Installation of garden paths and playgrounds. Alleys, paths
Construction of planar structures - roads, sites for various purposes. Classification of planar structures by types of coverage and purpose Landscape garden paths and sites, types and types of their structures and coatings, materials used for their construction. List, sequence and technology of works on the arrangement of tracks and grounds Features of the arrangement of sports grounds.
Classification of roads and sites.
Building materials for planar structures
Types of structures and coatings for paths and playgrounds
Technology of the device of paths and platforms.
Features of the device of sports grounds
Roads, paths and platforms form the basis for the planning of a landscape architecture object. A well-thought-out layout of the road network contributes to the purposeful movement of visitors around the site.
The road and path network and sites occupy up to 20% of the total area of the facility, and the relative length of roads is 300-400m per 1 ha.
The road and path network, platforms, alleys are usually divided into classes depending on their functions and classified according to the types of coatings.
There are 6 classes of landscape gardening paths
Main roads and alleys - with a width of 15-30 m, with a capacity of up to 400-600 people / h, its design is very durable, made of low-wear materials, durable and decorative coatings - from slabs, stone. The main flows of visitors to the facility are distributed along them, they are provided as the main routes for movement around the facility.
Secondary roads, paths and alleys- connect the main ones, for a more even distribution of visitors, leading them to sites, viewpoints and other planning elements, their width is 5-15 m. The traffic intensity and throughput are lower than on the main ones. Coatings are durable and decorative, as they play an important planning role.
Additional roads- permeate the entire territory, serve to connect secondary planning elements, play the role of transitions, approaches to sites, structures, flower beds, are branches from the main and secondary routes. The intensity of traffic on them is reduced in comparison with the previous two. Width - 2.5-5 m. Coatings are made simplified.
Cycling and walking trails- 0.5-1.5 m wide, usually provided in parks and forest parks in separate lanes of the main alleys and roads along special traffic routes for the purpose of walking, sightseeing, sports competitions. Bicycle lanes must be of strong, stable construction.
Roads for horseback riding, in carriages, on sledges are provided for on specially proposed routes of movement, are intended for walking, sightseeing, equestrian sports, are designed in large parks and forest parks, must have a special type of coating. Width 1.5 - 5 m
Economic roads and passages, transport vehicles carry products, materials, 6-8 m wide. The structures and coatings of such roads are made of durable solid materials that can withstand heavy loads.
For large objects, all 6 classes of alleys and roads are characteristic, and for small objects, s-n paths of the first three classes are usually provided. On the main and secondary roads, occasional passage of vehicles and mechanization means for caring for plantings is allowed.
Sites at landscape architecture objects are divided into 2 categories:
recreation areas
economic
Recreational areas subdivided:
1.children - for different age groups: primary, for preschoolers, for younger schoolchildren, for senior school age and youth,
2. for quiet rest - group, single, for quiet games of visitors of different ages, for contemplation of landscapes,
3. playgrounds - glades for mass games or festivities, family, group recreation, playgrounds, spectacles,
4.sports (playing): football fields, for golf, volleyball, basketball, for towns, tennis.
All sites have different types of structures and coatings depending on surface loads, attendance, traffic intensity, frequency of events.
In the construction of landscape gardening paths and playgrounds, both natural stone materials and inert materials of artificial origin, mainly industrial waste, are used. When choosing materials, their physical and mechanical properties are taken into account:
1. Strength:
1.2kl - strong (quartzites, granites, porphyries, basalts, marble-like and dense limestones) tensile strength from 80 to 100 MPa, used for all types of pavement;
3 class - medium strength (the same rocks, but affected by weathering, as well as stony shales, limestones, sandstones) tensile strength from 60 to 80 MPa, used in the construction of road bases;
Class 4 - soft (porous limestones, dolomites, ferruginous, thin-film sandstones), tensile strength 30-40 MPa, used in the form of crushed stone when arranging the foundations of paths and platforms;
5 cells - very soft (weathered igneous rocks, weak sandstones, clay shales), tensile strength 10 - 30 MPa, used with binders when arranging foundations for soil and gravel coatings;
2. Bulk mass - the mass of a unit of bulk material in its natural state;
3. Density - the mass per unit volume of an absolutely dense material without pores;
4. Water absorption - the ability of a material to absorb water at normal atmospheric pressure. Water absorption of hard rocks is 0.5 - 1%, stony rocks of class 2 - 1.5 - 3%, class 3 - 3.5 - 8%, classes 4 and 5 - 9 - 15%.
5. Frost resistance - the ability of the material to withstand sudden changes in temperature, freezing and thawing without any signs of destruction. Frost-resistant breeds during testing lose up to 5% in weight, medium frost-resistant up to 10%, low frost resistance - more than 10%, non-frost-resistant (4-5 strength classes) lose 15% of the original mass.
6. Compression resistance – is the resistance of the material , determined by the ultimate stress that occurs in the sample under a breaking load, or tensile strength, is measured in MPa.
7. Abrasion resistance - the ability of crushed stone or gravel not to change its parameters at maximum load. For hard rocks, wear is not more than 5% of the volume, for sedimentary rocks - 6-7%, for soft rocks - 15-20%.
natural materials.
Natural materials include stone extracted from rocks by appropriate mechanical processing. .
Rocks by origin are divided into:
igneous rocks (granite, syenite, diorite - in the depths of the earth's crust)
liparite, trachyte, andesite, basalt - on the surface of the earth's crust;
sedimentary (boulders, pebbles, gravel, crushed stone, sand, limestone, dolomite)
Types of stone materials
1. Checker stone - roughly chipped, truncated into a cone or pyramid stone 1-2 cells. strength with 2 machined surfaces. It is used for paving paths, fixing slopes, walls, trays.
2. Paving stones - chipped stone 1-2 cells. strength close to the shape of a parallelepiped, with parallel upper and lower planes. It is used for paving paths and playgrounds in combination with tiles, curbs along the borders of the playgrounds.
3. Onboard stones (borders) - parallel, elongated bars with a length of 75 cm or more, a width and height of 10 x 20, 20x30, having a vertical or inclined front face. It is applied to the device of interfaces of paths and platforms with a lawn.
4. Stone tiles - flat rectangular bars (1-2 classes of strength) 10-15 cm thick. and various sizes - for coatings, 5 cm thick - as facing. tile. Made by special sawing machines.
5. Rubble stone - 3 class of strength, these are pieces of rocks up to 50 cm long. with a mass of 10-20 kg. It is applied to a laying of retaining walls, bridges.
6. Boulder stone - sedimentary rock 3cl. strength, with a diameter of more than 100mm. It is used for stone gardens, sprinkling of the banks of reservoirs, creating paths and coatings.
7. Pebbles and gravel - rounded rock fragments with a diameter of 100mm, very large pebbles with a diameter of 70-100mm, large 40-70mm, medium 25-40mm, small 15-25mm, very small 10-15mm, gravel fines 3-10mm. It is applied to road coverings and the bases.
8. Sand - small rounded fragments 5 mm. There are very large 1-2mm, large 1-0.5mm, medium 0.5-0.28mm, small 0.25-0.1mm, thin - 0.1-0.05mm. It is used in road construction.
9. Crushed stone - Angular pieces of rocks of various strength classes, obtained as a result of destruction and crushing. It happens: large -40-70mm, medium 25-40mm, small 15-25mm, gravel wedge 10-15mm, stone fines - 5-10mm, small cuttings -5mm.
In terms of strength, crushed stone of grade M 1200, M 1000, M 800, M 600, M 400, M 300, M 200. The first four grades are used at the base of main roads, the last three at the base for tiles.
Artificial (inert) materials
1. Blast furnace and open-hearth slags - by-products formed during the smelting of iron and steel, in the form of large pieces, breaking on impact into crushed stone of various fractions. It is used in the base of roads to improve roads and as a heat-insulating material.
2. Boiler slag - cinder, waste from the combustion of coal. It is applied as the basis of paths and footpaths, football fields. Crumb - for tennis courts.
3. Brick fight or rubble- waste brick factories, defective brick, processed into crushed stone. It is used for the base of the tracks.
4. Clinker and building brick
a) clinker brick is obtained from clay by firing at high temperatures and blowing, has high strength, is used for road surfaces,
b) building brick is also obtained from clay by firing, of lesser strength, used for arranging borders, flower beds, paths.
5. Tiling- roofing waste, used for the top cover of planar structures (grains up to 0.5 cm), in the bases of sports grounds (grains up to 1.5 cm).
6. Pyrite cinders- wastes of the chemical industry during the processing of iron and copper pyrites, include fractions of 1.2 mm as additives (5-10%) in mixtures for coatings, as well as elastic-moisture-absorbing bases mixed with sawdust for the construction of an elastic layer of a sports ground.
