Psychological, Pedagogical and Linguistic Foundations of the Methodology of Teaching Literacy in a Special School of Type Y Didactic Units.
Home > Document09/23/2013 19:09:30 Rakhmusheva Alsina Mukhametgireevna
Psycholinguistic foundations of the methodology of teaching literacy.
Psychological and pedagogical foundations of the methodology of teaching literacy.
Linguistic foundations of the methodology of teaching literacy.
So, consonants are characterized according to the following parameters: the participation of voice and noise: noisy (voiced and deaf) - [b], [p], etc. and sonorants - [p, l, m, n]; according to the method of formation: explosive - [b, p, e, t, d, k], slotted - [c, f, s, h, w, g, u, x, d], trembling - [p], affricates - [c, h]; closure-passage - [m, n, l]; at the place of formation: labial - [b, p, m] and lingual - [d, t, d], etc.; by hardness and softness; according to the participation of the palatine curtain: nasal - [m, n] and oral [b and n].
Sounds are encoded in writing by letters. For example, the sound [a] is indicated on the letter by the letter I in the word ball and letter a in the word cancer.
In modern Russian, there are 10 vowels, 21 consonants and 2 letters that do not represent sounds.
There are 4 varieties in the style of letters: printed and handwritten. and sleeping, each of which can be uppercase and lowercase. The difference between printed and handwritten letters is connected only with the technique of writing, while uppercase and lowercase differ in lexico-syntactic meaning.
Taking into account the functions, the letters are divided into vowels: neotovanny, which serve as a means of indicating the hardness of consonants (a, o, u, e, s), and iotated, used to encode softness (i, e, i, e, u), consonants: paired by hardness-softness (15 pairs) - b, c, d, e, h, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, f, x and denoting unpaired solids - w, w, c and unpaired soft - h, w.
Letters have main (nuclear) and secondary (peripheral) meanings. With the main value, reading a letter outside a word and reading in a word are the same: with hell -with hells,with to nag. With a secondary meaning, the reading of a letter in a word and outside it is different: with beat.
The use of letters in the main meaning is governed by the rules of graphics, in the secondary meaning - by the rules of spelling.
Different letters can mean the same sound: [water] and [here] - the sound [t]. One letter can represent two sounds: letters i, e, e, u after vowels - [maya], at the beginning of a word - [yablk], after dividing characters - [l, yot].
The letter may not represent a sound. These are b, b.
In addition to the principles mentioned above, the syllabic principle also operates in Russian graphics.
In writing, paired soft and hard consonants and the vowels following them are interdependent: on the one hand, the nature of the consonant phoneme determines the vowel following it for the writer; on the other hand, it is important for the reader to take into account the vowel following the consonant. Thus, the unit of writing and reading in Russian is not a single letter, but a syllable. The syllabic principle of Russian graphics is used to designate paired hard and soft consonants that have one row of consonant letters, in contrast to paired voiced and deaf consonants that have two rows of consonants: b-p, v-f and etc.
The softness of consonants in writing is indicated by letters b (stump), i, e, e, u, and (row, chalk, chalk, hatch, twist), the hardness of consonants in writing is conveyed by letters oh, uh, y, s, a (glad, bow, son, dream).
The sound nature of our writing determines the greatest optimality of the sound method of teaching literacy. The sound method more fully than others takes into account the sound laws of the Russian language. First of all, this is expressed in the order in which sounds and letters are studied, in the sequence in which syllabic structures are introduced, in the choice for initial reading and writing of those syllables whose sounds are mostly in a strong position and therefore have the simplest relationship with letters.
The main provisions of phonetics and graphics, as well as the psychology of mastering the initial skills of reading and writing, constitute the scientific basis on which the methodological principles of teaching literacy are built.
The process of teaching literacy takes into account not only the psychological characteristics of those who begin to master written speech, but also the specifics of speech itself and, in particular, its writing. In other words, literacy training can be successful if the methodology also takes into account the linguistic laws of the language and, above all, those that are characteristic of Russian phonetics and graphics. Let's consider the main ones.
Russian writing is sound. The main phonemes of the sound composition of speech are transmitted using special letters or their combinations. Yes, in a word horse sounds [k] and [o] are encoded by the corresponding letters k and o, and the soft consonant [n "] is encoded by the combination of letters n and b.
Speech sounds are “an element of spoken speech, formed by speech organs. With the phonetic articulation of speech, a sound is a part of a syllable, the shortest, then indivisible sound unit, pronounced in one articulation.
