a successful war with Russia.
• The central reason for the war was the struggle of the Russian and French clergy for the possession of holy places in Palestine. Nicholas I, in the form of an ultimatum, declared to the government of Turkey that he recognized the right of the Russian emperor to provide assistance to all Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire (mainly the Balkan region). Hoping for the support and promises of Western powers, Turkey rejected the ultimatum. It became clear that war could no longer be avoided.

Course of the Crimean War

• In June 1853, Russia brings troops into the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia. The pretext is the protection of the Slavic population. In response to this, Turkey declares war on Russia in the fall.
• Until the end of the year, Russia's military operations are successful. It expands its sphere of influence on the Danube, wins victories in the Caucasus, the Russian squadron blocks the Turkish ports on the Black Sea.
• Russian victories are worrisome in the West. The situation changes in 1854, when the fleet of England and France enters the Black Sea. Russia declares war on them. After that, European squadrons are sent to blockade Russian ports in the Baltic and the Far East. The blockades were demonstrative in nature, landing attempts ended in failure.
• Russia's successes in Moldavia and Wallachia ended under pressure from Austria, which forced the withdrawal of the Russian army and itself occupied the Danubian principalities. There is a real threat of creating a pan-European coalition against Russia. Nicholas I was forced to concentrate the main forces on the western border.
• Meanwhile, Crimea is becoming the main arena of the war. The allies block the Russian fleet in Sevastopol. Then there is a landing and the defeat of the Russian army on the river. Alma. In the autumn of 1854 the heroic defense of Sevastopol began.
• The Russian army is still winning victories in Transcaucasia, but it is already becoming clear that the war is lost.
• By the end of 1855, the besiegers of Sevastopol managed to capture the southern part of the city, which, however, did not lead to the surrender of the fortress. The huge number of casualties makes the allies abandon further assault attempts. The fighting actually stops.
• In 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, which is a black page in the history of Russian diplomacy. Russia was losing the Black Sea Fleet and all the bases on the Black Sea coast. Only Sevastopol remained in the hands of Russia in exchange for the Turkish fortress Kars captured in the Caucasus.

Results of the Crimean War

• In addition to territorial concessions and losses to Russia, a serious moral blow was inflicted. Having shown its backwardness during the war, Russia was excluded from the ranks of the great powers for a long time, and was no longer perceived in Europe as a serious adversary.
• Nevertheless, the war became a necessary lesson for Russia, exposing all its shortcomings. In society, there was an understanding of the need for significant changes. The reforms of Alexander II were a natural consequence of the defeat.

In short, the Crimean War broke out because of Russia's desire to seize the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles from Turkey. However, France and England joined the conflict. Since the Russian Empire was far behind economically, its loss was only a matter of time. The consequences were heavy sanctions, the infiltration of foreign capital, the decline of Russian prestige, and an attempt to resolve the peasant question.

Causes of the Crimean War

The opinion that the war began because of a religious conflict and "protection of the Orthodox" is fundamentally wrong. Since wars never started because of different religions or infringement of some interests of fellow believers. These arguments are only a pretext for conflict. The reason is always the economic interests of the parties.

Turkey by that time was the “sick link in Europe”. It became clear that it would not last long and would soon fall apart, so the question of who inherited its territory became increasingly relevant. Russia, on the other hand, wanted to annex Moldavia and Wallachia with an Orthodox population, and also in the future to seize the Bosphorus and Dardanelles.

Beginning and end of the Crimean War

In the Crimean War of 1853-1855, the following stages can be distinguished:

1. Danube Campaign. On June 14, 1853, the emperor issued a decree on the start of a military operation. On June 21, the troops crossed the border with Turkey and entered Bucharest on July 3 without firing a shot. At the same time, small skirmishes began at sea and on land.

1. Sinop battle. On November 18, 1953, a huge Turkish squadron was completely destroyed. This was the largest Russian victory in the Crimean War.

1. Allied entry into the war. In March 1854 France and England declared war on Russia. Realizing that he could not cope with the leading powers alone, the emperor withdraws troops from Moldavia and Wallachia.

1. Blocking from the sea. In June-July 1854, the Russian squadron of 14 battleships and 12 frigates is completely blocked in the Sevastopol Bay by the Allied fleet, numbering 34 battleships and 55 frigates.

1. Landing of the allies in the Crimea. On September 2, 1854, the allies began to land in Evpatoria, and on the 8th of the same month they inflicted a rather large defeat on the Russian army (a division of 33,000 people), which was trying to stop the movement of troops towards Sevastopol. The losses were small, but we had to retreat.