7. Coal ash- waste from the combustion of coal, well filters moisture, is used as an additive for soft pavement.
8. Slag - waste from the production of alumina, used to cover paths and grounds.
Binder materials are used to give inert materials in special mixtures the necessary adhesion of particles and transformation into a single mass.
The binder materials are – natural: clay, loam (heavy, medium, light), air lime, artificial: Portland cement, cement, bitumen, asphalt concrete.
Elastic moisture-intensive materials are used when they are introduced into the base layers to give the surface of structures elasticity and elasticity, these include peat, sawdust, lignin, cotton husks, moss.
Concrete slabs
Covering paths and playgrounds concrete slabs - one of the most common in landscape gardening construction.
Concrete slabs are manufactured industrially in the factory and therefore are the cheapest material for covering paths and playgrounds.
Concrete tiles are made by methods:
- pressing;
- vibrocompression;
- vibrorolling;
- vibration.
It is possible to manufacture slabs by hand in special formwork by tamping the concrete mass, but this leads to a rise in price by 60% of the cost.
The shape of concrete tiles and their sizes are extremely diverse. They are made in the form of square, round, hexagonal, trapezoid, triangular, irregular polyhedrons.
The sizes of tiles vary from 25x25 to 90*90 cm and more. The Russian standard (GOST-17608) establishes the following plate sizes: 25x25; 37.5x37.5; 50x50; 37.5x25; 50x25; 50x37.5; 70x37.5; 75x50, etc. The thickness of the plates varies from 4 to 6 cm. It is allowed to manufacture tiles 20x20 cm with a thickness of 3.5 cm.
At present, blocks (paving stones) 20x10x10 cm in size of different colors and shades, from red and pink to gray, have become widespread.
In addition to the variety of shapes and sizes, tiles are made in different colors and shades, which is achieved by introducing dyes or additives into the concrete in the form of colored cements or colored sand.
Colored cements are obtained artificially. Dyes are introduced into cement powders according to established standards.
Colored sand is obtained by grinding all kinds of granite rocks.
The surface of the tiles can be processed with special matrices, with the help of which a decorative ornament is applied. The texture of the tiles becomes extremely diverse.
Types of coatings for park paths and playgrounds:
1, 2, 3 - coatings of paving slabs or clinker bricks; 4, 5 - coatings of concrete tiles of various shapes; 6,7, 8 - coatings from "fragments" of slabs (or stone)
Tiles with exposed filler are distinguished by a wide variety, which is used as pebbles, gravel of various fractions. Such tiles are manufactured at factories and are widely used in garden and park construction.
When manufactured on vibrocompression machines, tiles are usually not reinforced, regardless of their size. The strength of the tiles is achieved by using cement grades of 300 ... 600 kg / cm when compacting the mixture with a vibropress (or under vacuum).
In-situ concrete coatings
Cast-in-place concrete coatings are less applicable in landscape gardening than tiled coatings.
It is advantageous to make curved paths in gardens and parks in small areas from a monolithic coating of this type. Easy from concrete
get a curvilinear outline of the track, change its width, give the necessary scale to the space by applying a pattern on the surface that imitates tiles of the required size and with exposed filler. Cast-in-situ concrete pavement is applicable in small areas, in small gardens, with curvilinear outlines of paths and playgrounds.
Concrete can easily be given any shape and shape, color and texture. Thanks to this, monolithic concrete has found wide application in combined pavements of paths and playgrounds.
Coatings from a monolith are a connecting element between surfaces with coatings from other materials.
The main disadvantage is the laboriousness of the work at the construction site, especially when arranging the upper, decorative layer and cutting the pattern on the surface in the form of squares, hexagons, circles and other shapes. Coatings from a monolith, being destroyed, are difficult to repair, while tiled, piece coatings can be easily replaced and restored.
In a monolithic concrete coating, you can "fit" various kinds of inserts in the form of a circle or a hexagon, where plants are planted, or decorative reservoirs are arranged in the recesses.
To obtain a decorative effect, large fractions of gravel can be inserted into the monolith, which are laid manually during the surface treatment of concrete.
The top layer can be made of decorative colored pebbles. In addition, it is possible to obtain a colored and monolithic coating by applying a mineral-based colored dye, which includes:
- oxide dye;.
- white Portland cement;
- specially sorted silica sand, or other fine aggregate.
The purpose of alleys, roads in parks, gardens, squares is to provide convenient pedestrian connections between entrances and all functional areas, structures, devices and individual sections, to reveal the aesthetic advantages of green spaces and natural landscapes while driving.
Rectilinear alleys give solemnity to the site, winding paths are appropriate for organizing walking routes with viewpoints, alleys laid along the shortest path connect objects. Paths are often laid along existing trails.
In the overall balance of the park territory, 8-15% is allocated for roads and alleys, 5-10% for sites, and 2-4% and 1-2% for the city, respectively. Their relative length is assumed to be 300-400 m/ha in the city, 50-100 m/ha outside the city. In sports parks, these standards are increasing.
The main pedestrian alleys and roads connect the main entrances with the most visited objects, connect the functional areas with each other. The projected width is 5-50 m with a longitudinal slope of up to 40% and a passage of up to 600 people per hour. Provision is made for intra-park transport.
Secondary pedestrian alleys and roads serve as intrazonal connections, connect secondary entrances with objects of attraction, and distribute visitors throughout the territory. The projected width is 3-12 m with a longitudinal slope of up to 60% and pedestrian traffic with an intensity of up to 300 people / h. Transport is possible.
Additional footpaths and trails lead to separate park facilities. They are designed with a width of 0.75-3 m with a longitudinal slope of up to 80% and pedestrian traffic with low intensity.
Bicycle paths for walking are designed with a width of 1.5-2.5 m with a longitudinal slope of not more than 50%, a transverse slope of 15-25%.
Roads for rides on horseback, in carriages and sleighs are designed with a width of 2.5-6.5 m, a longitudinal slope of up to 60% and an improved dirt surface.
Parking lots are designed at the rate of 2-3 parking spaces per 100 one-time visitors to the park for the first stage and 5-7 for the estimated period. Forest parks, respectively, have 2-4 and 7-10 parking spaces. Parking lots are divided into sectors by green spaces.
| Layout of park alleys and roads: a, b - main pedestrian alleys; c - embankment alley; g - the intersection of the alley with the bike path; d - horse road and trail; 1 - the main lane of the main road; 2 - additional lane; 3 - secondary road; 4 - additional road or trail; 5 - bike path; 6 - road for horseback riding; 7 - flower garden; 8 - lawn; 9 - plantations |
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| Examples of junction paths. 1 - trampling zone |
Intra-park passenger transport (vehicles with electric motors, overhead cable cars and monorails, funiculars, lifts, moving sidewalks, narrow-gauge railways) is created in parks with an area of over 300 hectares, and with difficult terrain - more than 100 hectares. It can be used for sightseeing and serve as an attraction at the same time. For cable cars, the largest longitudinal slope is 80%, speed is up to 14 km/h, transportation in one direction is up to 1200 people/h. The speed of movement on monorail roads is 10-40 km/h, and the capacity is 20-25 thousand people/h.
The width of the park alleys depends on the number of visitors and is taken as a multiple of 0.75 m - the width of one traffic lane. TsNIIP urban planning recommends taking the capacity of a pedestrian lane 1 m wide no higher than 400 people / h, which ensures the comfort and continuity of the movement of visitors. For the most mass events, the width of the main alley is increased by side lawn strips that allow one-time loads. When forming the main alley from three pedestrian lanes, the width of the middle lane should be taken with a coefficient of 0.8 from the sum of the outer lanes.
In large parks, the main alley is designed in the form of an esplanade 25-50 m wide, having a rectilinear or curvilinear outline with a large turning radius. When passing through sections with difficult terrain, the esplanade is divided into alleys. An esplanade along a body of water should follow the coastline and have an asymmetrical profile. Landscaping is carried out in such a way that the middle lane is lit, the outer lanes alternate between illuminated and shaded areas, and the walking path is shaded and protected from the wind.
In the medical and health parks, health paths are laid - special pedestrian roads for the treatment of dosed walking. By difficulty, such roads are divided into easy sections 500-600 m long without lifting; medium - 1500-2000 m long with a rise of 50-100%, difficult - 3000-3500 m long with a rise of 100-150% and steeper. Lifts alternate with horizontal sections, recreation areas with benches are placed on short routes after 30-50 m, on long routes - after 100-200 m.
Curve radii at intersections and junctions of roads and alleys take at least half the width of the main road, and for driveways at least 7 m. When arranging intersections, corners are smoothed along the line of natural movement of pedestrians to prevent trampling. In cases where several tracks are connected in one node, their junctions are expanded.