A phoneme is a unit of the sound system of a language that distinguishes the word forms of a given language and is represented in speech by one or more sounds that are its allophones. In the word [m'lako], the phoneme [o] is represented as allophones [b], [a], [o].
Phonemes are strong and weak. A strong phoneme is in a strong position, in which it has the maximum distinctiveness. Strong position for vowels - under stress [water] - Strong position for paired voiced and deaf consonants - before a vowel [sleep], before a sonorant consonant [fir trees], before consonants c, th[own], [vyot]. A strong position for paired hard and soft consonants is before a vowel, except for [e] [small - m "al]; at the end of the word [m" el - m "el"]; in the middle of a word before a consonant [I'm afraid - ban "k'].
A weak phoneme is in a weak position, in which it has less distinctive ability. For vowels, the weak position is without stress [vada]. For voiced-voiced, hard-soft consonants, all positions are weak, except for those listed above.
A weak phoneme is a variant of a strong (basic) phoneme. The alternation of strong and weak phonemes forms a phonemic row. In the word [vodavos], the vowel [o] is in a strong position under stress, and in unstressed syllables - in a weak position. Phonemic row - [o] - [a] - [b]. In the words [labor] - [tinder] - [labor "yin] the consonant [d] forms a phonemic series [d] - [t] - [d"].
The phoneme is realized in the speech stream in speech sounds (allophones) - vowels and consonants.
Vowels are called sounds that are formed in the larynx, are syllable-forming; when pronouncing them, the air stream does not encounter obstacles. There are 6 vowel sounds in Russian.
Consonants are called sounds that are formed in the oral or nasal cavity with the help of voice and noise (or only noise), are not syllable-forming; when they are pronounced, the air stream meets an obstacle. The number of consonants has not yet been agreed upon by the various phonetic schools. In school practice, the number 37 is most often called.
So, consonants are characterized by the following parameters: the participation of voice and noise: noisy (voiced and deaf) - [b], [f], [p], [c], etc. and sonorants - [p], [l], [ m], [n]; according to the method of formation: explosive - [b], [p], [d], [t], [g], [k], slotted - [c], [f], [s], [h], [w ], [g], [u], [x], [th], trembling - [p], affricates - [c], [h]; lock-through - [m], [n], [l]; according to the place of formation: labial - [b], [n], [m] and lingual - [d], [t], [g], etc.; by hardness and softness: [b], [b "], [p], [p"], etc .; according to the participation of the palatine curtain: nasal - [m], [n] and oral - [b] and [n].
Sounds are encoded in writing by letters. For example, the sound [a] is indicated on the letter by the letter I in the word ball and letter a in the word cancer.
In modern Russian, there are 10 vowels, 21 consonants and 2 letters that do not represent sounds.
In the style of letters, there are 4 varieties: printed and handwritten, each of which can be uppercase and lowercase. The difference between printed and handwritten letters is connected only with the technique of writing, while uppercase and lowercase differ in lexical-syntactic meaning.
Taking into account the functions, the letters are divided into vowels: non-vowels, which serve as a means of indicating the hardness of consonants (ah, oh, uh, uh, s) and iotated, used to encode softness (i, yo, i, e, yu), consonants: paired in hardness-softness (15 pairs) - b, c, d, e, h, k, l, m, c, p, r, s, t, f, hya denoting unpaired solids - w, w, c and unpaired soft - h, sh.
Letters have main (nuclear) and secondary (peripheral) meanings. With the main value, reading a letter outside a word and reading in a word are the same: garden - gardens, cut down. With a secondary meaning, the reading of a letter in a word and outside it is different: water, knock down.
The use of letters in the main meaning is regulated by the rules of graphics, in a secondary meaning - by the rules of spelling.
Different letters can represent the same sound: [water] and [here] - the sound [t]. One letter can represent two sounds: letters i, e, e, u after vowels - [maya], at the beginning of a word - [yablk], after separators - [l "yot].
The letter may not represent a sound. These are b, b.
In addition to the principles mentioned above, the syllabic principle also operates in Russian graphics.
In writing, paired hard and soft consonants and the vowels following them are mutually conditioned: on the one hand, the nature of the consonant phoneme determines the vowel that follows it for the writer; on the other hand, it is important for the reader to take into account the vowel following the consonant. Thus, the unit of writing and reading in Russian is not a single letter, but a syllable. The syllabic principle of Russian graphics is used to designate paired hard and soft consonants that have one row of consonant letters, in contrast to paired voiced and deaf consonants that have two rows of consonants: b - p, c - f and etc.
The softness of consonants in writing is indicated by letters b (stump), i, e, e, u, and (row, chalk, chalk, hatch, twist), the hardness of consonants in writing is conveyed by letters oh, uh, y, s, a (glad, bow, son, dream).