1. Destruction of part of the fleet. On September 9, 5 battleships and 2 frigates (30% of the total) were flooded at the entrance to the Sevastopol Bay to prevent the Allied squadron from breaking into it.

1. Deblockade attempts. On October 13 and November 5, 1854, Russian troops made 2 attempts to lift the blockade of Sevastopol. Both failed, but without major losses.

1. Battle for Sevastopol. From March to September 1855 there were 5 bombardments of the city. There was another attempt by the Russian troops to get out of the blockade, but it failed. On September 8, Malakhov Kurgan was taken - a strategic height. Because of this, the Russian troops left the southern part of the city, blew up the rocks with ammunition and weapons, and also flooded the entire fleet.

1. The surrender of half of the city and the flooding of the Black Sea squadron produced a strong shock in all circles of society. For this reason, Emperor Nicholas I agreed to a truce.

Participants in the war

One of the reasons for the defeat of Russia is called the numerical superiority of the allies. But actually it is not. The ratio of the land part of the army is shown in the table.

As you can see, although the allies had a general numerical superiority, this was far from being reflected in every battle. Moreover, even when the ratio was approximately parity or in our favor, the Russian troops still could not succeed. However, the main question remains not why Russia did not win without having a numerical superiority, but why the state could not supply more soldiers.

Important! In addition, the British and French caught dysentery during the march, which greatly affected the combat capability of the units. .

The balance of fleet forces in the Black Sea is shown in the table:

The main naval force was the battleships - heavy ships with a huge number of guns. Frigates were used as fast and well-armed hunters who hunted transport ships. A large number of small boats and gunboats in Russia did not give superiority at sea, since their combat potential is extremely small.

Heroes of the Crimean War

Another reason is called command errors. However, most of these opinions are expressed after the fact, that is, when the critic already knows what decision should have been taken.

1. Nakhimov, Pavel Stepanovich. He showed himself most of all at sea during the Battle of Sinop, when he sank the Turkish squadron. He did not participate in land battles, as he did not have the appropriate experience (he was still a naval admiral). During the defense, he served as a governor, that is, he was engaged in equipping the troops.

1. Kornilov, Vladimir Alekseevich. He showed himself as a brave and active commander. In fact, he invented the tactics of active defense with tactical sorties, laying minefields, mutual assistance of land and naval artillery.

1. Menshikov, Alexander Sergeevich. It is on him that all the accusations of losing the war are poured. However, firstly, Menshikov personally supervised only 2 operations. In one, he retreated for quite objective reasons (the numerical superiority of the enemy). In another, he lost because of his miscalculation, but at that moment his front was no longer decisive, but auxiliary. Secondly, Menshikov also gave quite rational orders (the sinking of ships in the bay), which helped the city to hold out longer.

Reasons for the defeat

Many sources indicate that the Russian troops were losing because of the fittings, which the Allied armies had in large numbers. This is an erroneous point of view, which is duplicated even in Wikipedia, so it needs to be analyzed in detail:

1. The Russian army also had fittings, and there were also enough of them.
2. The fitting was fired at 1200 meters - just a myth. Really long-range rifles were adopted much later. On average, the fitting fired at 400-450 meters.
3. The fittings were fired very accurately - also a myth. Yes, their accuracy was more accurate, but only by 30-50% and only at 100 meters. With increasing distance, the superiority fell to 20-30% and below. In addition, the rate of fire was 3-4 times inferior.
4. During major battles in the first half of the 19th century, the smoke from gunpowder was so thick that visibility was reduced to 20-30 meters.
5. The accuracy of the weapon does not mean the accuracy of the fighter. It is extremely difficult to teach a person even from a modern rifle to hit a target from 100 meters. And from a fitting that did not have today's aiming devices, it is even more difficult to shoot at a target.
6. During combat stress, only 5% of soldiers think about aimed shooting.
7. Artillery always brought the main losses. Namely, 80-90% of all killed and wounded soldiers were from cannon fire with grapeshot.

Despite the numerical disadvantage of guns, we had an overwhelming superiority in artillery, which was due to the following factors:

• our guns were more powerful and more accurate;
• Russia had the best artillerymen in the world;
• the batteries stood in prepared high positions, which gave them an advantage in firing range;
• the Russians were fighting on their territory, because of which all positions were shot, that is, we could immediately start hitting without a miss.