It must be durable, resistant to atmospheric influences and loads, provide for the removal of surface, storm, melt water and be easy to use. The surface is intended for pedestrians, so it should be smooth, but not slippery. An important role in creating harmonious landscape compositions is given to the decorative characteristics of the coatings, which are chosen based on the purpose of the site, landscape features and the architectural and planning solution of the territory. The existing classification of coatings is based on the nature of the application and the material. The type of coatings must comply with the purpose, sanitary, aesthetic and economic requirements.
Coatings are solid, panel and tiled. Solid coatings are divided into, ground, crushed stone or gravel and asphalt. Ground coverings are the most imperfect. In the practice of building garden and park alleys and roads, improved soil coatings are used - cement-soil, lime-soil and sand-gravel. Crushed stone is more durable. Crushed stone is covered with a layer of fine sifted crumbs (brick, granite, tuff) and rolled with rollers. The resulting bright colored coatings go well with greenery, but in windy hot weather they become dusty, in damp weather they get soaked and carried away by streams of water, especially on slopes, overgrown with grass.
In coastal cities, river or sea pebbles are used to cover the paths. It is advisable to lay 1-2 layers of polyethylene film, roofing felt, roofing material under the coating, which will get rid of weeds. Pebbles are an excellent background for ornamental plants: carpet, creeping, coniferous and deciduous shrubs, ivy. Asphalt coatings are more durable, but when heated by the sun, they soften, radiate warmth even in the evening, and have low artistic and decorative qualities. After each opening of the surface, traces remain.
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| Coatings: 1 - monolithic concrete coatings; 2 - natural stone coatings; 3 - brick coatings (a, b - dressing; c - braid; d - mesh; e - herringbone); 4 - wood coating; 5 - coatings made of concrete slabs (a - without a gap; b - with a gap); 6 - laying slabs at corners and turns |
Panel concrete pavement can be prefabricated and monolithic, it can have a different shape with curvilinear or rectilinear outlines and different sizes. For large slabs (for example, 1.5x1.5; 1.0x2.0 m), mechanisms are required for laying on a pre-prepared base. Due to the aggregates introduced into the concrete, a variety of textures, patterns, colors of the coating is achieved, and its decorative qualities are increased. Monolithic concrete pavements are made on site using compacted crushed stone. They can have a pattern due to artificial seams, which are also necessary to offset temperature changes. Inserts from pebbles, crushed stone, gravel or carpet plants are used.
Natural stone coatings are durable and beautiful, they retain their decorative effect for decades, they are widely used to create interesting compositions for landscaping around monuments, fountains, etc. For these purposes, hard rock slabs (granite, gneiss, basalt) or from soft, sedimentary (sandy, tuff, shell limestone). In the southern regions, mosaic slabs of the correct geometric shape are made from fragments of polished marble slabs.
The stone is used, given its architectural expressiveness and color. Stone slabs of various sizes and shapes create a picturesque pattern against the background of a green carpet. Mosaic coverings are created from cube-shaped stone checkers 3-7 cm in size. Checkers are placed on a sandy base 6-8 cm thick. The resulting seams are filled with sand. Such coatings are successfully used on paths with a significant slope. A small stone checker is also used when constructing concrete slab coatings to fill in irregularities along the paving perimeter, at turns and in seams, at water intake wells, stairs. In irregularly shaped natural stone paths, the joints are grouted, filled with pebbles, gravel or vegetable soil.
Claddings made of clinker bricks. Bricks are laid in a cage, herringbone, flat or on edge on a sandy base 5-10 cm thick, which is given a slight slope to drain water from the paving surface. Bricks are rammed during laying, and the seams between them are filled with sand.
Wood flooring is picturesque, but short-lived, gets dirty quickly and cannot be cleaned. It can be recommended for sparsely visited areas of green spaces or for decorative purposes. Wooden coatings are common in cities located in forest areas, where industrial wood waste is used for these purposes. They use round timber of hard rocks that are not susceptible to decay (often coniferous), cut into cylinders of equal height 12-16 cm with a diameter of 10-50 cm, from which they collect a mosaic coating. A geometric pattern can be obtained using square, rectangular, hexagonal checkers. The seams are filled with vegetable soil and sand.
Factory-made concrete, piece tiles are durable and hygienic, they are the most effective coating for landscaping green areas. They are diverse in shape (square, rectangular, hexagonal, round, etc.), color and texture. Strength is achieved through high grades of cement, a good mix of concrete and compaction. The tile is laid on a sandy cushion (for sandy soils 14-16 cm, on waterproof soils up to 25 cm), and for weak soils - on a crushed stone or gravel base with a slope for water runoff.
The most commonly used sizes of tiles for footpaths, cm: 20x20; 25x25; 30x30; 40x40; 50x50; 75x75; 20x40; 40x60; 25x50; 50x75; hexagonal slabs with side sizes from 20 to 50 cm, round slabs with a diameter of up to 50 cm. The thickness of the tiles is within 4-8 cm, and for the roadway 15-20 cm. Concrete tiles with a rough, corrugated surface, with exposed filling are widely used (pebbles, gravel of various fractions) and from sandy or silicate fine-grained concrete. Tiles are laid closely (with joints 6-10 mm) or at intervals of at least 5 cm, which can be poured with concrete mortar, covered with gravel, pebbles, sand or filled with vegetable earth.
The monotony and monotony of paving is broken by the arrangement of green islands, interspersed with slabs that differ in color or texture, as well as from other materials. The use of rectangular slabs with an aspect ratio of 1:2 also contributes to a greater variety of patterns, combinations of different-sized slabs, masonry without continuous longitudinal and cruciform seams are interesting. Paving begins from the structure with seams parallel or perpendicular to the facade. At the corners of the junctions of the tracks, trapezoidal, conical, triangular slabs are used, or they use the technique of "sawtooth" paving along the edge.
The tiles quickly and easily make straight or curved paths of any pattern, the required dimensions in one or more rows. If you need to change directions, they can be easily moved to a new location.
In places with heavy pedestrian traffic, the surface of tree holes is covered with pebbles, which contribute to the penetration of air and water into the soil.
Prefabricated concrete lawn pavements improve the hygienic and decorative properties of the pavement. Water does not linger on them, they do not dust, they do not overheat in the sun. The grass cover in the gaps between the slabs and in the empty cells reduces the air temperature and increases its humidity. By including the lawn in the coating, the path is combined with the surrounding landscape, a harmonious natural composition is created.
In the pass-pie coating, the slabs are placed on the lawn with gaps corresponding to the step of a person. Round slabs, stacked in two rows in a checkerboard pattern, are called the "elephant" path.
Ceramic tiles (20x20 cm) 1.5 cm thick have become widespread, from which durable decorative coatings are created. Abroad, coatings of colored asphalt, plastics, and rubber tiles are used.
Decorative coatings are widely used, including several materials: concrete slabs in combination with gravel, pebbles, cobblestones, paving stones, natural stone slabs, wood, bricks; monolithic concrete with gravel, brick, natural stone, slabs. In these cases, the track design should be as uniform as possible to facilitate execution.
To divert surface water from the tracks, a drainage system is organized. With an open system, water is drained by trays. A closed system is arranged at a high level of landscaping or if an open drainage system cannot protect the coating from erosion. The more perfect the coating materials, the easier the water runoff.
For coatings made of concrete, asphalt, tiles, the transverse slope is taken to be 0.015-0.02, for coatings made of fine gravel - 0.03-0.06. Tracks are arranged with a convex gable or single-slope profile. The longitudinal slope is taken from 0.5 to 5-6%. In the central regions, paths are arranged on the same level with the surrounding area and the creation of open trays along their borders.
Side stones are laid on the same level with the pedestrian part or raised above the areas adjacent to it by 10-12 cm. Coatings of slabs and natural stone without side stones strengthen the connection with the landscaped area. In the southern regions, the paths are made somewhat higher than the surrounding area and without trays. Water is diverted to lawns.
For park roads with heavy traffic, the lower base (10-15 cm) is made of crushed stone, gravel, brick battle. On sandy soils, coarse-grained sand is used for these purposes. In wet places, drainage is arranged up to 10 cm (fine gravel, slag, sand). The leveling layer for this type of path is made of sand stabilized with 10% cement. The seams are also filled with sand and poured with cement mortar. On paths, walking paths with a slight load, the slabs are laid on a sandy layer. The thickness of the slabs is greater than for coatings with a solid base. Seams are sealed with sand. On wet soils, 5-10 cm of fine gravel, slag or crushed stone are poured under the sandy layer.
