Reading and writing disorders in local brain lesions. Reading and writing disorder

Along with the pathology of oral speech, there are also violations of written speech. These are writing and reading disorders. It is clear that not a single child can learn at once, all of a sudden, absolutely correctly to read and write. All children go through a stage of initial learning, in which they have more or less mistakes. But we are not talking about such mistakes - regular, natural - when they mean pathology.

As you know, children with normal speech throughout the entire preschool age learn the necessary vocabulary, master grammatical forms, acquire a readiness to master the sound and morphemic analysis of words. However, in children with various forms of speech pathology, there is a lag in the development of these processes.

As studies by R. Elevina, N. Nikashina, L. F. Spirova and others show, the readiness for sound analysis in preschool speech pathologists is almost two times worse than in normally speaking children. Therefore, children with various speech disorders are usually not able to fully master writing and reading in a mass school.

Children with writing disabilities often write in such a way that, without knowing what is dictated to them, it is impossible to read what is written. For example: "chips" (tongs), "sukli" (stockings), "devaska on ya" (girl Nadia), "bow" (hand) (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. An example of impaired writing in a child with general underdevelopment of speech

Since writing and reading are closely related, writing disorders are usually accompanied by reading disorders. In order to control his writing, the child must read what is written, and, conversely, when reading, he uses the text written by him or another person.

The pathology of writing is denoted by the following terms: agraphia (from the Greek a - a particle meaning negation, grapho - I write) - a complete inability to assimilate writing and dysgraphia (from the Greek dis - a prefix meaning disorder, grapho - I write) - a specific violation of writing.

The disadvantages of reading are called alexia (from the Greek a - a particle meaning negation, and lego - I read) - a complete inability to master reading and dyslexia - a specific reading disorder.

It is now established that there are violations of writing and reading. In children, most often they arise as a result of a general underdevelopment of all components of the language: phonetic-phonemic and lexical-grammatical. Dysgraphia and dyslexia occur, as a rule, in children with level III speech development (FOOTNOTE: See Chapter VII of this manual) *, since in severe forms of general speech underdevelopment (I and II levels), they are generally unable to master writing and by reading. To prepare such children for teaching written speech, systematic, over a number of years, classes in the formation of their oral speech are necessary.

This is due to the fact that children do not sufficiently distinguish by ear phonemes that are similar in articulation or acoustic features. In addition, having an extremely limited vocabulary, the child does not understand the meanings of some even the simplest words and therefore distorts them, skips, replaces, mixes them. Insufficient formation of the grammatical structure of speech leads to omissions, substitutions or distortions of prepositions, errors in management, coordination, etc.

However, such a view of the causes of violations of written speech was determined relatively recently. Initially, at the end of the 19th century, the pathology of writing and reading was considered as one of the manifestations of mental retardation (T. Heller, I. Wolf).

Subsequently, the German scientist A. Kussmaul in 1877 abandoned this interpretation and defined writing disorders as an independent anomaly, not associated with a decrease in intelligence.

At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. a new theory appears that explains the defects in writing by the inferiority of visual perception. Proponents of this approach (VMorgan, P. Ranshburg, H. Bashtian, etc.) have designated this defect by the term "congenital verbal blindness". This theory has become widespread both in science and in practice. According to this approach, the method of overcoming the shortcomings of written speech was reduced mainly to exercises in memorizing the styles of letters by copying, cutting out, sawing out, painting over, shading, underlining, modeling from plasticine, etc.

Such a technique, aimed at mechanical training of visual perception, turned out to be ineffective, and violations of writing and reading remained an insurmountable defect for a long time. Then, at the beginning of the XX century. an attempt was made to explain the defects in written speech by violations of other analyzers. In accordance with this, dysgraphia was divided into optical, acoustic, motor, ideomotor (K.Nmonakhov).

However, already at that time, researchers appeared who objected to such an interpretation of dysgraphia, for example, the English scientist S. Orton. He pointed out that in case of inability to write, difficulties are sometimes observed only in relation to individual letters, but he considered the main obstacle to acquiring the skills of correct writing to be the inability to combine letters in a known sequence, to compose words from letters.

Subsequently, in the 30s of the 20th century, a more progressive view of the shortcomings of writing appeared, linking them with defects in pronunciation. This theory belongs to our Soviet scientists FARau, M. ELvattsev, N. N. Traugott, Alyaunberzin and others. According to this theory, dysgraphia is defined as "tongue-tiedness" in writing, as a result of which specific difficulties arise in mastering the letter. It was assumed that when defects in sound pronunciation are corrected, writing disorders also disappear. However, practice has shown that pronunciation correction in most cases does not eliminate writing and reading disorders. In addition, writing disorders were often noted in children who correctly pronounce all sounds. In the studies of R.M.Boskis and R.Elevina, it was suggested that in the vast majority of violations of written speech are a manifestation of underdevelopment of phonemic perception - a reduced ability of children with normal hearing to capture sound relations that make up the system of phonemes of their native language.

So the cause of dysgraphia and dyslexia was put forward and scientifically substantiated - phonemic underdevelopment. This point of view on violations of writing and reading in the future not only received full confirmation, but also developed in subsequent works by R. Elevina, N. Nikashina, L. F. Spirova, G. V. Chirkina, A. V. Yastrebova and others. In the studies of the above specialists, writing and reading disorders are interpreted in accordance with a systematic approach to speech pathology as a manifestation of speech underdevelopment.

The previous tendency - to consider violations of written speech as an independent anomaly, not related to the development of oral speech, was recognized as erroneous. It was also experimentally proved that dysgraphic and dyslexic children have no difficulty in mastering the visual-spatial arrangement of letters in a word, since they all correctly write off the presented texts.

So, it has now been established that writing and reading disorders in children arise as a result of deviations in the development of oral speech: the lack of full development of phonemic perception or, more often, the underdevelopment of all its components (phonetic-phonemic and lexical-grammatical). Such an explanation of the causes of violations of written speech in children was firmly established in Soviet speech therapy. It is also accepted by the majority of foreign researchers (S. Borel-Maisonni, R. Becker, etc.).

Identification of writing and reading disorders

A speech therapy examination of children with dysgraphia and dyslexia should establish:

The degree of assimilation of sound analysis skills;

The degree of assimilation of writing and reading skills;

The state of oral speech in general, i.e. the level of development of the phonetic-phonemic and lexical-grammatical aspects of the language.

One of the conditions for the development of written speech is the ability to consciously analyze and synthesize the sounds that make it up, without which the processes of writing and reading are impossible. Thus, first of all, it is necessary to reveal the child's readiness to analyze verbally the sound composition of words. For this purpose, there are many different methods:

1. Distinguishing and isolating sounds from the composition of a word

First, the ability to isolate vowel sounds is tested. The speech therapist pronounces the sounds a and o loudly and drawlingly. Invites the child to repeat these sounds after him. Then he names the words where these sounds are at the beginning and are under stress (osa, Anya, Alya, Olya, etc.), and the child determines which is the first sound in each word. All other vowel sounds are processed in the same way.

After that, you can invite the child to highlight the consonant sound, first located at the end of the word, then at the beginning.

The speech therapist calls the words, and the child raises his hand if he hears a word ending (beginning) with a given sound.

2. Inventing a child of words that begin with a given sound.

At first, the speech therapist himself names a number of words that begin with some kind of sound, for example: soap, mother, boy, fly, typewriter. And then he asks the child to come up with and name words that begin with the sound sh, then with the sound c, etc.

3. Selection by the child of pictures, the names of which begin with a given sound.

A speech therapist should have several sets of pictures for this purpose. Each such set should contain pictures whose names begin:

From a given sound (pictures that the child will need to select);

From the sounds most often mixed with the given;

From other sounds.

For example, the child must select pictures whose names begin with the sound sh. In this case, he is presented with the following set of pictures: a cup, a bowl, a ball, a fur coat, a hut, a hat, a hat, a scarf, a closet, a heron, teeth, a dog, a beetle, acorns, stockings, a chicken, a chain, a sundress, a bench, a sleigh, a bag , brush, tongs, umbrella, dress, watering can, pencil, table, school, etc.

The child selects only the necessary pictures, and puts the rest aside.

4. The distribution by the child of pictures, the names of which begin with the sounds most often mixed by children.

This technique requires (unlike the previous ones) that all the pictures offered to the child be distributed by him into the appropriate groups.