So what were the reasons for the loss? First, we completely lost the diplomatic game. France, which put the bulk of the troops in the theater, could be persuaded to stand up for us. Napoleon III had no real economic goals, which means that there was an opportunity to lure him to his side. Nicholas I hoped that the allies would keep their word. He did not request any official papers, which was a big mistake. This can be deciphered as "dizziness from success."

Secondly, the feudal command and control system was significantly inferior to the capitalist military machine. First of all, this is manifested in discipline. A living example: when Menshikov gave the order to sink the ship in the bay, Kornilov ... refused to carry it out. This situation is the norm for the feudal paradigm of military thinking, where there is not a commander and a subordinate, but a suzerain and a vassal.

However, the main reason for the loss is the huge economic backlog of Russia. For example, the table below shows the main indicators of the economy:

This was the reason for the lack of modern ships, weapons, as well as the inability to supply ammunition, ammunition and medicines on time. By the way, cargoes from France and England approached the Crimea faster than from the central regions of Russia to the Crimea. And another striking example - the Russian Empire, seeing the deplorable situation in the Crimea, was unable to deliver new troops to the theater of operations, while the allies brought reserves through several seas.

Consequences of the Crimean War

Despite the locality of hostilities, Russia has overstrained itself greatly in this war. First of all, there was a huge public debt - over a billion rubles. The money supply (banknotes) grew from 311 to 735 million. The ruble fell in price several times. By the end of the war, sellers in the market simply refused to exchange silver coins for paper money.

Such instability led to a rapid rise in the price of bread, meat and other foodstuffs, which led to peasant riots. The schedule for the performances of the peasants is as follows:

• 1855 – 63;
• 1856 – 71;
• 1857 – 121;
• 1858 - 423 (this is the scale of Pugachevism);
• 1859 – 182;
• 1860 – 212;
• 1861 - 1340 (and this is already a civil war).

Russia lost the right to have warships in the Black Sea, gave away some land, but all this was quickly returned during the subsequent Russian-Turkish wars. Therefore, the main consequence of the war for the empire can be considered the abolition of serfdom. However, this “cancellation” was only the transfer of peasants from feudal slavery to mortgage slavery, as clearly evidenced by the number of uprisings in 1861 (mentioned above).

Results for Russia

What conclusions can be drawn? In war after the 19th century, the main and only means of victory is not modern missiles, tanks and ships, but the economy. During mass military clashes, it is extremely important that weapons are not only high-tech, but that the economy of the state can constantly update all weapons in the face of the rapid destruction of human resources and military equipment.

CRIMEAN WAR 1853-1856

Causes of war and balance of power. Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Sardinia participated in the Crimean War. Each of them had their own calculations in this military conflict in the Middle East.

For Russia, the regime of the Black Sea straits was of paramount importance. In the 30-40s of the XIX century. Russian diplomacy waged a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkiar-Iskelessi Treaty was concluded with Turkey. According to it, Russia received the right to free passage of its warships through the straits. In the 40s of the XIX century. the situation has changed. On the basis of a number of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all military fleets. This had a severe effect on the Russian fleet. He was locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military might, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits, to strengthen its positions in the Middle East and the Balkans.

The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.

England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power, to deprive her of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula.

The pan-European conflict in the Middle East began in 1850, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Palestine over who would own the Holy Places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church by France. The dispute between the clergy grew into a confrontation between these two European states. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused sharp discontent in Russia and personally Emperor Nicholas I. A special representative of the tsar, Prince A.S., was sent to Constantinople. Menshikov. He was instructed to obtain privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right to patronize the Orthodox subjects of Turkey. The failure of the mission of A.S. Menshikov was a foregone conclusion. The Sultan was not going to give in to Russian pressure, and the defiant, disrespectful behavior of her envoy only aggravated the conflict situation. Thus, it would seem that a private, but for that time important, given the religious feelings of people, the dispute over the Holy Places became the reason for the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish, and later the all-European war.

Nicholas I took an uncompromising position, hoping for the power of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered over 1 million people. However, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its armament (smooth-bore guns) was inferior to the rifled weapons of the Western European armies. The artillery is outdated. The Russian fleet was predominantly sailing, while the European navies were dominated by ships with steam engines. There were no good communications. This did not allow to provide the place of hostilities with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food, as well as human replacements. The Russian army could successfully fight against the Turkish army, which was similar in state, but it was not able to resist the united forces of Europe.