The sound nature of our writing determines the greatest optimality of the sound method of teaching literacy. The sound method more fully than others takes into account the sound laws of the Russian language. First of all, this is expressed in the order in which sounds and letters are studied, in the sequence in which syllabic structures are introduced, in the choice for initial reading and writing of those syllables whose sounds are mostly in a strong position and therefore have the simplest relationship with letters.
The main provisions of phonetics and graphics, as well as the psychology of mastering the initial skills of reading and writing, constitute the scientific basis on which the methodological principles of teaching literacy are built.
Questions and tasks for self-examination
1. Define the concepts of strong and weak phonemes, phonemic series.
2. What features underlie the distinction between vowels and consonants?
3. Which of the groups of consonants have a duration of sound?
4. What is the main and secondary meaning of the letter? The laws of what sciences of language govern the use of letters in writing?
5. What is the essence of the syllabic principle of Russian graphics?
Education at school begins with elementary reading and writing. Based on the Primer, the school should teach children to read and write within 3-3.5 months; in the future, the ability to read and write is improved, skills are strengthened, and the degree of their automation is growing. The way in which this initial literacy training is organised, to a large extent, determines the further success of the school.
Reading and writing skills are speech skills, just like reading and writing are types of human speech activity. Both the skill of reading and the skill of writing are formed in inseparable unity with other types of speech activity - with oral statements, with listening - auditory perception of someone else's speech, with inner speech. Human speech activity is impossible and loses all meaning without a need (motive); it is impossible without a clear understanding of the content of speech by the speaker or listener. Being the reality of thought, speech is essentially the opposite of everything that is satisfied with mechanical memorization, memorization.
Consequently, both the teaching of elementary reading and writing (teaching literacy) and the development of these skills should be built in such a way that the activities of schoolchildren are caused by motives and needs that are close and understandable to children.
Of course, children should also be aware of the distant goal - "to learn to read"; but the immediate goal is also absolutely necessary: to read the answer to the riddle; find out what is written under the picture; read the word so that your comrades can hear you; learn the letter to read the word (the rest of the letters are known); write down a word according to observations, according to a picture, a riddle to a riddle, etc.
But we must not forget that for younger students, motives may be present in the very process of activity. So, A. N. Leontiev wrote: “For a child playing with blocks, the motive of the game lies not in making a building, but in making it, that is, in the content of the action itself.” This is said about the preschooler, but the younger schoolchild still differs little in this respect from the preschooler, the methodology should provide for motives both in the process of reading and writing, and not only in their perspective.
Understanding what children read and what they write is also the most important condition for successful literacy education. In writing, understanding, awareness of meaning precedes action; in reading, it is derived from the action of reading.
Therefore, literacy training involves a variety of types of speech and mental activity: live conversations, stories, observations, guessing riddles, retelling, recitation, playback of sound recordings, film diai, television broadcast. These types of work contribute to the creation of speech situations that comprehend the processes of reading and writing.
A skill cannot be formed without repeated repetition of actions. Therefore, when learning to read and write, you need to read and write a lot. New texts are taken for both reading and writing: repeated rereading of the same text is not justified, does not meet the principle of motivating speech activity, and often leads to mechanical memorization of the text being read. In addition, changing situations and content in repeated actions help to strengthen the skill, develop the ability to transfer actions.
In our time, reading and writing are not something special, accessible only to the elite, as was believed a century ago. Both reading and writing have become inalienable skills of every person, and one who cannot read or write is surprising. Therefore, it is very important that the student, from the first days in the first grade, feel the naturalness of mastering literacy, imbued with confidence in success. K. D. Ushinsky wrote about children who are silent for months in the classroom; now there are no such children. But many children still have to overcome a certain "psychological barrier" on the way to the skill of reading: reading and writing seem to them something very difficult. In literacy lessons, an optimistic, cheerful atmosphere should reign, excluding suppression, humiliation of those who do not yet read. It is no coincidence that in the first quarter of the first year of study it is forbidden to give grades to students.
What is the essence of reading, what is its mechanism?
All information that a person uses in his activities is encoded; this means that each unit of value corresponds to a conventional sign, or code unit. Oral speech uses a sound code, or our sound language, in which the meaning of each word is encoded in a certain complex of speech sounds; in writing, another code is used - an alphabetic one, in which the letters are correlated with the sounds of the first, oral, sound code. The transition from one code to another is called transcoding.