The child is presented with pictures whose names begin with mixed sounds. For example, a set consists of pictures with objects whose names begin with the sounds s and sh. The child should think carefully and decompose the pictures into two corresponding groups.

5. Comparison of words (paronyms) by sound composition.

The child is presented with a set of pictures, from which he must pick up such pairs, the names of which differ only in one sound, for example: cancer - varnish, beetle - onion, house - lump, poppy - tank, scrap - catfish, goat - braid.

6. Dividing sentences into words, words into syllables, syllables into sounds.

The child is given a sentence and words for analysis, they are asked to count the number of words in the sentence and the sounds in the word; determine what sounds it consists of, what is the sequence of sounds, then name the sounds in order.

Letter survey

The survey starts with the simplest tasks. The most accessible task for a child is to add words from a split alphabet.

The speech therapist shows pictures of objects and adds the corresponding words. At first, to facilitate the task, you can give the child not all the letters of the alphabet, but only those that make up a particular word. For example, if the picture shows a cat, you need to give the child O, T, K. If the task is completed correctly, the child is provided with all the letters of the alphabet.

1. Writing words from pictures.

The child is offered pictures with images of everyday items that are familiar to him. Pictures should be selected so that the words are of varying complexity (a confluence of consonants, a complex syllabic structure, a combination of mixed sounds), for example: a frying pan, a frying pan, a pencil, scissors, a TV, a tape recorder, a pyramid, bagels, skis, skates, a fur coat, an old woman, a grandmother , drying, mushroom, matches, lighter, box, tongs, pincers, stockings, teeth.

The speech therapist gives the task to write the names of the objects shown in the pictures.

2. Writing sentences from pictures.

The child is given first subject pictures, then plot pictures, and finally a series of pictures. He must first make sentences and then write them.

In addition to the techniques listed above, children's writing skills are tested using auditory dictations. Dictations for verification are selected and compiled in such a way that they include words with sounds that are close in sound or similar in articulation. In addition, the dictations offered to children during the examination must meet all the requirements of the school curriculum in the Russian language (and, of course, the age of the child).

Of particular importance is the test of independent writing skills, which makes it possible to identify such errors that cannot be detected when writing from dictation (for example, agrammatism, poor vocabulary, inaccurate use of words and prepositions, etc.). Such independent writing also makes it possible to understand the extent to which the child speaks written language in general.

To test the skills of independent writing, children are offered to describe in detail the plot picture or compose a written story based on a series of paintings. You can ask the child to describe the events of the past day, the past holiday, the movie they watched, the book they read.

When examining writing skills, it is necessary to take into account the nature of the writing process, i.e. can the child immediately spell the word phonetically correctly or pronounce it several times, looking for the desired sound; whether he makes corrections (crosses out, rereads and corrects again) or cannot and does not try to find errors at all, etc.

Particular attention should be paid to specific errors.

Specific typographical errors include the following:

1. Specific phonetic substitutions.

These are errors indicating the insufficiency of distinguishing between sounds belonging to the same group or to different groups that differ in subtle acoustic-articulatory features. This includes the replacement and mixing of letters denoting whistling and hissing sounds, voiced and deaf, soft and hard, r and l; replacement of letters denoting vowel sounds.

2. Violation of the syllabic structure of the word.

This includes errors indicating insufficient clarity of sound analysis, the inability not only to clarify and highlight sounds and words, but also to establish their sequence. This is the omission of individual letters and entire syllables, the rearrangement of letters or syllables, the separate writing of parts of one word and the merging of two words.

3. Grammar errors.

These errors indicate the incompleteness of the process of forming the grammatical design of written speech. These include omission or incorrect use of prepositions, function words, case endings, incorrect word agreement, and management errors. It is the categories of specific errors described above that make it possible to establish dysgraphia in a child, therefore they are considered diagnostic.

In addition to these specific errors, dysgraphics also have others that are characteristic of all children who have not yet developed the skills of correct writing.

Errors associated with dysgraphia include the following:

1. Spelling errors.

Spelling errors in dysgraphics are more numerous than in children who have yet mastered fully literate writing. Moreover, errors predominate in letters denoting unstressed vowels, doubtful or unpronounceable consonants, in writing voiced and deaf sounds at the end of a word, in denoting softening of consonants.

2. Graphic errors.

These are replacements of letters according to graphic similarity (instead of I it is written, Ш and vice versa, instead of L-Mi vice versa, etc.) and on a graphic basis, (instead of B - D and vice versa, instead of T-SH, etc.).

Reading survey

To examine the state of reading in children, specially composed (necessarily in block letters) texts are used. Such reading material should meet the following requirements:

1) the texts should contain as many oppositional letters and syllables as possible;

3) texts should be small in volume;

4) the possibility of using texts familiar to the child should be excluded, i.e. those that he already met at school or at home.

There are many different techniques for examining children's reading, and they should be used in order of gradually increasing complexity, starting with the most elementary. This will allow you to establish with the greatest accuracy what the main difficulties of the child are.

1. Reading individual letters

The speech therapist shows the child the letters of the split alphabet (but one), he calls them. Then the speech therapist asks the child to find some letter among others. Letters for recognition should be called in such an order that they correspond to oppositional phonemes, for example: S-Sh-Ch-Sch-Z-Zh-Ts, R-L, G-K, etc.

2. Reading syllables.

The child is offered syllables that include the corresponding oppositional phonemes (sa-scha, za-zha, tsa-cha, ra-la, etc.). In addition to direct syllables, reverse ones are also presented, as well as syllables with a confluence of consonants. If a child pronounces some sounds incorrectly, they must be included in syllables to check reading. In this case, special attention should be paid to the ability to differentiate sounds.

3. Reading words.

At first, children need to be offered the simplest words for reading (mother, current, scrap, catfish, etc.). Then - more complex in syllabic and morphological composition (mirror, building, sheet, thicket, tongs, birdhouse, matches, etc.).

4. Reading individual sentences and specially selected texts.

When using this technique, in addition to examining the reading process, it is also necessary to check how the child understands what is read. For this purpose, when a child reads individual phrases, you can offer him to choose a picture corresponding to the content of what he read (a boy is skating, an old woman is knitting a stocking, a girl is looking in a mirror, etc.). Questions to the child about what they have read or tasks for retelling are effective. It is also necessary to establish the nature of reading: it is letter-by-letter or syllable-by-syllable.

Particular attention should be paid to the nature of specific dyslexic errors: phoneme substitutions (especially oppositional ones); omissions, permutations and distortions of syllables, word substitutions; agrammatism in reading - in other words, the same errors as in dysgraphia, only they are expressed not in writing, but in reading. It is also important to establish the nature of guessing reading, the pace of reading.

All errors in writing and reading identified during the examination must be carefully analyzed, highlighting specific ones from them. After that, it is necessary to examine the state of the general speech development of the child: sound pronunciation and phonemic perception (FOOTNOTE: for examinations, see Chapter II), as well as vocabulary and the level of formation of the grammatical structure of speech.

Then it is necessary to compare the survey data of all components of oral speech with the errors identified in writing and reading. This will make it possible to establish whether, in each specific case, dysgraphia and dyslexia are the result of a violation of phonemic perception, or whether there is a more serious reason - a general underdevelopment of speech.

It is also necessary to be able to separate true dysgraphia and dyslexia from incorrect writing and reading, caused by a number of reasons, but not due to speech underdevelopment. These reasons include the following: insufficient assimilation of the school curriculum in the native language, pedagogical neglect, and the influence of bilingualism. But in such cases, even if there are a large number of various errors in the writing and reading of the child, there should not be specific errors.

The main directions of corrective work to eliminate violations of writing and reading

At present, it is generally recognized that there is a close relationship between the underdevelopment of oral speech and violations of writing and reading in children. Therefore, to eliminate violations, a unified system of corrective action is needed. This position is also supported by the fact that dysgraphia and dyslexia are not isolated defects, but most often accompany each other. N. Nikashina, L. F. Spirova, R. I. Shuyfer in their works devoted to the problem of overcoming the pathology of written speech in children emphasize that the elimination of shortcomings in oral speech, reading and writing should be carried out in a complex manner.

Such work is usually carried out by a speech therapist at school speech therapy stations in their free time (3-4 times a week). The main directions of speech therapy work:

1. Development of phonemic perception. (On the system of work on the development of phonemic hearing, see Ch.P.) Differentiation of oppositional sounds and syllables is carried out not only by ear, but is also fixed in written speech. The formation of phonemic perception is carried out with the obligatory participation of the speech-motor analyzer as well. Therefore, simultaneously with the development of phonemic hearing, work on sound pronunciation is also carried out.