The course of hostilities. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops were brought into Moldova and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish Sultan in October 1853 declared war on Russia. He was supported by England and France. Austria took a position of "armed neutrality". Russia found itself in complete political isolation.

The history of the Crimean War is divided into two stages. The first - the Russian-Turkish campaign itself - was conducted with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. On the second (April 1854 - February 1856) - Russia was forced to fight against a coalition of European states.

The main event of the first stage is the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and suppressed coastal batteries. This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea, attacked Kronstadt and Sveaborg. English ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.

The main goal of the combined Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol - the naval base of Russia. On September 2, 1854, the Allies began the landing of an expeditionary force in the Evpatoria region. Battle on the river Alma in September 1854, the Russian troops lost. By order of the commander, A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and retreated to Bakhchisaray. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by the sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for defense. It was headed by V.A. Kornilov and P.S. Nakhimov.

In October 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began. The garrison of the fortress showed unprecedented heroism. Admirals V.A. became famous in Sevastopol. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov, V.I. Istomin, military engineer E.I. Totleben, lieutenant general of artillery S.A. Khrulev, many sailors and soldiers: I. Shevchenko, F. Samolatov, P. Koshka and others.

The main part of the Russian army undertook distracting operations: the battle of Inkerman (November 1854), the attack on Evpatoria (February 1855), the battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the Sevastopol residents. In August 1855, the last assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of the Malakhov Kurgan, the continuation of the defense was difficult. Most of Sevastopol was occupied by the allied troops, however, having found only ruins there, they returned to their positions.

In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. Turkey invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress Kare fell.

The extreme exhaustion of the allied forces in the Crimea and the Russian successes in the Caucasus led to the cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.

Parisian world. At the end of March 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from her. However, she lost the right to protect the Danubian Principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating was the condition of the so-called "neutralization" of the Black Sea. Russia was forbidden to have naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. The role of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing.

The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, it demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat summed up the sad end of Nikolaev's rule, stirred up the entire Russian public and forced the government to come to grips with reforming the state.

What you need to know about this topic:

Socio-economic development of Russia in the first half of the XIX century. The social structure of the population.

Development of agriculture.

The development of Russian industry in the first half of the XIX century. The formation of capitalist relations. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology.

Development of water and highway communications. Start of railway construction.

Aggravation of socio-political contradictions in the country. The palace coup of 1801 and the accession to the throne of Alexander I. "The days of Alexander's are a wonderful beginning."

Peasant question. Decree "on free cultivators". Government measures in the field of education. State activity of M.M. Speransky and his plan of state reforms. Creation of the State Council.

Russia's participation in anti-French coalitions. Treaty of Tilsit.

Patriotic War of 1812. International relations on the eve of the war. Causes and beginning of the war. The balance of forces and military plans of the parties. M.B. Barclay de Tolly. P.I.Bagration. M.I.Kutuzov. Stages of the war. The results and significance of the war.

Foreign campaigns of 1813-1814 Congress of Vienna and its decisions. Holy Union.

The internal situation of the country in 1815-1825. Strengthening of conservative sentiments in Russian society. A.A. Arakcheev and Arakcheevshchina. military settlements.

The foreign policy of tsarism in the first quarter of the 19th century.

The first secret organizations of the Decembrists were the Union of Salvation and the Union of Welfare. Northern and Southern society. The main program documents of the Decembrists are "Russian Truth" by P.I. Pestel and "Constitution" by N.M. Muravyov. Death of Alexander I. Interregnum. Uprising December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. The uprising of the Chernigov regiment. Investigation and trial of the Decembrists. Significance of the Decembrist uprising.

The beginning of the reign of Nicholas I. Strengthening autocratic power. Further centralization, bureaucratization of the Russian state system. Strengthening repressive measures. Creation of the III branch. censorship statute. The era of censorship terror.

Codification. M.M. Speransky. Reform of the state peasants. P.D. Kiselev. Decree "on obligated peasants".

Polish uprising 1830-1831

The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second quarter of the XIX century.

Eastern question. Russo-Turkish War 1828-1829 The problem of the straits in the foreign policy of Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century.

Russia and the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in Europe.

Crimean War. International relations on the eve of the war. Reasons for the war. The course of hostilities. Russia's defeat in the war. Peace of Paris 1856. International and domestic consequences of the war.

Accession of the Caucasus to Russia.