The reading mechanism consists in recoding printed (or written) signs and their complexes into semantic units, into words; writing, on the other hand, is a process of recoding the semantic units of our speech into conventional signs or their complexes, which can be written or printed.
If Russian writing were ideographic, then each sign, or ideogram, would be recoded directly into a semantic unit, or into a word, into a concept; accordingly, when writing, each word would be encoded using an ideogram. But our writing is sound, therefore, the process of recoding is complicated by the need for an intermediate stage - the translation of graphic characters into sounds, i.e. the need for a sound-letter analysis of words: when writing, sounds are recoded into letters, when reading, on the contrary, letters - into sounds.
At first glance, sound writing complicates the process of reading; in fact, it simplifies, since the number of letters needed for the conversion process is quite small compared to the number of ideograms, and it is enough to master the system of rules for the relationship of sounds and letters in order to learn how to read and write.
By the way, the above view of the process of reading and writing necessitates unity in teaching these two skills: direct recoding and reverse must alternate and go in parallel.
Recoding, which is mentioned above, is the main subject of the methodology for teaching literacy, so the methodology cannot but take into account the peculiarities of the sound and graphic systems of the Russian language.
If the Russian letter were ideographic, then each sign (ideogram) would be recoded directly into a semantic unit (word or concept); accordingly, when writing, the word would be encoded using an ideogram. But our writing is sound, therefore, there is a need for an intermediate stage - the translation of graphic characters into sounds when reading or sounds into letters
when writing.
Russian writing - sound (phonemic). This means that each basic sound (phoneme) in the graphic system of the language has its own sign - a letter (grapheme). Therefore, the methodology for teaching literacy is based on phonetic and graphic systems. (phonetics and graphics).
The teacher must know which sound units perform a semantic function (i.e., they are phonemes) and which ones do not perform such a function (variants of the main phonemes in
weak positions).
In a modern school, a sound method of teaching literacy has been adopted, involving the isolation of sound in a word, sound analysis, synthesis, and assimilation of a letter. and reading process.
Russian graphics are based on syllable principle, which consists in the fact that a single letter (grapheme) cannot be read, since it is read taking into account subsequent letters. Therefore, in the modern methodology of teaching literacy, there is prin syllable (positional) reading cycle, in which children from the very beginning are guided by an open syllable as a unit of reading. Open syllables are characteristic of the Russian language. The construction of a syllable is in most cases subordinated to the law of ascending sonority.
Syllable represents several sounds uttered by one expiratory push. The basis of the syllable is the vowel sound. The structure of the syllable can be different: SG (open), HS(zach dug), type CGS, as well as the same types with a confluence of consonants: SSG, SSSG, etc. (C - consonant, G - vowel).
Mastering the rules of graphics is a necessary condition for writing, but not sufficient. Living phonetic processes lead to the fact that there is often a discrepancy between the word spoken and written. This happens when the phonemes are in weak positions. To designate a weak position with a letter, you need to determine which phoneme this sound belongs to, and then designate it. The letter for the sound corresponding to the strong position of the phoneme is chosen according to the rules of graphics. For the sound representing the weak position of the phoneme, according to the rules op photographs.
The basis of learning to read is also orthoepy, the norms of which are difficult for children to remember immediately, and even more so to fulfill. Therefore, at the initial stages, a double reading is recommended: spelling, and then orthoepic.
For normal reading, it is also necessary to learn some cases of punctuation: period, question and exclamation marks, comma, colon, dash.
4. Psychological foundations of the methodology for teaching literacy
Reading and writing are difficult mental processes. An experienced reader has a so-called "reading field", i.e. can visualize a significant part of the text (2-3 words). In this case, the reader recognizes the words by their general form. And only unfamiliar words an adult reads by syllables.
"Reading Field" the novice reader is limited: it covers only one letter, and in order to recognize it, it is often necessary to compare it with others. Reading a letter makes the child want to immediately name the sound, but the teacher requires to read the whole syllable, so you have to read the next letter, keeping the previous one in your memory, merge two or three sounds and reproduce the combination that makes up a single sound structure of a syllable or word. And here for many children lie considerable difficulties. To read, you need to make as many acts of perception and recognition as there are letters in a syllable, syllables in a word.
In addition, the eyes of a novice reader often lose the line, since the eye is not accustomed to moving strictly parallel to the line. A first-grader does not always understand what he read, so he repeats syllables or words two or more times. Sometimes a child tries to guess a word from the first syllable, from a picture, or from context. All these difficulties gradually disappear as the "field of reading" increases.