2. Work on sound pronunciation. First of all, it is necessary to eliminate all the shortcomings in the pronunciation of phonemes (distortion, replacement, lack of sound). Sometimes there are children whose sound pronunciation is preserved. In such cases, one should work out a clearer (almost exaggerated) articulation in order to turn on the motor speech analyzer. In addition, it must be remembered that with impaired phonemic hearing, even preserved sounds cannot be articulated absolutely clearly.

3. Development of sound analysis and synthesis skills. Work on the development of phonemic perception turns into work on the development of sound analysis skills. The latter is always carried out on the material of sounds correctly pronounced by children. The main types of this work are:

a) selection of words from a sentence, syllables from words, and then sounds. Such an analysis should be accompanied by drawing up a diagram of a whole sentence (a long line is a sentence, short lines are words, the smallest lines are syllables, dots are sounds);

b) adding missing letters, syllables;

c) selection of words according to the number of syllables (one-syllable words are written in one column, two-syllable words are written in another, etc.);

d) inventing words for a given sound and recording them, selecting another word with an oppositional sound for each word, etc.

4. Enrichment of vocabulary and development of practical ability to use it. Usually, this stage begins with teaching children different ways of forming new words, for example, the formation of words using various prefixes from the same verb stem (went, came, came, went, passed); with the help of one prefix from different verbal stems (came, brought, flew, flew, ran, etc.). Another type of vocabulary work is the selection of single-root words. Such work dramatically improves the spelling of unstressed vowels, as it makes it easier for the child to select test (single-root) words.

Throughout the classes, the children's vocabulary is expanded, specified, and fixed. The main task is to combine exercises in sound analysis of each word with clarification of its meaning and exercises in writing and reading. A lot of work is being done to enhance vocabulary.

5. Development of grammatical skills. The main tasks of this stage are work on the understanding and use of prepositions, drawing up a sentence based on pictures, series of pictures, spreading and shortening a sentence, etc.

6. Development of coherent speech, both oral and written. Classes to correct writing and reading deficiencies are held throughout the school year. A necessary condition for their effectiveness is the development of written and oral speech.

Correction of shortcomings in writing and reading requires constant systematic studies, takes a lot of time and effort from children, as a result of which overall academic performance may decrease. Therefore, it is much easier and more expedient to prevent writing and reading disorders than to overcome them.

Prevention of writing and reading disorders

One of the necessary conditions for a preventive effect is the early recognition of warning signs of speech underdevelopment.

The key point in determining possible difficulties in writing and reading and in organizing corrective measures is the study of the phonemic development of children with speech pathology.

Based on a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of the role of individual components of speech activity in the structure of various speech defects in the 60s. a special category of preschool children with insufficient prerequisites for learning to write and read was singled out. This category includes children with phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment.

Characteristics of children with phonetic and phonemic underdevelopment

It is known that the most common defect in children of middle and older preschool age is a violation of sound pronunciation (FOOTNOTE: see Ch. "Dyslalia"). This group includes children who have an incorrect pronunciation of individual sounds, one or more groups of sounds (for example, whistling, whistling and hissing; whistling and affricate) with normal physical hearing. A more thorough study of the sound side of the speech of these children shows that in some of them the totality of its elements is unformed - sound pronunciation, the rhythmic-syllabic structure of the word, and the perception of phonemes (speech sounds). The nature of such deviations is a risk factor in relation to mastering the skills of writing and reading.

What is phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment?

Phonetic and phonemic underdevelopment is a violation of the processes of formation of the pronunciation system of the native language in children with various speech disorders due to defects in the perception and pronunciation of phonemes.

It is possible to single out the main manifestations characterizing this state.

1. Undifferentiated pronunciation of pairs or groups of sounds. In these cases, the same sound can serve as a substitute for two or even three other sounds for the child. For example, the soft sound t "is pronounced instead of the sounds s", h, sh ("tyumka", "drag", "chopper" instead of bag, cup, hat).

2. Replacing some sounds with others that have a simpler articulation and therefore present less pronunciation difficulty for the child. Usually, sounds that are difficult to pronounce are replaced by easier ones, which are characteristic of the early period of speech development. For example, the sound l is used instead of the sound p, the sound f is used instead of the sound w. In some children, a whole group of whistling and hissing sounds can be replaced by sounds t and d ("tobacco" instead of dog, etc.).

3. Mixing sounds. This phenomenon is characterized by the unstable use of a number of sounds in various words. The child can use sounds correctly in some words, and in others - replace them with those close in articulation or acoustic features. So, a child, knowing how to pronounce the sounds r, l or s in isolation, in speech utterances says, for example, "Storal is building a plank" instead of a joiner is planing a board.

The noted features can also be combined with other shortcomings of pronunciation: the sound p is throaty, the sound s is dental, lateral, etc.

A similar nature of violations of the sound side of speech should alert the educator and parents, since it indicates the underdevelopment of phonemic hearing (the ability to distinguish between phonemes). There is a system of techniques that help in such cases to determine the degree of its unformedness. These are tasks like:

Determine the difference between the correct and incorrect pronunciation of a sound in one's own and someone else's speech. Quite often, children do not understand the difference between their own incorrect pronunciation and the pronunciation of others. This is due to impaired auditory control;

Play for an adult 3-4 syllable combinations of easy-to-pronounce sounds like pa-po-poo; pa-ba-pa. Difficulties in reproduction are caused by incorrect perception of syllables with oppositional sounds and poor discrimination of the sequence of sounds;

Select a certain sound from the "chain" of sounds (for example, the sound from among the sounds t, c, h, z, s, w, p, etc.);

Select a syllable with a certain sound from a number of syllables (for example, the syllable sa from the syllables za, sha, sa, cha, sha, sa, etc.);

Determine the presence of a sound in a word (for example, a sound with in the words sledge, fur coat, socks, umbrella, nose, shuka).

In such tasks, the child is not required to pronounce a sound, as this can make it difficult for him. It is important to find out the state of perception of speech sounds, so the child reacts with a certain action (raises his hand, chip or picture) if he hears a predetermined sound. These tasks make it possible to determine with great certainty the possibilities of perceiving sounds that are defective in pronunciation.

It is important to pay attention to the state of perception of those sounds that the child pronounces quite correctly. There are frequent cases when the perception of the so-called "preserved" sounds (that is, pronounced in compliance with the necessary articulation pattern) is disturbed or does not develop to the proper degree.

Children in this group, with outwardly successful pronunciation, have significant difficulties in perceiving sounds that, without careful study, may go unnoticed. It is these children who often, unexpectedly for those around them, turn out to be underachieving in writing and reading.

The underdevelopment of phonemic hearing negatively affects the formation of children's readiness for the sound analysis of words. So, children find it difficult:

In the selection of the first vowel, consonant sound (they call either the first syllable, or the whole word);

In the selection of pictures that include a given sound. The set offered to the child includes pictures, in the names of which there is the desired sound - a hat, a cat, a shower; there is no necessary sound - a kidney, a window, a rocket; there is a sound mixed with a given one - boots, a kettle, a brush;

In independent inventing and naming words with a given sound.

Timely identification of children with phonetic and phonemic underdevelopment, conducting specially organized training in a kindergarten allows not only correcting a speech defect, but also fully preparing them for schooling.

The main objectives of remedial education are as follows:

1. Formation of sound pronunciation.

2. Development of phonemic hearing.

3. Preparation for literacy.

Speech therapy work begins with the clarification of the articulation of the (preserved) sounds in children. Organizational classes are conducted both frontally with the whole group, and individually.

Frontal classes are held throughout the year in a certain system according to a single plan, taking into account the individual characteristics of children. In these classes, first of all, the pronunciation of vowels is practiced: y, a, i, e, o, then simple consonants: p, p", k, k", l", x, s, s", z, z" and again set sounds: c, t, b, b", d, d", d, g", w, l, f, r, r", h, u.

In the process of developing sound pronunciation in children, attention is brought up to the sound side of speech. Correcting the pronunciation of sounds, a speech therapist teaches children to listen to speech, distinguish and reproduce individual elements of speech, retain the material perceived by ear in memory, hear the sound of their own speech and correct their mistakes. Along with exercises for fixing the set sounds, exercises for differentiating sounds according to the following features are gradually introduced; deaf and voiced (f-v, s-z, p-b, t-d, k-g, w-g); whistling and hissing (s-sh, h-zh); fricatives and affricates (s-ts); smooth and vibrant (r-l, r "-l"); soft and hard (s-s, z-z, etc.).