The formation of the state (imamate) in the North Caucasus. Muridism. Shamil. Caucasian war. Significance of joining the Caucasus to Russia.

Social thought and social movement in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century.

Formation of government ideology. The theory of official nationality. Mugs of the late 20s - early 30s of the XIX century.

Circle of N.V. Stankevich and German idealistic philosophy. A.I. Herzen's circle and utopian socialism. "Philosophical letter" P.Ya.Chaadaeva. Westerners. Moderate. Radicals. Slavophiles. M.V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and his circle. The theory of "Russian socialism" A.I. Herzen.

Socio-economic and political prerequisites for bourgeois reforms in the 60-70s of the XIX century.

peasant reform. Preparing for reform. "Regulations" February 19, 1861 Personal liberation of the peasants. Allotments. Ransom. duties of the peasants. Temporary state.

Zemstvo, judicial, city reforms. financial reforms. Reforms in the field of education. censorship rules. military reforms. Significance of bourgeois reforms.

Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. The social structure of the population.

Industry development. Industrial revolution: essence, background, chronology. The main stages in the development of capitalism in industry.

The development of capitalism in agriculture. Rural community in post-reform Russia. The agrarian crisis of the 80-90s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 50-60s of the XIX century.

Social movement in Russia in the 70-90s of the XIX century.

The revolutionary populist movement of the 70s - early 80s of the XIX century.

"Land and Freedom" of the 70s of the XIX century. "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Repartition". The assassination of Alexander II March 1, 1881 The collapse of the "Narodnaya Volya".

Labor movement in the second half of the 19th century. Striking fight. The first workers' organizations. The emergence of a work question. factory law.

Liberal populism in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Spread of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. Group "Emancipation of Labor" (1883-1903). The emergence of Russian social democracy. Marxist circles of the 80s of the XIX century.

Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class. V.I. Ulyanov. "Legal Marxism".

Political reaction of the 80-90s of the XIX century. The era of counter-reforms.

Alexander III. Manifesto on the "immutability" of the autocracy (1881). The policy of counter-reforms. Results and significance of counter-reforms.

The international position of Russia after the Crimean War. Changing the foreign policy program of the country. The main directions and stages of Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century.

Russia in the system of international relations after the Franco-Prussian war. Union of three emperors.

Russia and the Eastern crisis of the 70s of the XIX century. Goals of Russia's policy in the Eastern question. Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878: causes, plans and forces of the parties, the course of hostilities. San Stefano Peace Treaty. Berlin Congress and its decisions. The role of Russia in the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Ottoman yoke.

Foreign policy of Russia in the 80-90s of the XIX century. Formation of the Triple Alliance (1882). Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The conclusion of the Russian-French alliance (1891-1894).

• Buganov V.I., Zyryanov P.N. History of Russia: the end of the 17th - 19th centuries. . - M.: Enlightenment, 1996.

The reasons for the war were in the contradictions between the European powers in the Middle East, in the struggle of European states for influence on the weakening and gripped by the national liberation movement of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I said that the inheritance of Turkey can and should be divided. In the upcoming conflict, the Russian emperor counted on the neutrality of Great Britain, which he promised after the defeat of Turkey new territorial acquisitions of Crete and Egypt, as well as on the support of Austria, as a gratitude for Russia's participation in the suppression of the Hungarian revolution. However, Nicholas's calculations turned out to be wrong: England herself pushed Turkey to war, thus seeking to weaken Russia's position. Austria also did not want to strengthen Russia in the Balkans.

The reason for the war was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy in Palestine about who would be the guardian of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and the temple in Bethlehem. At the same time, it was not about access to holy places, since all pilgrims used them on an equal footing. The dispute over the Holy Places cannot be called a far-fetched pretext for unleashing a war.

STAGES

During the Crimean War, two stages are distinguished:

I stage of the war: November 1853 - April 1854 Turkey was Russia's enemy, and hostilities took place on the Danube and Caucasian fronts. In 1853, Russian troops entered the territory of Moldavia and Wallachia, and hostilities on land were sluggish. In the Caucasus, the Turks were defeated near Kars.

II stage of the war: April 1854 - February 1856 Concerned that Russia would completely defeat Turkey, England and France, in the person of Austria, delivered an ultimatum to Russia. They demanded that Russia refuse to patronize the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I could not accept such conditions. Turkey, France, England and Sardinia united against Russia.

RESULTS

The results of the war:

On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30) a peace treaty was signed.

Russia returned the city of Kars with a fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities captured from it.