When constructing landscape gardening paths and sites with various types of coatings, a number of general construction norms and rules are observed. First, the entire road and footpath network with platforms is taken out in accordance with the project and layout drawing of the layout according to generally accepted methods using geodetic tools and instruments (Fig. 31, 32). The routes of the main roads are taken out along their axes with reference to the main base lines according to the layout drawing. Then the longitudinal slopes are checked in accordance with the vertical planning project, and the points of intersections of paths, turns and curvature radii, as well as relief fractures are fixed in nature. In the future, a complex of earthworks is carried out to cut the "trough" and lay out the track bed in accordance with the required slopes. After preparing the roadway and the trough for the sites, it is again necessary to check the longitudinal slopes of the surface. Then the boundaries of the structures are beaten off, marked in kind with pegs and stretched twine. An important point is the creation of a transverse profile of roads. The transverse profile of small tracks is created manually using a specially cut template from thick plywood with a given profile. On large roads and alleys, the profile is created using a motor grader or bulldozer with a profile knife on the blade. The transverse gable profile of the structure is given an appropriate slope. For example, with a surface slope of 2% o, the rise of soil per 1 m of the surface of the road section will be 2 cm. All microrelief changes on the surface of the canvas are leveled, construction debris is selected or can be partially used when laying the foundation. The gently sloping surface is compacted by motor rollers with a passage from the edge to the middle 5-6 times along one track. Before compaction, the canvas is irrigated with water impregnated with a layer of 5 ... 6 cm. The soil surface of the roadbed or site is considered ready and well-rolled if thin round objects - nails, wire, etc. - are pulled out of the soil without violating its integrity.
After the preparation of the roadbed and platforms, work is carried out on the construction of the base and coating.
Walkways and playgrounds with concrete slabs
Structures of paths and platforms with slab coating can be:
- improved;
- simplified.
Advanced designs include robust designs that include the following:
- leveled and compacted base, a layer of crushed stone, 5 cm thick - fractions 2 ... 3 cm;
- leveling layer of stone carvings - fractions 0.5 ... 1 cm;
- dry mixture of cement, sand, granite screenings - fractions up to 0.5 cm, - up to 2 cm thick or liquid cement mortar - cement screed;
- tiles distributed over the surface of the mixture or mortar.
Simplified structures include coatings made of slabs laid on a layer of sand - a "sand cushion" - 6 ... 10 cm thick. The layout of the slabs, the coating pattern itself are determined by the designer and depicted on the working drawings of the project. Layout techniques can be very diverse and depend on the compositional solution of the territory. Tiles can be laid with jointing, which are filled with small concrete blocks. In some cases, the joints are filled with vegetable soil and sown with seeds of lawn grasses, a kind of "lawn-tiled" coating is obtained. When arranging landscape gardening paths and tile sites, the class and type of structures are taken into account. The base is made of crushed stone or pure sand (see above). A layer of crushed stone is laid along the prepared canvas of the main alleys, which is planned along the slopes, rolled down with rollers. A layer of lean concrete or a cement-sand mixture is laid on the rolled base, and tiles are laid on this layer (Fig. 34). When laying tiles by hand, the underside of the tile is wetted with water and applied to the concrete surface, then carefully brought into position with a hammer handle. The surface of the laid slabs is checked with a special template. Particular attention is paid to sealing the seams. As a rule, they are filled with a cement mortar or covered with a cement-sand mixture. Residues of mortar and mixture must be removed immediately from the surface of the tiles. Tiles of small sizes are laid manually, large slabs weighing more than 50 kg are laid with the help of special devices and mechanisms - "captures". When arranging secondary paths along the lawn, the tiles are laid on a sand cushion 10 ... 15 cm thick. The tile is sunk into the sand by 2/3 of its thickness and "precipitated" with a wooden mallet. The seams between the tiles are covered with vegetable soil and sown with seeds of lawn grasses. The vertical displacement of the tiles must not exceed 1.5 cm; the sediment of the tiles is made by tamping through the superimposed board. The sandy base should have side stops made of densely compacted earthen curb or garden concrete curb. It is necessary to ensure a tight fit of the tiles when laying to the edge and to each other. Tiles are usually laid 2 cm above (or flush with) the adjacent lawn surface.
Paths and grounds paved with stone, brick and wood
Laying pavements on a finished base made of stone slabs, sawn by machine, brick, wood - end checkers - does not fundamentally differ from laying concrete tiles. Laying is done manually on a leveled base. The base, in turn, is laid on well-packed soil of the track or platform. The base material is, as mentioned above, sand or crushed slag. 
In some cases, a cement-sand mixture is applicable. The thickness of the "cushion" must be at least 10 cm. The seams between the tiles are covered with sand or a mixture. Between the tiles, it is possible to lay a clinker brick laid on the edge. When installing coatings on large areas, one should carefully adhere to the design slopes and monitor the correct laying of tiles, their adjustment, settlement, compaction, and leveling of the surface. The pavement pavement is made in the same sequence, but according to the drawing - "fan", "mesh", etc. The brick pavement is created on a sandy base pad, which is carefully leveled and planned; a slight slope is made for the flow of water. Bricks are laid in various patterns. When laying the bricks are compacted. If necessary, cut a brick for fitting with a chisel: the brick is cut from all four sides, and the necessary part of it breaks off with a blow. The seams between the bricks are filled with slightly damp sand; excess sand is removed from the surface with a broom. At the joints, the sand is compacted at the same level with the surface. All finished coatings are recommended to withstand for 3-4 days. Coatings are arranged in the form of "rounds" of granite stones of various sizes, shapes, colors and bearing the name "breccia". Breccia paving is widely used on paths and areas in certain areas of gardens and parks. At high loads, slabs, blocks, bars, slabs are laid on a well-planned base of sand, fine gravel: fractions of at least 1 ... 2 cm; layer thickness - 10 cm. A layer of cement-sand mixture 3 ... 5 cm thick is laid on the planned surface of the crushed stone layer. At light loads, the stone coating is laid on a sandy "cushion" 12 ... 15 cm thick. cement-sand mixture 1:10. The coating is arranged from rounded pebbles, which are distributed over the layer of cement mortar; the thickness of the sand cushion is 20 cm, the layer of concrete is 5...6 cm, the layer of cement mortar is 2 cm. In practice, various options for covering sites and paths from natural materials are known. Garden paths can be lined with rectangular end checkers and various sizes; checkers are placed at different levels in a gravel coating on a cement mortar. End cuts of logs can also be used as an original cover in small areas of the garden. Such sections can be of various diameters. The gaps between large ends are densely filled with small and medium ends. The ends are usually laid on cement preparation. There are free gaps between the ends. 
Wooden end coverings are made on a compacted and even layer of crushed stone; in some cases, a cement screed is used, spreading a thin layer of cement mortar over the surface. End checkers pre-impregnated with an antiseptic are laid on the base. Seams 3 ... 6 mm wide are filled with sand. A sand cushion is arranged on a well-planned subgrade surface with a thickness of at least 20 cm, a concrete layer of 5...6 cm at a grade of 300 kg/cm2, a decorative layer of gravel or pebbles - 2...3 cm. 5.4.3. In-situ concrete paved paths and platforms The technological process of constructing in-situ concrete paved paths and platforms is basically the same as conventional road works using in-situ concrete. The main requirements are:
- ensuring clear contours of the paving surface by installing a special formwork made of wood or a curb made of concrete;
- preparation of the crushed stone base and its leveling, laying the concrete mass, its distribution over the surface of the base;
- leveling with a special spatula, trowel or special
board.
After leveling, the surface is treated with a roller with two horizontal drums having a mesh texture. When rolling rough-leveled concrete, large aggregate grains are pressed down, and small particles remain on the surface. Currently, various motor mechanisms are used that level and ram the concrete surface. The pattern is applied to the surface after moisture has evaporated from it and while the concrete retains its plasticity. Various devices are used to draw a picture. After sufficient setting of the concrete, the surface and seams are treated with a soft brush. The drawing can be applied using various devices and patterns can be obtained in the form of combinations of circles, squares, waves, etc. In some cases, monolithic concrete is applicable with exposed aggregate, which is colored gravel with grains 1 ... 2 cm in diameter. Gravel is applied to the concrete surface, which is pre-smoothed with a spatula and trowel. As soon as the concrete hardens, the surface is rubbed with a special magnesium or aluminum alloy board (or the same trowel). The solution should completely envelop the individual grains of the aggregate, leaving no holes on the surface. After that, the solution is removed with a brush or a jet of water from a hose; severe exposure of gravel grains is not recommended. Then the surface of the coating is ground and polished; temperature and decorative seams are applied on the surface with a saw to a depth of 2 ... 3 cm. Wooden slats can be laid in expansion joints, which are placed before concrete is laid on the base. Laying slats imitates tiled flooring. A decorative surface can be created by simply pressing colored pebbles into concrete that has not yet hardened, but such a coating is not always durable and stable. Colored pebbles can be alternated with gravel, getting a variety of areas. The simplest sites of curvilinear configuration coated with monolithic concrete are made by laying out the site (or path) according to the drawing, excavating the soil to a given depth, laying out and tamping the canvas (trough) and filling the resulting "form" with a concrete solution. In the future, all the above operations are performed.