In order to cultivate attention to the sound side of speech and auditory memory, the training system provides for special exercises that can be divided into two groups. One group of exercises is aimed only at the perception of speech - children answer questions with the help of actions, showing pictures. This includes the memorization of rows of words perceived by ear, specially selected instructions and other speech material. These exercises are especially necessary at the very beginning of learning, when children's active, correctly pronounced vocabulary is limited. The second group of exercises, having the same goals, provides not only the correct perception of lexical material, but also its reproduction. This includes the repetition of perceived by ear syllabic series, series of words, sentences; learning by heart various speech material in connection with fixing the correct sound pronunciation.

As they master new sounds, children are gradually introduced to the change in word forms depending on the gender, number, case, time of action. So, for example, when fixing the correct pronunciation of sounds s, s, z, z, children select nouns for adjectives (blue ... bus, blue ... vase, green ... bench).

When differentiating the sounds r-l, the speech therapist selects phrases in which children use nouns in certain cases (They cut firewood ... with an ax. They cut firewood with a saw).

At the same time, various exercises are introduced for compiling and distributing proposals on questions, key words, and demonstrating actions.

Gradually, prepositions are included in sentences, especially those that are not always used correctly by children: over, because of, from under, between, through.

At each frontal lesson, exercises are conducted to prepare children for the analysis of the sound composition of the word. First, the attention of preschoolers is drawn to individual sounds and sounds as part of the word ("Clap your hands if you hear the sound y; if you hear a word with the sound t; a syllable with the sound n", etc.; "Select pictures that have a sound in the name k", etc.).

Gradually, from the ability to hear a separate sound in the composition of a word, children are led to mastering the skills of a complete sound analysis of the simplest monosyllabic words.

There is a certain correspondence between the studied sounds and various forms of analysis. Thus, the initial preparation for the analysis includes the following sections:

1) highlighting the first stressed vowel (a, o, y, and) at the beginning of a word. Based on the material of these sounds, children are given the first idea that sounds can be arranged in a certain sequence. Children determine the number of sounds and their sequence in sound combinations;

2) highlighting the first and last consonant sound in monosyllabic words (cat, poppy); analysis and synthesis of the reverse syllable type ap, ut, ok;

3) highlighting a stressed vowel in a word from a position after a consonant (cat, tank);

4) mastery of sound analysis and synthesis of direct syllables such as sa, as well as monosyllabic words such as soup, juice, bitches.

As children master these skills, frontal exercises include an increasing number of exercises that combine the consolidation of set sounds with conscious analysis and synthesis of the sound composition of words. This work helps the fastest introduction of delivered sounds into speech.

Gradually, the word becomes the basic unit of study. Children are taught to divide a word into syllables using a diagram as a visual reference. First, the whole word is indicated, then the syllables and then the sounds. Children master a complete sound-syllabic analysis of monosyllabic, two-syllable and three-syllable words without consonants and with consonants (vase, panama, chair, cat, glass, cabbage, etc.). Children learn that there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. As learning proceeds, a transition is made to a complete analysis and synthesis of words without the help of a scheme. In parallel, exercises are carried out to transform words by replacing one sound with another (Mura - Shura, cat - mouth, etc.). At the same time, children learn the terms "syllable", "word", "sentence", "vowel", "consonant", "hard", "soft", "voiced", "deaf" (consonants).

As a result of numerous exercises for the correct pronunciation of sounds, for the analysis and synthesis of the sound composition of speech, children are well prepared for mastering reading. Now the child is faced with new tasks: to master the letter designations of sounds, to learn how to merge letters into syllables, to learn conscious, fluent, syllable-by-syllable reading.

An effective learning technique is reading in the wake of analysis: after preliminary analysis, the word is formed from the letters of the split alphabet, then it is divided into syllables and sounds, and then the reverse process follows - combining sounds into syllables and reading the word by syllables. It is necessary to strictly ensure that the child reads together. First, the skill of simultaneous perception of two letters is brought up, then three. It is very important to make sure that children understand every word they read, and later a sentence, a small text. For training exercises, it is recommended to use syllabic rows made up of letters, specially selected syllables and words arranged in the form of tables.

Learning to fold words from a split alphabet is combined with learning to write. In the wake of sound analysis and synthesis, children write in block letters, and then read what is written (words, sentences, short stories).

Much attention is paid to various exercises for converting words (to compose a series of words from these letters; to add new words by adding letters; to insert missing letters into the word, etc.).

So, by the end of training, children should correctly pronounce and distinguish all the phonemes of their native language, master the skills of conscious sound analysis and synthesis of words of different syllabic structures, be able to read and write words, sentences and short texts, followed by an explanation of the meaning of what they read. In addition, in kindergarten, children learn some spelling rules in a practical way: separate spelling of words, putting a period at the end of a sentence, using a capital letter in their own names and at the beginning of a sentence. The whole system of remedial classes allows preschoolers to form a full-fledged speech, makes it possible not only to overcome the child's speech shortcomings, but also to prepare him for school.

Education in a general education school after such a phased preparation does not present specific difficulties. Moreover, observations show that children who complete remedial education in full are often better prepared for literacy than their peers.

Literature

1. Efimenkova L.N., Sadovnikova I.N. Correction and prevention of dysphagia in children. - M., 1972.

2. Kashe G.A. Correction of speech defects in preschoolers. - M., 1971.

3. Kashe G.A. Preparation for school of children with speech impediments. - M., 1985.

4. Kolpovskaya I.K., Nikashina N.A., Spirova L.F. Writing disorders in children with speech underdevelopment // Fundamentals of the theory and practice of speech therapy / Ed. R.K. Levina. - M., 1968.

5. Pravdina O.V. speech therapy. - M., 1969.

6. Chirkina G.V. Children with articulation disorders. - M., 1969.

The problem of writing disorders in schoolchildren is one of the most relevant for school education, since writing and reading from the goal of primary education turns into a means of further acquiring knowledge by students.

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The problem of writing disorders in schoolchildren is one of the most relevant for school education, since writing and reading from the goal of primary education turns into a means of further acquiring knowledge by students.

Dyslexia is a partial violation of the reading process, manifested in persistent and repetitive reading errors due to the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the reading process.

Dysgraphia is a partial violation of the writing process, manifested in persistent, repetitive errors due to the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the writing process.

Reading and writing disorders share the same etiology and similar mechanisms.

In the anamnesis of children with dyslexia and dysgraphia, the presence of a number of pathological factors affecting the prenatal, natal and postnatal period is noted. A certain place in the etiology of dyslexia and dysgraphia is given to hereditary factors that create an unfavorable background that predisposes to the occurrence of reading and writing disorders.

Causes of dyslexia and dysgraphia can be

organic and functional,

Biological and social.

Reading and writing disorders may be due toorganic damagecortical areas of the brain involved in the process of reading and writing, delayed maturation of these brain systems, disruption of their functioning.

Reading and writing disorders may be associatedwith long-term somatic diseaseschildren in the early period of their development, as well aswith unfavorable external factors(incorrect speech of others, bilingualism, insufficient attention to the development of the child's speech in the family, lack of speech contacts, unfavorable family environment).

The clinical characteristics of children with dyslexia and dysgraphia are extremely diverse. In severe cases, dyslexia and dysgraphia can manifest itself in various categories of abnormal children in the structure of nervous and neuropsychiatric diseases: in mentally retarded children, in children with mental retardation, with minimal brain dysfunction, in children with visual impairment, hearing impairment, in children with cerebral paralysis.

Reading and writing disorders in children with relatively intact intelligence (not having mental retardation) are often combinedwith mental and psychophysicalinfantilism, with pronounced uneven mental development, with certain features of the structure of the intellect, with the underdevelopment of simultaneous and successive processes, as well as with the insufficiency of such mental functions as attention, memory (Yu. G. Demyanov, V. A. Kovshikov, A. N. Kornev, V. V. Kovalev).

Dyslexia should be differentiated from other reading disorders:

1. Reading errors in dyslexia are persistent, and without special corrective work, they can remain in a child for many months and years. This makes it possible to differentiate dyslexic errors from reading errors, which act as patterns in the process of mastering reading and are observed in all children at the initial stages of mastering the reading skill.

Reading errors, which naturally occur in all children when mastering the skill of reading, are not persistent and quickly disappear as they move from one stage of mastering the reading skill to another.