Letter - complex speech action. An adult writes without noticing elementary actions, automatically. For a first-grader, this process breaks up into many independent actions. He must follow the position of the pen and notebook, remember the written letter corresponding to the sound or printed letter, place it on the line, connect it with others. This not only slows down the pace of writing, but also exhausts the child mentally and physically. In this regard, special exercises for the arms and body should be carried out in the lessons, and writing should be alternated with oral exercises.
Successful learning to read and write requires extensive and systematic development work. phonemic hearing, those. the ability to distinguish between individual sounds in a speech stream, to isolate a sound from a word or syllable. Phonemic hearing is necessary not only for learning to read and write, but also for subsequently developing spelling skills. The development of phonemic hearing is facilitated by the sound analysis of words, the establishment of a sequence of sounds in a word, exercises in listening, hearing and “recognizing” a phoneme in a strong and weak position.
A psychological study of the process of reading and writing a beginner shows that the child relies on speaking aloud in syllables for a long time. He can hear the sounds uttered by the teacher, but, moving on to writing down the word, he helps himself by his own pronunciation and listening to it. Progo boiling when writing is called motor speech analysis. The teacher needs to exercise children in the correct pronunciation of words in syllables when compiling and writing them. The child must learn to pronounce each word in syllables, while listening to its sound, trying to catch every sound of the word and the order of sounds.
units: Literacy education.
Plan:
1. Characteristics of the speech of children entering school.
2. Psychological and pedagogical foundations of the methodology of speech of children with speech and intellectual disorders.
3. Linguistic foundations of the methodology for teaching literacy.
Basic concepts: literacy training, elementary reading and writing skills, types of speech activity, phoneme, phonemic hearing, sound, letter, consonants and vowels.
1 . Each language, as shown by linguistic studies (N. Trubetskoy, R. Jacobson, M. Galle, etc.), has its own phonemic system, where certain sound features act as signal, semantic (phonemes), while other sound features remain insignificant (options). The entire sound structure of a language is determined by a system of contrasts (oppositions), where a difference in even one attribute changes the meaning of the spoken word.
Differentiation of speech sounds, both during perception and pronunciation, occurs on the basis of highlighting signal features and distinguishing them from non-essential ones that do not have phonemic meaning.
Difficulties in the development of sound differentiation in children are most often manifested in the replacement of one sound with another when pronouncing and mixing sounds, which will interfere with the mastery of the sound side when learning to read and write.
Along with the shortcomings of the pronunciation of sounds, some children also have violations of the pronunciation of the syllabic structure of the word: omissions of syllables, additions, permutations. Basically, students skip the unstressed part of a word or a consonant sound in words with a confluence of two or more consonants ("stars" - a star, "kadashi" - pencils). Sometimes you can also observe extra syllables in a word ("numerator" - a cleaner, "cosmonaut" - an astronaut), a rearrangement of sounds and syllables ("tree" - a door, "cosmonaut"
Cosmonaut), etc.
These pronunciation errors indicate insufficient phonemic development of the student, that is, that the child at preschool age did not do the necessary cognitive work to isolate individual sounds from living speech, to correlate them with each other. If speech therapy assistance was not provided to such a child in a timely manner, he will not be able to fully acquire literacy in the future. Thus, the violations of writing and reading that occur in such cases should be considered as the result of insufficient formation of the sound side of speech.
As you know, for the development of written speech, a conscious analysis of the sounds that make it up is important. However, in order to designate this or that sound as a letter when writing, it is necessary not only to separate it from the word, but also to generalize the selected sound into a stable phoneme based on its auditory pronunciation differentiation. The ability to isolate phonemes from a word and differentiate them correctly is one of the necessary conditions for the development of sound analysis.
For correct sound analysis, another condition is also necessary - the ability to imagine the sound composition of the word as a whole, and then, analyzing it, isolate the sounds, preserving their sequence and quantity in the word. Sound analysis, as D. B. Elkonin emphasizes, is nothing more than the mastery of a certain educational operation, a mental action "to establish the sequence of sounds in a word." The formation of this educational action occurs gradually and requires activity and consciousness from the child. Thus, the ability to freely and consciously navigate in the sound composition of a word presupposes a sufficient level of development of a child's phonemic representation and mastery of a certain educational action.
It has been established that pronunciation deficiencies in children are often accompanied by difficulties in the sound analysis of a word: they hardly distinguish sounds from the analyzed word, they do not always clearly enough differentiate the selected sound by ear, mix it with acoustically paired, cannot compare the sound composition of words that differ only in one sound, etc. For example, the word hat is analyzed by them as follows: "sy, a, py, a". Tasks to choose words for a certain sound or select pictures whose names begin with a given sound are performed by such students with typical mistakes. These difficulties associated with insufficient discrimination of sounds similar in acoustic-articulatory features are characteristic of children with phonemic underdevelopment and almost never occur in children with normal speech development. The latter experience certain difficulties only in mastering the learning action of determining the sequence and number of sounds in the analyzed word.