Paths and playgrounds coated with special mixtures
When arranging paths and areas with bulk (stuffed) "clothes" structures, great importance is attached to the device of supporting edges along the boundaries and contours. The supporting brows are arranged strictly along the cord. The brow is arranged along the borders of the path by adding a roller of vegetable earth. The height of the roller should be at least 15 cm and can be increased depending on the thickness of the clothing by 5 cm or more. The earth roller is tightly compacted, and a sod ribbon is spread over its surface with an inclination towards the path or platform. Instead of a supporting edge, a curb, or a garden curb, is made of stone and concrete from the ground. To install the curb, a groove is cut off 10 cm deep, 12 cm wide; bed grooves are planned. The height position of the curb is determined by the cord and then the curb itself is installed. The sinuses of the groove are covered with soil, watered and carefully rammed. The seams between the curbs are filled with cement mortar. The reference line from the curb must be straight in the horizontal and vertical positions. Curves of roads and sites are smoothly encircled with a curb, while filling the formed corners with cement mortar. On the main paths and platforms, a stationary installation of a curb - an onboard stone is carried out. First, a groove is made with a depth of 25 cm. A concrete mixture - a "cushion" - 10 cm thick is placed in the prepared groove, on which the curb is installed, embedding it into the concrete mass and manually leveling it with wooden rammers. The seams between the curb products are poured with cement mortar, and a concrete mass is added to the base, compacting it. After installing the curb and preparing the canvas (see above), a layer of crushed stone is scattered over the surface. The crushed stone layer is leveled in accordance with the transverse and longitudinal profile of the track. The profiled surface is moistened with water - 10 l / m2 of the surface - and rolled with a roller weighing at least 1.0 tons 5-7 times in one track from the edges to the middle with each track overlapping by 1/3. The first rolling achieves "compression" of the placer, and the stable position of the crushed stone is ensured. The second rolling gives the base rigidity due to the mutual "jamming" of the gravel. During the third rolling, a dense crust is formed on the surface: small fractions of crushed stone "wedged" and close the holes and pores. The thickness of the compacted layer of crushed stone should not exceed 15 cm. The crushed stone base is considered prepared when there is no mobility of crushed stone particles on the surface, and a piece of crushed stone thrown under the rollers of the rink is crushed. A layer of a special mixture is applied to the prepared base according to the established recipe and leveled according to the templates in accordance with the transverse profile and longitudinal slope of the track; the coating is moistened with water, - 10 l / m2 of the surface, - and then, after drying the moisture, it is rolled with a roller up to 1.5 tons weighing 5-7 times in one track until the density of the coating, elasticity and elasticity of its surface is achieved. Sand-gravel and soil-cement mixtures are laid on a pre-prepared and profiled soil base. The base web is preliminarily subjected to fine loosening, or milling, and the indicated mixtures are scattered over it. After these operations, web profiling and subsequent rolling are performed. It is recommended to start the operation of finished tracks and platforms in 3-5 days.
5.4.5. Paths and playgrounds with combined coatings
The construction of paths and platforms with combined types of coatings requires knowledge of the structural and mechanical properties of the materials that make up these coatings. In accordance with their characteristics, the device of the bases and the laying of the elements of the coating are made. It is necessary to strive for such a selection of materials that make up the combined coating, in which it would be possible to adopt the overall design of the base and the same installation method. For pavement of stone and concrete slabs, with the right selection of technical characteristics and dimensions, it is possible to make one base and use one laying technique. For each type of coating, it is necessary to follow the appropriate technology or, for a common reason, choose the design that has the highest strength indicators; Otherwise, the coating is quickly deformed and destroyed.
Sports grounds
Sports grounds include:
- football field;
- volleyball and basketball courts;
- tennis;
- small towns;
- gymnastics.
The choice of coatings for sports fields depends on their size and purpose. Dry, ventilated and insolated areas are taken under the sites. All surface slopes should contribute to the unhindered discharge of surface precipitation. In order for the upper soft cover of sports grounds not to dust and to be kept constantly in an optimally wet state, it is necessary to lay a water supply system for watering the surface of the grounds. To fill the ice rink for the winter, the water supply is laid below the freezing depth of the soil. The placement of sports facilities in gardens and parks should correspond to their purpose, location and contribute to the formation of the architectural appearance of the entire facility, taking into account climatic and local conditions. Playgrounds and fields for sports games, as a rule, are located in accordance with the orientation to the cardinal points. The long axis of the site is located along the meridian or with a deviation of 15...20°. The constructions of sports grounds consist of multi-layer "clothes" and special equipment. Clothing consists of an earthen bed, a base made of several bearing layers of materials of various purposes or combinations of them, and an upper cover made of a special mixture of inert, binder and neutral materials (Fig. 36). Mandatory for sports planar structures are engineering networks that contribute to the correct operation and rapid restoration of the top cover under any climatic conditions. This is, first of all, drainage with elements of storm sewers, water supply and lighting. Coatings must have a flat and non-slip surface that does not get wet when waterlogged, not dusty in the dry season. In the conditions of low permeable underlying soils, an annular drainage is laid along the boundaries of sites and fields, consisting of collecting drains and water intake wells. The “body” of collecting drains can be tubular with ditches filled with inert materials or simply filled with inert materials of various fractions. Water intake wells can be concrete with water transfer to the sewer network, or simply filled with materials that absorb and transport water through aquifers. The construction technology of the simplest sites in gardens and parks includes the following main issues:
1) determination of the construction dimensions of the site;
2) foundation device - troughs with a surface drainage device and an annular collecting drainage;
3) in case of low-permeable soils, preparation of an underlying layer of draining and filtering medium-grained materials or an elastic-moisture-intensive layer capable of not only retaining moisture, but also transporting it along the drainage marks;
4) layer-by-layer arrangement of the middle intermediate layer made of inert materials;
5) application of an insulating layer of elastic-moisture-intensive materials;
6) laying the top cover from a special mixture;
7) installation of special equipment and horizontal marking of the sports ground.
This sequence of work and the choice of materials are typical for mass objects in residential areas and for physical education classes in the open air. The construction of sports grounds begins with taking out the dimensions of the grounds using a layout drawing and a level, designating corners or characteristic points in kind, driving metal pipes to a depth of up to 80 cm. . If there are sandy or light loamy soils at the base, which are good conductors of moisture, drainage of the territory is not provided. The presence of a water-resistant layer in the base - clay, heavy or medium loams - creates the need for the installation of water-conducting drains and absorbing wells. In this case, the underlying soils are preliminarily loosened with a cutter to give them porosity. The lower elastic-moisture-intensive layer receives moisture through the underlying layers of clothing and accumulates part of it, and directs part of it along the slope to water-conducting drains and, subsequently, to absorbing wells. The body of the drainage drain and the absorption well consists of inert materials of different sizes. Materials are laid in layers, with a decrease in the fractions of each material from top to bottom. A more complex ring drainage body may consist of pipeline drains and reinforced concrete prefabricated wells: without absorbing bottom; with a bottom - collective 
Water is drained from collection wells through pipelines to storm sewers (see Fig. 22). The laying of the elastic-moisture-intensive layer begins after all the work on the drainage device and the preparation of the base has been completed. A lightweight concrete curb or wooden formwork 10x15 cm in height is installed along the boundaries of the site, equal to the thickness of all layers of the structure. The curb is installed on a cement mortar. The formwork is arranged from edged antiseptic boards 20 x 120 cm in size and 4 cm thick. The boards are laid “on edge” and nailed to the pegs, which are pre-hammered into the ground at a distance of at least 1 m from each other. The length of the pins is 30...40 cm, the thickness is 8...10 cm, the lower part should be pointed. The pins are driven into the ground on the outside of the site, after which a board is attached to them. The formwork or curb along the boundaries of the site allows you to maintain clear boundary lines and keep layers of clothing from spreading. On a carefully planned and rolled base, an elastic-moisture-absorbing layer 8–10 cm thick (in a dense rolled state) is laid in two steps. The elastic-moisture-intensive layer is watered and rolled with a roller weighing up to 2 tons. Rolling is carried out with the passage of the roller at least 5-6 passes along one track. So that the wetted material does not stick to the rollers of the rink during rolling, a layer of 1 ... 2 cm of inert materials (fine crushed stone, fraction of 2 mm) of the middle intermediate layer is laid on it. When calculating the need for materials for an elastic-moisture-intensive layer, take into account their significant compaction - up to 50 ... 55%. The middle intermediate layer of inert materials is laid out over the elastic-moisture-absorbing layer. It consists of crushed stone of the M-800 brand. Layer thickness 10...12 cm, grain fraction 20...35 mm. The layer is carefully leveled with giving it design slopes. The surface is abundantly watered with water at the rate of 10 ... 12 l / m and compacted with rollers weighing 3 ... 5 tons with a passage of 5 ~ 7 times in one place. The layer is considered prepared if, during the passage of the rink, “waves” do not appear on the surface of the layer and the crushed stone of softer rocks laid on it is crushed by the rink. The next layer is insulating. The insulating layer is laid with a thickness of 4 cm in a dense body of resilient and moisture-intensive materials. Its components are special mixtures for the top coatings of sports fields. Recommended structures for tennis court surfaces (St. Petersburg experience) The base of the court is compacted soil; Top coat, 4 cm thick, from a special mixture: clay-powder -45%; ground clinker - 45%; fluffy lime - 10; Elastic layer of lignin, thickness 1 cm; Limestone crushed stone (fraction 10. ..20 mm), thickness 2 cm; Granite crushed stone (fraction 20...40 cm), thickness 13 cm; Coarse-grained sand, thickness 5 cm. The coating is watered by "sprinkling", rolled with a 2 ton roller with a passage through one place 2-3 times. To prevent sticking to the rollers of the rink, the surface is sprinkled with a thin layer of stone chips. Laying the top cover layer (special mix) is a critical part of site creation. The cover must be of high quality, so the materials for it are selected according to one of the recommended recipes, taking into account the granulometric composition of the mixture:
fractions 2... 4 mm-18..,23%
0.05...2mm-47...52%
0.002...0.05mm-18...23 96
0.002mm - 6...7%
Currently, artificial types of coatings made of synthetic * materials have been developed for football fields, replacing sports lawns made of cereal grasses.