The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial and closed to military ships in peacetime), with the prohibition of Russia and the Ottoman Empire to have navies and arsenals there.

Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldavia.

Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia, granted to it by the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhysky peace of 1774, and the exclusive patronage of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.

Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands.

During the war, the members of the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but managed to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet.

The eastern or Crimean direction (including also the territory of the Balkans) was a priority in Russian foreign policy of the 18th-19th centuries. Russia's main rival in this region was Turkey, or the power of the Ottomans. In the 18th century, the government of Catherine II managed to achieve significant success in this region, Alexander I was also lucky, but their successor Nicholas I had to face great difficulties, as European powers became interested in Russia's success in this region.

They feared that if the empire's successful foreign policy eastern line continued, then Western Europe will lose full control over the Black Sea straits. How the Crimean War of 1853-1856 began and ended, briefly below.

Assessment of the political situation in the region for the Russian Empire

Before the war 1853−1856. the policy of the Empire in the East was quite successful.

1. With the support of Russia, Greece gains independence (1830).
2. Russia receives the right to freely use the Black Sea straits.
3. Russian diplomats seek autonomy for Serbia, and then a protectorate over the Danubian principalities.
4. After the war between Egypt and the Ottoman Empire, Russia, which supported the Sultanate, seeks from Turkey a promise to close the Black Sea straits for any ships other than Russian ships in the event of any military threat (the secret protocol was in effect until 1941).

The Crimean, or Eastern War, which broke out in the last years of the reign of Nicholas II, became one of the first conflicts between Russia and a coalition of European countries. The main reason for the war was the mutual desire of the opposing sides to gain a foothold in the Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea.

Basic information about the conflict

Eastern war - a complex military conflict in which all the leading powers of Western Europe were involved. Statistical data is thus very important. The prerequisites, causes and general reason for the conflict require detailed consideration, the course of the development of the conflict is rapid, while the fighting took place both on land and at sea.

Statistical data

Note! Historians and researchers of the military conflict noted that from a material and technical point of view, the Russian army was significantly inferior to the coalition forces. The command staff for training was also inferior to the command staff of the combined forces of the enemy. Generals and officials Nicholas I did not want to accept this fact and was not even fully aware of it.

Prerequisites, causes and reason for the outbreak of war

Note! To weaken Russia by the European powers, even before the start of the war, the so-called Palmerston Plan (Palmerston is the leader of British diplomacy) was developed, which provided for the actual separation of part of the land from Russia:

Fighting and causes of defeat

Crimean War (table): date, events, result

Note! The most fierce battles of the Eastern War unfolded near Sevastopol. The city and strongholds around it were subjected to large-scale bombing 6 times:

The defeat of the Russian troops is not a sign that the commanders-in-chief, admirals and generals made mistakes. On the Danube direction, the troops were commanded by a talented commander - Prince M. D. Gorchakov, in the Caucasus - N. N. Muravyov, the Black Sea Fleet was led by Vice Admiral P. S. Nakhimov, the defense of Petropavlovsk was led by V. S. Zavoyko. These are the heroes of the Crimean War(an interesting report or report can be made about them and their exploits), but even their enthusiasm and strategic genius did not help in the war against superior enemy forces.

The Sevastopol disaster led to the fact that the new Russian emperor, Alexander II, foreseeing an extremely negative result of further hostilities, decided to start diplomatic peace negotiations.

Alexander II, like no one else, understood the reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War):

• foreign policy isolation;
• a clear superiority of enemy forces on land and at sea;
• backwardness of the empire in military-technical and strategic terms;
• deep crisis in the economic sphere.

Results of the Crimean War 1853−1856

Treaty of Paris

The mission was headed by Prince A. F. Orlov, who was one of the outstanding diplomats of his time and believed that Russia could not lose in the diplomatic field. After long negotiations that took place in Paris, 18 (30).03. 1856 a peace treaty was signed between Russia on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire, coalition forces, Austria and Prussia on the other. The terms of the peace treaty were as follows:

Foreign and domestic consequences of the defeat

The foreign and domestic political results of the war were also deplorable, although somewhat mitigated by the efforts of Russian diplomats. It was obvious that

Significance of the Crimean War

But, despite the severity of the political situation within the country and abroad, after the defeat, it was the Crimean War of 1853-1856. and the defense of Sevastopol became the catalysts that led to the reforms of the 60s of the XIX century, including the abolition of serfdom in Russia.