As for students with phonemic underdevelopment, they, to a much greater extent than students with normal speech development, make mistakes in determining the order of sounds in a word, skip individual sounds, insert extra ones, rearrange sounds and syllables. And at the same time, such children will definitely make mistakes in replacing sounds. So the word door will be analyzed by them as t ... ve ... r or in ... de ... l.
The lower the level of practical generalizations of the sound composition of a word, the more difficult it is to form the skills of sound analysis, the greater the difficulties schoolchildren experience in teaching writing and reading.
In the written work of all children with phonemic underdevelopment, regardless of the degree of mastery of the corresponding skill, there are specific (in the special literature they are often called dysgraphic) errors in the replacement and mixing of letters. The replacement and mixing of letters corresponding to the sounds of one specific group are the result of insufficient assimilation of the system of signs necessary to distinguish between similar sounds within certain groups. Such errors in speech therapy are considered to be diagnostic, since they indicate the unformed sound oppositions necessary for correct discrimination in children sounds.
However, it should be remembered that errors in writing do not always correspond to errors in pronunciation. In some cases, there is a direct relationship - in the letter, the letter is replaced, the corresponding sound of which is defective in pronunciation. In other cases, there is no such direct relationship. Often, sounds that are correctly pronounced are written incorrectly by the corresponding letter, and vice versa. There is a general pattern of violations in written speech, namely: the incorrect pronunciation of one sound can manifest itself when writing with multiple substitutions. This is due to the fact that a defective sound often turns out to be insufficiently opposed to other sounds that are similar in acoustic or articulation properties in a number of ways.
Along with specific errors, there are also such as omissions of letters, additions, permutations, replacement of letters by graphic similarity. In some children, pronunciation deficiencies may already be smoothed out and invisible by the time they study at school (both due to spontaneous compensation and under the influence of speech therapy classes), and the formation of phonemic representations underlying sound analysis may still lag far behind the norm. This indicates the unpreparedness of the child for linguistic observations, comparisons, generalizations.
Thus, the presence of specific errors (replacement of letters) when writing in children who do not have pronounced defects in the pronunciation of sounds indicates that phonemic difficulties are more persistent than pronunciation ones.
There is a close connection and interdependence between violations of oral speech, writing and reading. Unformed ideas about the sound composition of the word leads not only to specific violations of writing, but also to peculiar reading disorders. Reading disorders extend both to ways of mastering reading and to the pace of reading, and sometimes to reading comprehension. Children with speech impediments often use letter-by-letter guessing reading instead of fluent syllabic reading. In doing so, they make a wide variety of mistakes.
Among the most specific mistakes in reading (as well as writing) is the replacement of some letters by others. Basically, letters are replaced, the corresponding sounds of which are either not pronounced at all, or are pronounced incorrectly. Sometimes letters are also replaced, which indicate correctly pronounced sounds. In this case, the errors can be unstable: under some circumstances, the letters are replaced, under others they are read correctly. Along with letters, whole syllables are replaced.
As you know, at the beginning of learning to read, the recognition of a letter and the sound associated with it plays a decisive role, and later the reading skill turns into visual recognition of the sound image of syllables, whole words, and sometimes even phrases that have already developed in the process of oral communication. The child correlates letters with these images and thanks to this he understands what is being read. If a child does not have clear ideas about the sound composition of a word, about what sound elements a syllable or a word consists of, it is difficult for him to form generalized sound-syllabic images. As a result, he cannot combine sounds into syllables by analogy with already learned, easier syllables and recognize them.
For correct visual perception and recognition of a syllable or word when reading, it is necessary that the sound composition be clear enough and that the child be able to correctly pronounce each sound included in it. T. G. Egorov emphasizes that overcoming the difficulties of merging sounds largely depends on the development of the child’s oral speech: the better children speak oral speech, the easier it is for them to pronounce the merging of the sounds of the word being read. In children, sound images of syllables and words in their generalized sound-letter designation are easily created in the process of learning.
Reading in children with phonemic underdevelopment is also characterized by a slow pace, as they often get stuck on reading individual letters, individual parts of a word or a whole word in order to correctly correlate a letter with the corresponding sound or comprehend what is being read.
Deficiencies in mastering the technique of reading also affect reading comprehension. These two aspects of the reading process are inextricably linked.