The road and path network and special planar structures of a landscape gardening facility must constantly carry a sanitary, hygienic, architectural, artistic and utilitarian principle. This is possible only with their constant preservation and proper maintenance - cleaning, watering and washing coatings, removing weeds, caring for edges and borders, adding inert materials of the upper layer with rolling the fabric of structures, current and major repairs. In winter, paths and platforms should be constantly removed from snow and ice. Such measures make it possible to safely use them by passers-by, as well as to preserve the top cover of the pavement. Loose snow on paths up to 2.5 ... 3 m wide is removed using special machines. On wide alleys and platforms, snow is removed using small-sized tractors with brushes. Compacted or piled snow is removed using a front-end bucket, a loader with removal on small-sized dump trucks or self-propelled carts. Every day, the paths are cleaned of various household garbage, which is put into garbage containers. Spring work. With strong warming and snow melting, movement along paths and platforms with a soft (gravel stone) coating becomes impossible, as it leads to damage to the top layer. Therefore, such paths are temporarily closed and warning signs are made near them, signs and full houses, fences are installed. After clearing of snow and ice and drying of the coatings, the paths and platforms are opened for visitors. In places with surface quicksands or streams that temporarily divert meltwater, temporary shield bridges, wooden or metal, should be laid, which can be used after the tracks have dried and for other purposes or in the autumn-spring time of the next period. To speed up the melting, snow is loosened on the sides of paths and playgrounds and scattered over the lawn. The resulting ice is chipped off, the covers of storm sewer or drainage wells are freed from it and the melt water can flow freely. In the absence of a sewer or drainage network at the facility, water flow is provided along surface slopes with temporary grooves to the nearest city, storm well or water intake - a pond, lake, river - inside the facility. Summer work. The road and path network is cleaned of household waste, fallen leaves, small stones, glass bags 1-2 times a day. The arrangement of garbage bins and containers depends on the intensity of the object visited, the average littering of the object per unit area, for example, 100 m2, and the distance of garbage movement in different ways. All this should be taken into account when planning the acquisition of equipment and its placement. Cleaning of wide alleys, paved park roads is carried out by special cleaning machines. Small paths are cleaned with brushes on small tractors or manually with steel brooms from the edge of the paths or areas to the middle, picking up and moving only debris. During the summer, paths and playgrounds are systematically watered to create comfortable conditions for rest and movement. Pavements with a soft top coating are watered moderately in hot weather so as not to erode the surface of the coating, daily at the rate of 3.. .5 l / m2, which allows you to knock down dust. Hard-surfaced alleys and driveways are watered from watering machines 1-2 times a day with dust flushed and removed into the storm network. Children's and sports grounds with a soft surface are watered daily 2-3 times from hoses with sprayers, with a "sprinkling" agent at the rate of 5 ... 8 l / m2. The fight against grown weeds on paths and platforms is carried out by mechanical or chemical methods. The mechanical method consists in weeding and pruning with special scrapers and hoes unpretentious, fast-growing herbs, such as buckwheat, dandelion, plantain, etc. These works are very laborious, ineffective, and, moreover, destroy the upper road surface. The chemical method is more effective - the introduction of various chemicals by sprinkling or watering the solution on the grown weed stand. In parks, a 1% aqueous solution of Bertolet salt is used in the amount of 20 ... 30 g per 1 m2 of area. Various herbicides are also effective, which should quickly decompose in plants and soil and be non-toxic to humans and animals. Herbicides are diluted in water - 5 liters of the active ingredient of the drug per 80 liters of water - and then the paths are carefully sprayed from the sprayer, 3 times every 20 days, without applying the solution to the edges and the border part of the lawns. Treat the surface of the tracks should be in warm calm weather at an outdoor temperature of 18 ... 24 ° C. The recommended mixture is simazine and atro-zin1 in equal volumes with optimal application times - early spring, before germination or after weed germination. The organization of the movement of visitors and vehicles, as well as the appearance of paths and sites depend on the condition and clarity of curbs - curbs or earthen curbs. Borders (curbs) made of artificial or natural stones are carefully inspected, the shifted parts are set flush with the line. Individual curbs that have lost their decorative effect are replaced according to the technology of the initial installation. The earthen edge during the season is cut 1-2 times mechanically - with an edge-cutting machine or manually - with a sharply sharpened rectangular blade - along the cord. The cord is pulled along the pegs installed on the design (or established by soundings in several places) boundaries of road structures. It is necessary to cut off the turf of the edge with a slight slope to the path, observing its transverse profile. Deformed brows are sown after loosening or pulled into a tape. Sowing is carried out with a double rate of lawn grass seeds identical to those growing in the existing lawn. Ribbon sodding is preferable to seed sowing, but is hampered by the lack of high-quality sod, which can be obtained either from specially arranged nurseries or from good meadows.
Practical experience shows that edging allows you to keep the earth edge in a normal state for 5-6 years. As the territory of the landscape gardening facility dries up, they begin corrective or current repairs of paths and playgrounds. Repairs are carried out if, as a result of intensive use - the passage of vehicles or mechanisms on an unsettled surface in spring or autumn, etc. - pavements with a soft top coating are damaged by significant depressions and pits. It is best to identify all the irregularities and mark the contours of microdepressions at the moment when the existing depressions are filled with water. After removing water and drying, such places are loosened, leveled by hand and covered with rubble-wedge with a layer of 3 ... 3.5 cm, which is either rolled or compacted with a rammer. Then a layer of a special mixture is applied on top, made up of the materials present in the original top layer of the coating. This layer is leveled by hand, spilled and rolled flush with the common surface of the adjacent track. For better preservation of the top cover, annually add 1 ... 2 cm of crumbs of inert material, which is part of a special mixture, and roll it with a roller 5-6 times in 4-5 tracks to create a wear layer. Tiled coverings are repaired by replacing individual damaged tiles; the base is leveled and compacted, then the tiles are laid on concrete mortar or sand, tightly fitting them to each other and compacting them with a rammer through a plank lining. Major repairs are carried out depending on the statute of limitations of the ongoing repairs and the degree of wear of the pavement: the absence of the top cover up to 70%, the presence of numerous pits with all layers knocked out or an earthen edge. The minimum period of operation of the tracks for the appointment of a major overhaul is 10 years; under special circumstances - laying engineering networks, etc. - at least 5 years after capital construction or the next major overhaul. When repairing, it is necessary to strictly carry out all technological operations in a certain sequence, observing the longitudinal and transverse slopes of paths and platforms. Overhaul of landscape gardening roads and sites consists of the following operations:
1) hilling (if possible) the upper layer of the screenings with a bulldozer with rum - after removing the layer of pollution and storing them outside the canvas before the horns; removal of destroyed tiles;
2) loosening the crushed stone base to its entire depth by a scarifier coupled with a tractor;
3) leveling the rubble raised to the surface with a bulldozer;
4) manual repair of a curb or earth curb;
5) adding new crushed stone in the amount of more than 50% of the design pavement with careful profiling along slopes and rolling with rollers;
6) laying a mixture or tiles, existing and newly imported seedings, with all the operations described in the construction of paths and platforms.