2. Reading errors in dyslexia are specific.These are recurring, typical mistakes. This sign of dyslexic errors allows us to differentiate dyslexia from random, variable errors that can be observed during fatigue, due to inattention, insufficiency of control processes when reading.

3. Reading errors in dyslexia are due to the lack of formation of higher mental functions,ensuring the reading process is normal. This sign of dyslexic errors makes it possible to distinguish dyslexia from reading errors that can be observed in children due to pedagogical neglect, incorrect teaching methods, and violations of elementary functions.

Thus, delayed mastery of reading andreading errors can occur in children lazy, with behavioral disorder, pedagogically neglected even in those cases when they have sufficiently formed the higher mental functions necessary to master the skill of reading. In this case, the child has a reading disorder of a different nature than dyslexia.

Reading errors can occur whenwrong method of teaching reading(letter-by-letter reading, the technique of whole words, etc.). So, letter-by-letter reading, on the one hand, can manifest itself in a child as a result of improper teaching of reading in the family. And if the child does not have violations of phonemic development, then in this case, letter-by-letter reading does not yet indicate the presence of dyslexia. But, on the other hand, letter-by-letter reading can be a sign of dyslexia if it is associated with unformed phonemic analysis and synthesis.

Read errors may occurin children with poor eyesightdue to misunderstanding of letters. If these errors are not associated with the immaturity of visuospatial functions, but are caused only by a decrease in vision, they are not classified as dyslexic errors and disappear when visual acuity disorders are corrected.

Thus, the presence of reading errors does not in itself indicate the presence of dyslexia. About dyslexia; This is only the case when reading errorsdue to underdevelopment of higher mental functions.

SYMPTOMS. Dyslexia manifests itself

1. in slowing down the process of mastering reading,
2. slow reading (bradylexia),
3. in violation of eye movement along the line in the process of reading,
4. in persistent and repetitive reading errors.

With dyslexia, the following groups of errors are noted:

1. Failure to assimilate letters, inaccurate correlation of sound and letter,which manifests itself in substitutions and mixtures of sounds when reading. With dyslexia, a different nature of substitutions and mixtures can be observed: a) substitutions and mixtures of phonetically close sounds (voiced and deaf, for example, TEVOCHKA, LOBATA); affricates and sounds included in their composition (for example, ODUVANTIK); b) replacement of graphically similar letters (X-F, P-N, etc.);

C) undifferentiated, variable substitutions (F-M-L, etc.).

2. Letter-by-letter reading- violation of the fusion of sounds into syllables and words. With this method of reading, the letters are called in turn, “stacked”, strung one on top of the other (RAMA-Ru A, M, A).

3. Distortions of the sound-syllabic structure of the word.The most common reading errors of this group are: a) omissions of consonants during confluence (BENECH - KAMEKA);

b) omissions of consonantsand vowels in the absence of confluence (PAROVOZ - PARVOZ);

c) adding sounds (IN THE RAIN - UNDER THE RAIN);

d) permutation of sounds (SHOVEL - LOTAL);

e) omissions, permutations of syllables (Ditch - Kavana).

4. reading comprehension disorder,which can manifest itself both at the level of a single word, and at the level of a sentence and text. Reading comprehension impairment may be primary, but it may also be secondary. In the first case, a violation of reading comprehension is observed with technically correct reading, in the second case it is the result of incorrect reading.

5. Word substitutions (THROUGH - SHUT DOWN).

6. Agrammatisms in reading.Most often, there are errors in the agreement of a noun and an adjective, violations of case endings, changes in the endings of verbs, etc. Agrammatisms when reading are detected, as a rule, at the analytical-synthetic and synthetic stages of mastering the reading skill.

The course of dyslexia is regressive in nature with a gradual decrease in the number and types of errors, as well as the degree of dyslexia.

Dyslexia negatively affects the formation of a child's personality. Student failures in mastering reading can contribute to the emergence and consolidation of such character traits as self-doubt, timidity, anxious suspiciousness or, conversely, aggressiveness, anger, negativism .; In some cases, these affective reactions are the result of dyslexia. In other cases, they are not directly related to dyslexia, but only accompany its course, being included in the general structure of neuropsychiatric diseases, for example, with some organic brain lesions.

TYPES OF DYSLEXIA . Taking into account the unformedness of higher mental functions and operations of the reading process, the following types of dyslexia are distinguished: phonemic, semantic, agrammatic, optical, mnestic, tactile (in blind children).

phonemic dyslexia. This type of reading disorder is most common among younger students.

Phonemic dyslexia is caused by impaired formationphonemic perception and phonemic analysis and synthesis.In this regard, two forms of phonemic dyslexia are distinguished.

The first form of phonemic dyslexiaassociated with the underdevelopment of phonemic perception (auditory differentiation of phonemes) and manifests itself in the replacement of phonetically close sounds when reading, in the difficulties of assimilation of letters denoting acoustically and articulatory similar sounds.

The second form of phonemic dyslexiaassociated with the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis.

AGRAMMATIC DYSLEXIA - observed at the analytical-synthetic and synthetic stages of the formation of reading skills. Agrammatical dyslexia manifests itself in agrammatisms when reading, in violations of coordination, control. The child incorrectly reproduces endings, prefixes, suffixes, changing the grammatical forms of words.

For example:

1. Changing the case endings of nouns: OPENED THE PORT, FROM UNDER THE LEAVES, AT COMRADES.

2. Change in the number of a noun, pronoun: instead of a LETTER - a LETTER, instead of an astronaut - astronauts.

3. Incorrect agreement in gender, number and case of a noun and an adjective, a noun and a pronoun: INTERESTING TALE, FUN FOR CHILDREN, OUR ROCKET, SUCH A DAY.

4. Changing the endings of the verbs of the 3rd person of the past tense: IT WAS A COUNTRY, A CAR rushed past, IT WAS A DAY, instead of DO NOT WANT - DO NOT WANT.

5. Changing the form, tense and type of verbs: FLOWED I WANT, WALKED NOT GOING, instead of ANNOUNCED - ANNOUNCED, instead of SEEING - SAW.

Semantic dyslexia (mechanical reading).This form of dyslexia is manifested in a violation of reading comprehension with technically correct reading (by syllable, in whole words). Semantic dyslexia can manifest itself both at the word level and, especially, when reading sentences and text.

Violation of the understanding of the read word is due, as a rule, to the underdevelopment of sound-syllabic synthesis.

Optical dyslexia. This type of dyslexia is manifested in the substitutions and mixtures of graphically similar letters when reading. Most often, children poorly differentiate two groups of graphically similar letters:

a) letters that differ in only one element(V-3, D-L, b-b, etc.);

b) letters consisting of the same elements, but differently located in space (T-G, P-L, X-K, P-N-I, etc.).

With this type of dyslexia, mirror reading can also be observed.

Optical dyslexia is associated with the lack of formation of visual-spatial functions: visual gnosis, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations.

Optical dyslexia is most often detected in mentally retarded, in children with mental retardation, with cerebral palsy.

mnestic dyslexia. Mnestic dyslexia is manifested in a violation of the assimilation of letters, in the difficulties of establishing associations between sound and letter. The child does not remember which letter corresponds to a particular sound. In the process of reading, undifferentiated substitutions of letters are observed in children. Difficulties arise in children already at the initial stage of mastering reading, at the stage of mastering sound-letter designations.

DEFINITION, SYMPTOMS AND TYPES OF DYSGRAPHY

DEFINITION.

Various terms are used in modern literature to refer to specific writing disorders. Partial writing disorders are called dysgraphia, complete inability to write is called agraphia. In a number of countries (for example, in the USA), reading and writing disorders are defined by the same term "dyslexia". In other countries, specific writing disorders are defined by the term "dysorphography" (for example, in France).

In the domestic literature, the terms "dysgraphia" and "dysorphography" are opposed, that is, they are distinguished.

SYMPTOMS. In accordance with the definition of the term "dysgraphia", the following features of errors in dysgraphia can be distinguished:

1. As in dyslexia, errors in dysgraphia are persistent and specific, which makes it possible to distinguish these errors from errors of “growth”, “physiological” (according to B. G. Ananiev) errors,naturally occurring in children when mastering writing. It should be noted that errors in dysgraphia are similar in appearance to the so-called physiological errors. However, with dysgraphia, these errorsare more numerous, repetitive and persist for a long time.