Those students of grade I (especially at the beginning of the school year) who have not previously received speech therapy assistance, the most pronounced lack of formation of the oral form of speech, and above all its sound side (including phonemic processes). Such children have pronounced pronunciation deficiencies (up to 10 - 12 sounds of various oppositional groups), unformed phonemic processes (auditory perception, auditory memory, etc.). Their vocabulary is limited to everyday topics and is qualitatively inferior. This is evidenced by the children's insufficient understanding of the meanings of many words and numerous errors in the process of their use. The grammatical structure also turns out to be insufficiently formed. The latter is manifested in the presence of agrammatisms in common sentences and errors in the construction of sentences of complex syntactic constructions.
2 . Literacy is the first stage of schooling for children, during which they must develop basic reading and writing skills.
Being separate types of speech activity, reading and writing are complex processes that consist of numerous operations.
A normal child in most cases is prepared for the beginning of schooling. He has well-developed phonemic hearing and visual perception, oral speech is formed. He owns the operations of analysis and synthesis at the level of perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. In addition, in the process of developing oral speech, a preschooler accumulates the experience of pre-grammatical language generalizations, or the so-called sense of language at the level of “indistinct awareness” (the term of S.F. Zhuikov 1).
The readiness of the sensorimotor and mental spheres of a child with normal development for learning to read and write creates the conditions for the fastest mastery of the necessary operations and actions that underlie reading and writing skills.
First-graders of a mass school quite successfully switch from letter-by-letter reading to syllable-by-syllable, which, in turn, leads to a faster formation of skills in reading words and understanding their meaning. Already at this stage, the phenomenon of semantic conjecture arises in schoolchildren, when, after reading a syllable, they try to comprehend and pronounce the word as a whole, since the motor speech patterns that appeared during the training are associated with certain words. True, as yet a guess does not always lead to accurate recognition. The correctness of reading is violated and there is a need to re-perceive the syllabic structure of the word. However, the emerging trend towards semantic conjecture indicates the emergence of a new, higher level of reading comprehension.
Somewhat more slowly, but quite progressively, the technique of writing is also being improved. Moreover, syllable spelling reading has a positive effect on graphic and spelling skills, creating a proactive basis for competent writing even before learning spelling rules.
Violation of the activity of analyzers and mental processes in mentally retarded children leads to the inferiority of the psychophysiological basis for the formation of written speech. Therefore, first-graders experience difficulties in mastering all the operations and actions that are included in the processes of reading and writing.
The greatest difficulties in mastering the skills of reading and writing by children of this contingent are associated with impaired phonemic hearing and sound analysis and synthesis. First-graders have difficulty in differentiating acoustically similar phonemes and therefore do not memorize letters well, since each time they correlate a letter with different sounds. In other words, there is a violation of the system of transcoding and encoding a letter into sound and sound into a letter.
The imperfection of analysis and synthesis leads to difficulties in dividing a word into its constituent parts, identifying each sound, establishing the sound range of a word, mastering the principle of merging two or more sounds into a syllable, and recording in accordance with the principles of Russian graphics.
Violation of pronunciation exacerbates the shortcomings of phonetic analysis. If in children with normal development, incorrect pronunciation of sounds does not always lead to inferiority of auditory perception and incorrect choice of letters, then in mentally retarded schoolchildren, impaired pronunciation is, in most cases, impaired perception of sound and its incorrect translation into a grapheme.
Many studies related to the state of sound analysis and synthesis in normal children and those with mental retardation have shown that a normal child with impaired pronunciation skills retains the focus of cognitive activity on the sound side of speech and interest in it.
Another picture is observed in mentally retarded children: they have no interest in the sound shell of the word. Comprehension of the sound structure of the word does not manifest itself even when the experimenter specifically directs the attention of schoolchildren to the sound analysis of the word. So, to the question: “The boy said “oshka”. What is his mistake? - mentally retarded students could not give the correct answer, although the picture with the painted cat was in front of their eyes. Misunderstanding that a word is not only the name of an object, but also a certain sound-letter complex, delays the process of mastering literacy, since the performance of the acts of writing and reading presupposes the obligatory combination of two operations: understanding the meaning of the word and its sound-letter analysis - before recording; perception of the letters of the word and awareness of its semantics - when reading.
“Children cannot understand,” writes V.G. Letrova - that every word consists of combinations of the very letters that they teach. Letters for a long time remain for many students something that should be remembered as such, regardless of the words denoting familiar objects and phenomena. .