For each independent technological operation, acts are drawn up for hidden work, in which it is necessary to indicate the degree of wear of each structural element - the top coating, the crushed stone base, other layers, curbs, etc. - with particular accuracy, since the amount of new added material and the estimated cost of the overhaul. Before repairing planar sports facilities, the drainage system is carefully inspected and checked to determine whether it needs to be partially improved or completely replaced. All layers of clothing on the sites are gradually removed and transported to the storage site. Practical experience shows that the overhaul of the entire structure of a sports ground in parks is carried out after 20-30 years of its operation. To check the stability of the top coating of the sites, at least 10 samples of the coating mixture are taken at different places on the sites and analyzed for particle size distribution. Particularly distinguished are the most exploited parts of the sites, the cover of which must be determined more carefully and separately. First, analyzes are carried out on the granulometric composition of the upper layer of the coating. By comparing the results of the analyzes with the particle size distribution of the optimal mixture, the missing or excess fractions are determined by groups of materials. Then a mixture is selected that, when added to the existing cover, will adjust it and lead to the optimal composition. The top cover must be carefully loosened with a cutter, break up large lumps and eliminate inconvenient places for introducing the missing volume of the new mixture found. After laying the new mixture, it is necessary to mix it very well with a rake, plan according to the slope marks, shed and roll, using the technology of work on the construction of the top cover of sports flat structures.
The design and creation of a road and path network is an important part in the process of creating an estate. The road and path network gives you the opportunity to get to each object of your estate in the most convenient and shortest way. It forms some guiding threads that unite all the functional areas of the estate and other elements of landscape design located on your site into a single ensemble. Beautiful and comfortable paths allow you to achieve completeness of the entire artistic appearance of your estate.
The design of the road and path network is carried out at the design stage of the entire estate. The length of the road network is of great importance. Analyzing various design solutions and exploring landscape gardening areas, we can conclude that the road network and sites occupy 10–15%, and sometimes their length reaches 20% of the entire occupied area of the site. The relative length of paths per 1 ha is approximately 300-400 m.
The width of the tracks and platforms is different in different parts of the site and depends on their purpose. According to their functional purpose, all tracks can be divided into two large groups: utilitarian and decorative.
- Utility track group.
This group of paths includes all paths that connect all outbuildings and are actively used throughout the year. This group also includes all access roads and paths to sites for vehicles.
- Decorative paths.
This type of path is used primarily to decorate the estate. They are laid out for walking, allowing you to enjoy the beauties of the estate.
Classification of tracks according to their functional purpose
In the garden and park design, roads, paths and alleys, depending on their functional purpose, can be divided into 6 classes.
I class - main roads and alleys. This class includes such roads and alleys, along which the main flow of visitors to the object passes. They are used as the main traffic routes for visitors, and therefore must withstand heavy loads. It follows that they must be sufficiently wide and their construction must be very strong. The covering of such roads and alleys should be durable and decorative. For these purposes, low-wear materials are used, such as slabs, stones, etc.
II class - minor roads, paths and alleys. They connect various nodes of the facility and lead visitors to the main routes of movement around the facility, sports and recreation areas, lead to various viewpoints and other elements of the facility layout. The intensity of traffic on such roads, paths and alleys is less than on the main ones. These tracks are narrower than the main ones, so their bandwidth is also less. The coating of such roads, paths and alleys may be less durable than on the main ones, but no less decorative.
III class - additional roads,paths, paths. Additional roads, paths and trails of this class are used to connect various secondary objects. They play the role of transitions and approaches to various structures and flower beds, and are also "branches" from the main and secondary roads and paths. The intensity of traffic on the roads, paths and paths of this class is lower than on the previous two. In this class, you can use the construction and track coverings in a more simplified way.
IV class - cycling walking roads and trails. Class IV roads and trails are usually used in parks and forest parks. They are located on separate lanes of main roads and alleys. The main purpose of the construction of such roads and alleys is walking, sightseeing, sometimes used for sports competitions. The structure for cycle paths must be strong and stable.
V class - roads for horseback riding, in carriages, on sledges, on horseback. Roads of this class are intended for walking and sightseeing, for horseback riding. Usually they are used in large parks, forest parks and sports complexes. Roads of this class must have special types of pavement.
Class VI - economic roads and driveways. Economic roads and driveways are intended for the movement of specialized vehicles, such as watering machines, vehicles for transporting materials and equipment for various household needs, etc. etc. The structures and pavement for such roads are made of durable solid materials that can withstand heavy loads.
We examined the classification of roads, paths and paths used in landscape gardening design. But all these classes are not always used. All 6 classes can be found only on large objects. In small squares, in suburban areas, on the estate, roads, paths and paths belonging to the first three classes are usually used. At such facilities, episodic passage of vehicles and small-scale mechanization is expected along the main and secondary roads.
The main connecting element of the estate are the main paths. Their width must be at least 1.2 meters. When determining the width of the track, it is necessary to take into account its purpose and, based on this, we calculate the width of the track. On the main paths, it is necessary to take into account the possibility that when two people meet, they could freely disperse without causing inconvenience to each other.
The secondary tracks can be narrower than the main tracks. Again, to determine the width of the track, we take into account its purpose. The width of the tracks should be at least 0.5 - 0.7 meters.
Pathways are the narrowest paths in your estate. Their width provides for comfortable movement of one person and is 0.5 - 0.7 meters.
Classification of paths by type of paving
The classification of paths can be not only by purpose, but also by the type of paving.
The pavement is an important element in the design of any walkway. When designing roads, it is necessary to take into account the design, strength and durability of their pavement. Depending on the purpose of roads and their further use, materials and technologies for their laying are selected. According to the type of paving, all paths are divided into two groups:
1. Hard coating- brick, monolithic concrete, natural stone, paving slabs, etc.;
2. Soft touch- gravel, pebbles, crushed stone, granite screenings (crumb), etc.
We examined the classification of roads, paths and paths according to their functional purpose, which directly affects the choice of the type of paving. Create beautiful and comfortable paths in your estate. May they bring you joy, pleasure and comfort. Good luck to you. If you have any questions or want to discuss something, be sure to leave your comment.
It is difficult to imagine a modern garden without space-organizing elements - paths and driveways. A variety of materials allow them to be used not only for utilitarian purposes, but also as a bright decorative element.
In principle, the process of creating garden paths is a simple matter, and many garden owners enthusiastically start this work on their own or easily hire the first “specialist” they meet. But in fact, this is a very thorough work that requires both knowledge and experience, and even special tools - at least rammers and grinders. The paths should serve the garden for more than one year, they connect the functional areas of the garden like arteries, open up an overview of the brightest decorative elements, and allow you to safely and conveniently move around the site in any weather.
City courtyard. Paving with concrete pavers.
The surface of the playground for the children's playground is covered with clean sea sand of a large fraction, which not only absorbs possible falls of children, but is simply beautiful and pleasant.
Modern garden design involves not only the arrangement of paths, but also open areas. These can be traditional patios adjacent to the house, separate areas for recreation, placement of portable garden furniture, benches, playgrounds and playgrounds, for permanent or short-term placement of vehicles. Depending on the purpose and design idea, they have their own construction and paving features. However, as in the case of paths, the construction of sites requires compliance with general building rules, and their operation must comply with safety regulations.
What you need to know about paths and playgrounds in the garden
The optimal width for a garden path is at least 0.8 m, and for an access road - 3 m. The road that connects the access path and the pedestrian path must be at least 4.5 m wide. The dimensions of the sites depend on their purpose
Paths and driveways should be slightly above ground level and have a slight slope so that there is a natural runoff of rain and melt water. In this case, the slope in length is 2–5%, while in width it can be only 1–2%. 
Paths made of sawn stone in a natural style.
When choosing a material for covering sites, paths and driveways, one should take into account its strength, frost resistance and durability. Which material you will use to cover the paths and areas also depends on the style of the garden, the decorative design of the residential building and the small architectural forms placed on the site. Today, a large number of a wide variety of materials are on the market, in addition, many companies offer individual orders, for example, paving slabs of an unusual color, and even with built-in lamps.
It is very important to use a linear drainage system when constructing paths and driveways. This will avoid the formation of puddles and, as a result, the rapid destruction of the tracks. Linear drainage systems can consist of drains of various sizes and strength characteristics, gratings and special elements, often very decorative. 
Platform with a grate-weir.
For high-quality construction of tracks and extending their service life, today materials such as geotextiles, plastic geonets are used, which are laid under a layer of rubble to prevent it from moving. It is also important to use geogrids when arranging paths on slopes. But for the device of access roads it is better to use lawn plastic gratings. Their upper edges are equipped with teeth, so that the wheels of the car have better grip and do not slip. They are connected to the desired grid size using self-locking hooks.