2. Dysgraphic errorsassociated with the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the process of writing - the differentiation of phonemes by ear and in pronunciation, the analysis of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis, the lexico-grammatical structure of speech, optical-spatial functions.

Violations of elementary functions (analyzer) can also lead to writing disorders. But these writing disorders are not considered dysgraphia.

Writing disorders in children (for example, with mental retardation) can be associated with pedagogical neglect, with impaired attention, control, which disorganize the entire writing process as a complex speech activity. However, in this case, errors, if they are not associated with the unformedness of higher mental functions, are not specific, but variable in nature and therefore are not dysgraphic.

3. Errors in dysgraphia are characterizedviolation of the phonetic principleletters, i.e., errors are observed in a strong phonetic position (SCOOP - instead of a SHOVEL, DM - instead of a HOUSE), in contrast to spelling errors that are observed only in a weak phonetic position (VADYAN - instead of WATER, LADY - instead of HOUSE).

4. Errors are characterized as dysgraphic in the case when they are observed inschool age children. At of preschool children, writing is accompanied by numerous errors, similar in nature and manifestation to dysgraphic ones. However, in preschool children, many of the mental functions that ensure the process of writing are still insufficiently formed. Therefore, these errors are natural, “physiological”.

The following groups of errors in dysgraphia are distinguished.

1. Distorted spelling of letters (for example, E-e, C -)). ; ■ ■■* ■ ■■

2. Substitutions for handwritten letters:

a) graphically similar (for example, v-d, l-m, c-sh);

b) denoting phonetically similar sounds (for example, d - t, b - n, g-k).

3. Distortions of the sound-letter structure of the word: permutations, omissions, additions, perseverations, contamination of letters, syllables (for example, VE-SENA - instead of SPRING, STANA - instead of COUNTRY, KULBOK - instead of CLUB).

4. Distortions in the structure of the sentence: separate spelling of the word, continuous spelling of words, contamination of words (for example, ROOKS FROM WARM COUNTRIES - ROOKS FLY FROM WARM COUNTRIES).

5. Agrammatisms in writing (for example, ME PENCILS, NO KEYS, ON BRANCHES).

TYPES OF DISGRAPHY. BasedAccording to modern ideas about the essence of dysgraphia, the most significant criterion for classifying dysgraphia is the lack of a particular mental function, the lack of certain operations of the writing process. Based on this criterion, the following types of dysgraphia can be distinguished.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia.

The mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is the incorrect pronunciation of speech sounds, which is reflected in the letter: the child writes the words as he pronounces them.

It is known that at the initial stages of mastering writing, the child often pronounces the words that he writes down. Speaking can be loud, whispered, or internal. In the process of pronunciation, the sound structure of the word, the nature of sounds is specified.

A child with a violation of sound pronunciation, relying on his defective pronunciation, fixes it in writing.

This type of dysgraphia is predominantly observed in children with polymorphic impairment of sound pronunciation, especially with dysarthria, rhinolalia, sensory and sensorimotor dyslalia.

In a number of cases, substitutions of letters in writing persist in children even after the substitutions of sounds in oral speech have been eliminated. The reason for this is the lack of formation of kinesthetic images of sounds; during internal pronunciation, there is no reliance on the correct articulation of sounds.

Dysgraphia based on impaired phonem recognition(differentiation of phonemes), according to traditional terminology -acoustic dysgraphia.

This type of dysgraphia is manifested in the substitutions of beech denoting phonetically close sounds, in violation of the designation of the softness of consonants in writing. More often, letters are mixed in writing, denoting whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf affricates and the components included in their composition "(CH-TH, CH-SH, Ts-T, Ts-T \ Ts-S, S-Sh, 3- "" B-P, D-T, G-K, etc.), as well as vowels O-E-I.

Most often, the mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is associated with the inaccuracy of auditory differentiation of sounds, while the pronunciation of sounds is normal.

Dysgraphia on soil violations of language analysis and synthesis.The mechanism of this type of dysgraphia is a violation of the following forms of language analysis and synthesis: analysis of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis.

The unformedness of the analysis of sentences into words is found in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions; in the separate spelling of words, especially prefixes and roots.

Examples: LETAM PAREKE AND DUT PARHODI (Steamboats go along the river in summer

The most common mistakes in this type of dysgraphia are distortions of the sound-letter structure of the word, due to the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis, which is the most complex form of language analysis.

The most common errors are:

1) omissions of consonants during their confluence (DOGI - RAIN, DEKI - DAYS, COMPOSE - MAKE);

2) omissions of vowels (GIRL - GIRLS, POSHL - GO, DOT - CAR, ROCK-VET - ROCK);

3) permutations of letters (PAKELKI - DROPS, KULK A - DOLL);

4) adding letters (SPRING - SPRING);

5) omissions, additions, permutations of syllables (VESIPED - BICYCLE).

Agrammatical dysgraphia.This type of dysgraphia manifests itself in agrammatisms in writing and is due to the unformed lexical and grammatical structure of speech.

Agrammatisms in writing are noted at the level of words, phrases, sentences and texts. Most often, morphological and morphosyntactic-agrammatisms, violations of control coordination are found in children with dysgraphia.

For example:

BEHIND THE HOUSE (behind the house) SHED. ROOKS FLY IN ISTEPLY COUNTRIES (Rooks fly from warm countries). VASYA AND KOLYA WRITE THE GROVE (Vasya Kolya came to the grove). IT WAS A HOT DAY (It would be a hot day).

Optical dysgraphia. This type of dysgraphia is due to the lack of formation of visual-spatial functions: visual gnosis, visual mnesis, visual analysis and synthesis of spatial representations. With optical dyslexia, the following types of disorders are observed- ny letters:

a) distorted reproduction of letters on a letter (incorrect reproduction of the spatial relationship of letter elements, mirror spelling of letters, underwriting elements, extra elements);

b) substitutions and mixtures nia graphically similar letters. As with dyslexia, either letters that differ in one element are most often mixed(F-F, L-Jl, U - W), or letters consisting of the same or similar elements, but differently located in space(V-D, E-S).

One of the manifestations of optical dysgraphia is mirror writing: mirror writing of letters, writing from left to right, which can be observed in left-handed people, with organic damage brain.

The study of writing and reading disorders in children begins at the end of the last century and coincides in time with the introduction in the most developed countries of Europe of state schooling, accessible to the broad masses of children. At the same time, it became obvious that, in addition to children who are unable to learn due to mental retardation, there are others who cannot acquire literacy, despite normal intellectual development.

In 1896, the English physician P. Morgan described a 14-year-old boy who had great difficulty in reading and writing. He was a quick-witted child, doing well in algebra, but with great difficulty he learned the alphabet and could not learn to read. In 1897, a similar case was described by the Englishman J. Kerr, and in 1905, the work of S. Thomas was published, summarizing the observations of one hundred cases of such violations. Later, the symptoms of such conditions were carefully studied and detailed in the works of S. Orton (1937), M. Critchley (1970), Z. Matejiek (1972) and other researchers.

The definition and terminology for more than half a century of studying the problem have changed repeatedly, and yet, a single, satisfying formulation has not yet been found. No one doubts that there are children with selective reading or writing disorders. However, the essence of this phenomenon is understood differently. For some, this is one of the manifestations of the underdevelopment of oral speech [Spirova L.F., Yastrebova A.V., 1988], “the primary disorder of the sound structure in written speech”. For others, it is a genuine, idiopathic monosymptomatic disorder.

SPECIFIC READING DISORDERS - DYSLEXIA

Speaking of dyslexia, we mean conditions whose main manifestation is a persistent, selective inability to master the skill of reading, despite a sufficient level of intellectual and speech development for this, the absence of impairments to auditory and visual analyzers, and optimal learning conditions. The disorder is based on violations of specific cerebral processes, which, in general, constitute the main functional basis of the reading skill.

The existing classifications of reading disorders can be divided into four categories:

1) Etiopathogenetic, in which there are primary reading disorders and secondary forms of reading disorders caused by organic brain pathology, sensory defects, low intelligence, neurotic disorders;

2) Symptomatic classifications, in which the typology of errors is taken as the basis of systematics. At the same time, kinetic (or verbal) dyslexia and static (or literal) dyslexia are distinguished.

3) Psychological classifications, in which the alleged mechanisms of reading impairment are taken as the basis for systematics. In this case, "phonemic" dyslexia and dysgraphia, optical or optical-gnostic dyslexia and dysgraphia, spatial-apraxic, motor, mnestic and semantic are distinguished.