Inferiority of visual perception prevents a sufficiently quick and accurate memorization of the graphic image of a letter, its differentiation from similar graphemes, establishing correspondence between printed and written, uppercase and lowercase versions of each letter. The spatial limitation of the field of vision, the slowness of mental activity for a long time bind mentally retarded first-graders to letter-by-letter reading. Even when the child has already mastered the principle of merging a consonant and a vowel, he continues to read each letter separately and only then calls the syllable.
The formation of motor operations plays an important role in the development of initial writing skills. The lack of general motor coordination of actions in a mentally retarded child, which manifests itself especially clearly in the movements of the small muscles of the hand, is another obstacle in the formation of writing skills. Muscular tension of the hand, accompanying movements of the neck and head, increasing tremors quickly deplete the nervous and physical strength of children, lead to a decrease in attention and the appearance of errors in the inscription of letters, in the combination of one grapheme with another, etc. Difficulties are also caused by the development of calligraphy skills in first graders.
In addition to general shortcomings that should be taken into account when organizing the teaching of literacy to mentally retarded children, there are typological and individual characteristics that are characteristic of groups of students or individual students.
In a special (correctional) school there are children with severe speech disorders; with more complex deficiencies in visual-spatial orientation, due to which for a long time they do not learn the configuration of letters or mirror images of graphemes in writing; with a persistent decrease in working capacity, a low level of mental activity. All this creates additional difficulties in mastering the skills of writing and reading by such first graders.
To work with such groups of children, additional methods are needed, aimed primarily at correcting existing shortcomings and oriented towards longer periods of study. The combination of frontal work with a differentiated and individual approach is the key to the successful implementation of program requirements.
3. Education at school begins with elementary reading and writing. The further success of the child in school depends on how the initial teaching of reading and writing is organized. The section of the methodology for teaching the Russian language, which deals with the methodology for the formation of initial reading and writing skills, is called the methodology for teaching literacy. The main objects of this section are speech activity and speech skills.
Reading and writing – types of speech activity, a reading and writing skills- This speech skills. They are formed in an inseparable unity with other types of speech activity - speaking, listening and inner speech.
Any speech action involves the presence of several components:
The one who speaks;
The one to whom the statement is addressed;
The motive of one is to speak, and the other is to listen.
Thus, speech activity is impossible without a need (motive) and without a clear understanding of the content of speech. Consequently, literacy training and the development of these skills should be built in such a way that the activities of schoolchildren are caused by motives and needs that are close and understandable to children. At the same time, they contribute to the creation of speech situations that comprehend the processes of reading and writing. However, a skill cannot be formed without repeated repetition of actions, therefore, when learning to read and write, one must read and write a lot. To do this, they use different texts, which contributes to a change in situations and content, develop the ability to transfer actions.
All information that a person uses in his activity is encoded. Reading and writing mechanism consists of transcoding printed or written characters into semantic units, into words and, conversely, when writing - semantic units - into conventional signs.
Linguistic Foundations of Literacy :
Russian writing is sound, or rather phonemic. This means that each sound of speech (phoneme) has its own sign (grapheme). When teaching schoolchildren to read and write, one should take into account which sound units in the Russian language perform a semantic function and are phonemes (in a strong position), and which ones do not perform such a function and act as variants of phonemes in weak positions.
The phoneme is realized in the speech stream in the sounds of speech - vowels and consonants. The number of consonants in Russian is 37, and vowels - 6.
Sounds are encoded in writing by letters. The number of vowels is 10, and consonants - 21, which does not correlate with the number of phonemes and causes difficulties in learning to read and write.
Most Russian consonants are hard and soft. The designation of the softness of consonants when writing and reading is another difficulty in teaching literacy.
In our language, there are letters that, when read, give two sounds, which should also be taken into account when teaching first-graders to read and write.
As already noted, sounds in the Russian language are in strong and weak positions. The discrepancy between the letter and sound should be taken into account in the methodology of teaching literacy.
All letters of the Russian alphabet are used in four versions: printed and written, uppercase and lowercase. At the same time, they differ in spelling, which makes it difficult for first-graders to memorize them. In addition, for reading it is necessary to learn some punctograms: a period, question and exclamation marks, a comma, a dash, a colon. All this causes certain difficulties in teaching children to read.
Russian graphics are based on syllabic principle. It consists in the fact that a single letter, as a rule, cannot be read without taking into account subsequent ones. So the basic unit of reading is the syllable, and in the methodology of teaching literacy adopted principle of syllabic (positional) reading, i.e. children should learn to immediately focus on the syllable as a unit of reading.
Of no small importance for solving methodological issues is syllable division. The selection of syllables and their reading is another difficulty in teaching literacy.