Construction of paths and playgrounds
The work on laying tracks is divided into three stages. The first is design. How exactly the paths will run along the site depends on the choice of style of your garden. So, for a garden in a regular style, the paths should be straight, intersect at right angles. The landscape style is characterized by paths with smooth bends. When planning paths, it is also important to take into account the way in which households are used to getting to one or another garden object.
A layout drawing is a marking scheme for paths and sites. And a paving scheme is also being made.
The second stage is the preparation of the bed for the tracks. Having marked the paths, they first remove the fertile soil and transfer it to a separate site for further use in the garden. Then the rest of the soil is taken out to the depth necessary to fit the base and the final layer. In this case, it should be borne in mind that the pavement of the tracks should rise 2–3 cm above the ground. The bottom of the earthen trough is carefully tamped. By the way, do not try to compact the humus layer - this is a waste of time and effort.
The base of the track consists of a carrier layer and bedding. A 10–15 cm layer of crushed stone or gravel is laid on a well-packed bottom (for an access road, this layer should be 20–30 cm). The gravel is carefully compacted, then a 3–5 cm layer of sand is added and carefully leveled.
The third stage is the choice of finishing material. It also depends on the style direction of the garden, the design of the residential building and other buildings on the site. The finishing material must be of high quality, durable, frost-resistant and safe for movement in rainy weather and in winter. Low-quality and non-frost-resistant material very quickly leads to the destruction of paths and playgrounds.
Paving sites in the front area.
Now it remains only to choose the way of laying the finishing material. This can be either laying on a dry mix on a gravel-sand base, or pouring the base with concrete and further decorating with finishing materials. Poor quality cement and violations in the preparation of the mortar, as well as the construction of paths during the period of night frosts, leads to the rapid destruction of paths and sites.
Before laying the finishing material, curbs are installed, which are made with concrete. For unpaved paths, simple plastic curbs are used. Laying of finishing materials is carried out according to their respective technologies.
In the construction of sites, the construction of both buried containers for plants and raised beds is often used. This issue is solved at the design stage, so as not to spoil the prepared base for paving. It is most important to carefully consider the construction of sites with combined paving, that is, when two or three types of materials are used in decoration.
Dirt paths
In a natural-style garden, dirt paths and paths will look quite natural (paths can be up to 60 cm wide). They are cheap and easy to make. However, such paths are less durable and more laborious to maintain, especially if their surface is decorated with wood chips, sand or brick chips.
Construction of dirt paths. The surface of the playground, as well as other playgrounds and paths, is backfilled with granite screenings with curb stone contouring.
If there are puddles on the site for a long time, then drainage of the area should be carried out before laying dirt paths. The fertile layer is removed from the bed of future paths, the base is rammed and a 10-cm layer of gravel is poured. It is carefully compacted and only after that a 15-centimeter layer of soil is poured, which is also carefully compacted.
For a more durable earthen cover, a mixture of clay (30%) and sand (70%) is taken. The axis of the road should be at the level of the surrounding soil, and its cross section should be in the form of an arc. Such a bulge will allow rain and melt water to drain naturally.
After the coating has been formed, the dirt paths can be decorated with a thin layer of coarse sand, brick or stone chips and compacted again. Such paths can also be lined with decorative wood chips or crushed bark. This, by the way, is not only beautiful, but also protects the paths from overgrowing with weeds, and it is very pleasant to walk along them, especially barefoot.
Ground areas are most often used in natural-style gardens for campfires, children's playgrounds, and for sports activities. For playgrounds, you can use the soil cover with sand or decorative wood chips.
Wooden flooring
Wooden paths (decorative flooring made of boards, round cuts, etc.) go very well with English mixborders and plants typical of the middle lane. They are warm to the touch and natural in the garden. However, in rainy weather, the tree becomes slippery. Plus, it rots quickly. Against decay, the tree is impregnated with special means.
Under such decks, it is important to properly prepare a well-drained backfill. To do this, use a 10–15 cm layer of gravel and a 5 cm layer of coarse sand. When installing borders, it should be borne in mind that the tree swells, so you need to leave gaps. Paving with saw cuts also involves filling the gaps with stone chips or fine gravel.
For curbs enclosing wooden paths, they use both concrete, a special curb stone, and stylish fences made of sanded and rotting logs, sawn from thick branches or thin trees, willow weaving.
Rest areas lined with wood are important to make safe in rainy weather. Often they are made elevated above the soil level. Then piles are used, and gaps are made in the coating itself for the natural flow of water. The wood is treated with protective equipment, it can be painted with texture paints and coated with moisture-resistant deck varnish.
Paving of paths and platforms with stone
Stone elements of the paths are most often laid on bedding or concrete. The choice of styling largely depends on the size of the elements. For example, it is better to lay granite or basalt slabs on concrete, and thin sandstone tiles on a gravel-sand cushion.
The combination of raspberry quartzite paving stones and granite paving stones, which has a different shade, made the site more decorative. Paving stones can be lined with patterns.
Original paths and platforms are obtained from hewn stone, which has a shape close to a hexagon or a rectangular parallelepiped (for example, in the form of paving stones). In one batch there may be plates of different shades, so the installation will require artistic taste. Granite slabs, as a rule, have grayish, red or yellow hues, basalt slabs are black. When buying, pay attention to the size of the plates, which is indicated by a fraction. For example, the size of the slabs 12/16 means that the sides of the slabs are 12 and 16 cm long.
Construction of garden paths from sawn natural stone on a gravel-sand base. Flagstone path a year after construction. Grass has grown between the stones, which makes the garden path especially expressive.
Stone slabs are cut into a more regular shape. They come in granite, limestone or sandstone. The thickness of such plates is from 6 to 15 cm, the size of the side ranges from 10 to 100 cm.
A special flavor of the garden gives a coating of pebbles. You just need to decide right away that it is better to cover the access road or narrow paths with pebbles, because walking along it is not very familiar. For paving, we use pebbles with a flat and even surface, if necessary, carry out additional trimming. In addition, pebbles are often used in the design of sites, as an additional material.
Clinker paving
A stylish garden with a lot of history can be created in a matter of years. In such a garden, exquisite clinker paths can serve as an element of antiquity. Agree that one can easily imagine some rare car or even a horse-drawn phaeton on the access road paved with clinker bricks.
For the garden, special clinker road bricks or paving stones with anti-slip notches are used. This material is very durable, because clay is settled at temperatures up to 1300 ° C until it is completely sintered. The structure of the clinker brick is dense, without inclusions and voids, which provides the material with high performance.
Clinker is laid on a layer of sand or very fine stone chips. Clinker elements for tracks have dimensions of 200x100x45 mm, 200x100x52 mm, 240x59x52 mm or 60x59x52 mm. For access roads, it is better to lay the clinker upright, creating a layer 10 or 5.9 cm thick. 3 mm gaps are left between the clinkers, which are filled with coarse sand or fine stone chips. With the help of clinker paving stones from a non-uniformly dyed material, you can create beautiful platforms by laying out a variety of patterns.
When choosing clinker, attention should be paid to strength, frost resistance, resistance to fats, solvents and gasoline.
Paving of paths and platforms with concrete tiles
In addition to the dull gray concrete coating, there are many decorative products based on this material on the market today. Starting from concrete tiles of various colors, with a surface often imitating natural stone.
The front side of such a tile can be covered with natural chips, and thanks to a special treatment, it is slightly uneven and rough, which increases its safety during rain and winter. As a rule, such a tile has a thickness of 4–10 cm, a width of 9–20 cm and a length of 10–28 cm. For paths, a thickness of 6 cm is sufficient. Concrete tiles can have not only a rectangular or square shape, but also figured.
Paving slabs are more popular. They have a square or rectangular shape with sides 20–50 cm long and 35–100 cm long and 4–8 cm thick. Most often they are of a single color, but there are also gray slabs in the mass interspersed with colored crumbs.
Supporters of the natural style prefer to pave the paths with openwork tiles. They can also be of different colors, sizes and shapes. This concrete structure transfers the loads directly to the deeper layers of the soil, thereby unloading the soil surface, which fills the free gaps and is sown with grass. Thus, an openwork carpet of concrete and lawn grass is obtained. Alas, it is difficult to walk along such paths barefoot or in high heels. But such a coating is great for access roads.
Increasingly, stamped concrete is being used in the design of paths. Its surface can imitate stone paving, sandstone slabs, river stone, bricks and even planks. To increase strength, such concrete is reinforced with polypropylene fibers. However, it should be remembered that such a coating of tracks is distinguished by a glossy, too slippery surface and low frost resistance.