4) Clinical and pathogenetic classification of writing and reading disorders by Z. Matejiek, summarizing many years of clinically oriented psychological psychiatric hospitals in Dolnye Pochernitsy. The author combines all cases of dyslexia, meaning reading and writing disorders, into the following groups:

a) Hereditary;

b) Encephalopathic;

c) Mixed (hereditary-encephalopathic);

d) neurotic;

e) Unspecified.

SPECIFIC WRITING DISORDERS - DYSGRAPHY

Based on the analysis of existing studies on this issue and our own observations, we propose the following definition of dysgraphia. Dysgraphia should be called a persistent inability to master the skills of writing according to the rules of graphs (that is, guided by the phonetic principle of writing), despite a sufficient level of intellectual and speech development and the absence of gross visual or hearing impairments. The resulting errors can be divided into several categories.

a) errors in sound-letter symbolization (replacement of letters that are phonemically or graphically similar),

b) errors in graphical modeling of the phonemic structure of a word (omissions, permutations, insertion of letters, assimilation, perseveration),

c) errors in the graphic marking of the syntactic structure of the sentence (lack of dots at the end of the sentence, capital letters - at the beginning, the absence of spaces between words or the creation of inadequate spaces in the middle of words).

Of particular note are errors that repeat verbal paraphrases (the so-called "stammering in writing"). From our point of view, these errors reflect the problems of oral rather than written speech and can only conditionally be included in dysgraphic ones.

According to the literature, dysgraphia occurs 2-3 times more often than dyslexia [Kovshikov V.A., Demyanov Yu.G., 1967; Valtin A. Et al., 1981; Kosc L., 1983]. Reading disorders in most cases are accompanied by writing disorders. However, according to our observations, serious difficulties in reading do not always contribute to dysgraphia. The literature also describes cases of so-called "pure" dyslexia, in which writing skills do not suffer. Thus, although these two groups of syndromes overlap, they do not coincide. There is reason to believe that dysgraphia and dyslexia may have significantly different causes and mechanisms.

written language reading disorder dyslexia

According to statistics, 60% of children have speech disorders. Every year in preschool institutions, the number of children who have certain speech disorders, expressed to a greater or lesser extent, increases. By carrying out special correctional and pedagogical work with preschoolers, in many cases it is possible to prevent or prevent the development of speech pathology in the future. However, not all preschool children, for various reasons, are covered by this work. As a result, some children of primary school age have various difficulties in mastering written language, which in turn lead to a delay in mastering the school curriculum.

According to I. N. Sadovnikova, “the problem of writing disorders among schoolchildren is one of the most urgent, since it (written speech) becomes the basis and means of further education.”

Written speech includes writing and reading as equal components.

Reading is one of the types of speech activity, closely related to both pronunciation and understanding of what is read (L. F., Spirova) The perception and discrimination of letters is only the outer side of the reading process, behind which the most essential and basic actions with the sounds of the language are hidden ( D. B. Elkonin)

A letter is a sign system of speech fixation, which allows using graphic elements to transmit information at a distance and fix it in time. Writing is understood as a means of capturing a person's thoughts with the help of specially created symbols.

Writing disorders are called dysgraphia and dyslexia.

Dyslexia is a partial specific violation of the reading process, due to the lack of formation (violation) of higher mental functions and manifested in repetitive errors of a persistent nature.

Dysgraphia is a partial violation of the formation of the writing process, causing persistent specific errors, the occurrence of which is not associated with ignorance of grammatical rules, but is due to underdevelopment or partial damage to the brain mechanisms that provide a complex multi-level process of writing.

Reading and writing errors should not be considered ridiculous and explained by the personal qualities of students: inability to listen to the teacher's explanation, inattention when writing, careless attitude to work, etc. In fact, these errors are based on more serious reasons.

To understand the mechanisms of these disorders, it is necessary to have an idea of ​​what controls the processes of reading and writing. Written speech is formed only in conditions of purposeful learning, its mechanisms are formed during the period of literacy and improved in the course of all further learning.

It is closely connected with the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development. Mastering written speech is the establishment of new connections between the word heard and spoken, and the word visible and written. This is a multi-level process in which various analyzers take part: speech-motor (providing the perception and analysis of information from the speech apparatus, i.e. perception and analysis by the article, and organizing the preparation and execution of speech movements, visual (providing the perception and analysis of visual stimuli, namely controls the selection and recognition of graphemes, speech-auditory (provides the perception of phonemes as acoustic stimuli and the perception of the semantic content of the utterance of oral speech, general motor (with its help, the grapheme is translated into a kinema (a set of certain movements necessary for recording).

The regulation and coordination of the work of these analyzers is carried out in the parietal-occipital-temporal regions of the brain. Normally, at 10-11 years of life, the formation of this process ends. In the frontal parts of the brain, an impulse to act is born, that is, the motive for writing and reading, and the work of all structures involved in these processes is controlled. Only with the coordinated work of all analyzers and with the preservation of certain brain structures is it possible to successfully master the skills of writing and reading.

What are the reasons behind the writing disorders that teachers most often face at school?

Of great importance for mastering the processes of writing and reading is the degree of formation of all aspects of oral speech. Therefore, violations or delays in the development of phonemic hearing and perception, the lexical and grammatical side of speech, sound pronunciation at different stages of development are one of the main causes of dysgraphia and dyslexia.

The hereditary factor is also important, when the child is given the underdevelopment of brain structures, their qualitative immaturity. In this case, as a result of the difficulty of cortical control in mastering written language, the child may experience approximately the same difficulties as parents at school age.

Thus, the untimely formation of the process of lateralization (the establishment of the dominant role of one of the cerebral hemispheres) can serve as a source of failure in the development of written speech. By the time of learning to read and write, the child should already have a clear lateral orientation, the leading hand has been determined. With a delay in this process, with hidden forms of left-handedness, cortical control over many types of activity is difficult.

The cause of dyslexia and dysgraphia can also be a disorder in the systems that provide spatial and temporal perception.

It happens that reading and writing disorders can be caused by bilingualism in the family.

Also, the reasons for the development of speech disorders in younger students can be the lack of formation of arbitrary forms of activity, the lack of development of higher mental processes, as well as the instability of the emotional sphere and pedagogical neglect.

The first signs of the development of dysgraphia and dyslexia can be noticed by the teacher when teaching the child to read and write. It is necessary to keep in mind the following: all errors that can be attributed to dysgraphic and dyslexic are specific, typical and persistent. If a child has errors in reading and writing that can be attributed to specific ones, but they are rare, from time to time or even single, then this is most likely the result of overwork, inattention. Here further observation is needed. The main manifestations (symptoms) of violations of written speech.

Symptoms of dyslexia

1. Replacing and mixing sounds when reading, most often phonetically close sounds (voiced and deaf, affricates and sounds included in their composition, as well as replacing graphically similar letters (X - F, P - N, Z - V).

2. Letter-by-letter reading - a violation of the fusion of sounds into syllables and words.

3. Distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word, which manifests itself in omissions of consonants during the confluence of the machinist - machinist, in omissions of consonants and vowels in the absence of confluence, additions, rearrangements of sounds, omissions and rearrangements of syllables.

4. Violation of reading comprehension. It manifests itself at the level of a single word, sentence, text, when there is no breakdown of the technical side in the process of reading.

5. Agrammatism when reading. It manifests itself at the analytical-synthetic and synthetic stages of mastering reading skills. There are violations of case endings, noun and adjective agreement, verb endings, etc.

The symptomatology of dysgraphia is manifested in persistent and repetitive mistakes in the writing process, which can be grouped as follows.

1. Distortions and replacements of letters. Such errors are associated with a violation of pronunciation (substitutions for hardness - softness, deafness - sonority, articulatory similarity, as well as the replacement of graphically similar letters.

2. Distortion of the sound-syllabic structure of the word, which manifests itself in omissions of consonants during the confluence of the machinist - machinist, in omissions of consonants and vowels in the absence of confluence, additions, permutations of sounds, omissions and permutations of syllables.

3. Violation of the continuity of writing individual words in a sentence: separate writing of parts of the word (prefixes are separated from the word, the continuous writing of prepositions with words, the displacement of the boundaries of the word “at dedmo Rza” - at Santa Claus.

4. Agrammatisms in writing. Violation of the connection of words: coordination and control.

The teacher needs to convince the parents to visit the consultations of a speech therapist or defectologist and a psychologist. Depending on what are the reasons for the problems in learning, classes are shown either with one specialist or with several at the same time. After consultations, if your suspicion has been confirmed, and the child has started attending classes with a speech therapist to the class teacher, it is necessary to maintain constant contact with the speech therapist and assist him in his work.

Throughout the special classes, the child needs a favorable regime. After numerous twos and threes, unpleasant conversations at home, he should feel at least a small, but success. Therefore, it is desirable that at least for a while the teacher refuses to correct in notebooks in red. This, firstly, "noises" the information, which is contained in specific errors, which interferes with the teacher. Secondly, for a child with dysgraphia, a solid red background in a notebook is an additional stress factor.

There is a technique by which the student writes with a pencil, and the teacher does not correct the mistake, but puts a mark in the margins. The student has the opportunity not to cross out, but to erase his mistakes, to write correctly.

When a child makes a lot of mistakes, parents often hear teachers recommend reading and writing more. And they do it literally. The approach to a child suffering from dyslexia and dysgraphia should be completely different. At the first stages, the work is mainly oral: exercises for the development of phonemic perception, sound analysis of the word. Dictation here will only bring harm. Numerous mistakes that will inevitably be made when writing them are fixed in the memory of the child. For the same reason, it is undesirable for children with dysgraphia to give exercises with uncorrected text. And the work on the mistakes should be carried out as recommended by the speech therapist. The bottom line is that it is undesirable for a child to see misspelled words.

If you are asked to read a text or write a lot at home, advise parents that the child does this not in one go, but intermittently, breaking the text into parts. This will enable students with writing disabilities to do better with their homework.

These are general techniques that will help teachers in working with such children, but a teacher can get more detailed advice on the methodology of working with each child from a speech therapist who leads the correction process.

Introduction 2

1. General characteristics of writing disorders (dysgraphia) and reading disorders (dyslexia) 4

2. Causes and symptoms of dysgraphia and dyslexia 6

Conclusion 14

References 15

Introduction

Over the past few decades, studies of younger students experiencing learning difficulties show that their number has increased from 15% to 73%. Their vocabulary is poor, they do not know how to correctly retell the text and build a sentence, they make many mistakes in writing. At the same time, they spend unreasonably much time and effort on doing homework. The main reasons for this problem are the lack of attention and fine motor skills, the lack of reading skills and independence of action.

In 1877, A. Kussmaul drew attention to the violation of writing and reading, as an independent pathology of speech activity. Subsequently, many works appeared in which descriptions of children with various reading and writing disorders were given. In the 30s. In the 20th century, psychology, pedagogy, began to study reading and writing disorders. Gradually, a certain relationship is established between these disorders, on the one hand, and defects in oral speech, on the other.

Interest in the problems of early detection, prevention and correction of specific writing disorders (dysgraphia) in children is due to the fact that writing as an activity plays an important role in a person’s life: it stimulates his mental development, provides general education, and influences personality formation.

In addition, in recent years, in scientific papers devoted to the study of reading disorders, it is noted that dyslexia is a consequence of insufficient formation of the functional basis of the reading process, i.e., verbal and non-verbal higher mental functions that ensure the formation of this skill.

The aim of the work is to study the etiology of writing and reading disorders.

The object of the study is dysgraphia and dyslexia as speech disorders.

The subject of the study is the causes and symptoms of dysgraphia and dyslexia.

1. Describe such speech disorders as writing disorders (dysgraphia) and reading disorders (dyslexia).

2. Describe the causes and symptoms of dysgraphia and dyslexia.

Research methods: analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature on the research problem; systematization and generalization of the studied material.

The structure of the work includes an introduction, two paragraphs of the main part, a conclusion and a list of references.

1. General characteristics of violations
writing (dysgraphia) and reading (dyslexia)

Most researchers tend to understand dysgraphia as writing disorders that occur in children as a result of the unformedness of certain operations involved in this process.

Normal writing is a complex form of speech activity, a multilevel process. Various analyzers take part in it: speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, general motor. Between them in the process of writing a close connection and interdependence is established. The structure of this process is determined by the stage of mastering the skill, tasks and nature of writing. Writing is closely connected with the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development (7, p. 126).

Automated hand movements are the final step in the complex process of translating spoken language into written language. The writing process has a multi-level structure, includes a large number of operations. In an adult, they have an abbreviated, folded character.

The letter begins with a motivation, a motive, a task. A person knows what he writes for: to fix, save information for a certain time, transfer it to another person, induce someone to act. He mentally represents the plan of the written statement, the semantic program, the general sequence of thoughts (9, p.62).

One of the most difficult operations of the writing process is the analysis of the sound structure of a word. To spell a word correctly, you need to determine its sound structure, the sequence and place of each sound. The sound analysis of a word is carried out by the joint activity of the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers. At the initial stages of mastering the skill of writing, the role of pronunciation is very large. It helps to clarify the nature of the sound, to distinguish it from the original sounds, to determine the sequence of sounds in the word (6, p. 74).

The next operation is the correlation of the phoneme extracted from the word with a certain visual image of the letter, which should be from all others, especially from graphically similar ones. Then follows the motor operation of the writing process - the reproduction of the visual image of the letter with the help of hand movements. Simultaneously with the movement of the hand, kinesthetic control is carried out.

So, it can be almost unequivocally argued that the lack of formation of any of these functions can cause a violation of the process of mastering writing - dysgraphia.

In turn, dyslexia is a partial specific violation of the reading process, manifested in repetitive errors of a persistent nature. The reading of a child with dyslexia can be characterized as slow, with stops and incorrect (12, p. 8).

It has been proven that children with dyslexia experience significant difficulties in mastering the skill of reading and, as a rule, writing, despite the normal level of intellectual development, the absence of visual and auditory analyzer disorders and pedagogical neglect. Dyslexia in children is manifested in the inability to reach a level of development in reading skills, as well as writing and writing, that would be proportional to their mental abilities.

Thus, dyslexia is often accompanied by dysgraphia and dysorphography. For children with dysorphography, the main difficulty is the solution of the spelling problem: it is difficult for them to see the “dangerous place” in the word, it is difficult to find a test word, having learned the rule well, the child cannot apply it in writing (11).

So, as we can see, the considered phenomena - "dysgraphia" and "dyslexia" - are quite closely related to each other, but at the same time, each violation has its own characteristic features.

2. Causes and symptoms of dysgraphia and dyslexia

There are many scientific interpretations regarding the origin of dysgraphia and dyslexia, which indicates the complexity of this problem and to date this issue is debatable.

Many scientists note a hereditary predisposition to dysgraphia. They believe that this is due to the fact that children inherit from their parents a qualitative immaturity of the brain in its individual areas. It manifests itself in specific delays in the development of a certain function. In turn, dyslexia is not inherited.

Most researchers studying the etiology of dysgraphia also note the presence of pathological factors affecting the prenatal, natal and postnatal period. The etiology of dysgraphia is also associated with the impact of biological and social factors (4).

Functional reasons may be related to the impact of internal (for example, long-term somatic illnesses) and external (incorrect speech of others, lack of speech contacts, bilingualism in the family, insufficient attention to speech on the part of adults) factors that delay the formation of mental functions involved in the reading process. .

Dysgraphia is often caused by organic damage to the areas of the brain involved in the writing process (alalia, dysarthria, aphasia).

With dysgraphia, children have difficulty mastering writing: the exercises they performed, dictations contain many grammatical errors. They don't use capital letters, they don't use punctuation, they have terrible handwriting. In children with dysgraphia, individual letters are incorrectly oriented in space. They confuse similar letters: “Z” and “E”, “P” and “b” (soft sign). They may not pay attention to the extra stick in the letter "Sh" or the "hook" in the letter "Sh". Such children write slowly, unevenly; if they are not in the mood, then the handwriting is completely upset. They often refuse to attend classes or complete written assignments.

According to the opinion, dysgraphia is caused by the following reasons (11):

A) Delay in the formation of functional systems important for writing, due to harmful effects or hereditary, genetic predisposition. In this case, as a result of the difficulty of cortical control in mastering written language, the child may experience approximately the same difficulties as parents at school.

B) Violation of oral speech of organic origin.

C) Difficulties in the formation of a functional asymmetry of the hemispheres in a child.

D) Delay in the child's awareness of the body schema.

E) Violation of the perception of space and time, as well as the analysis and reproduction of spatial and temporal sequences.

He analyzed in most detail the causes of writing disorders in children (5) and identified three groups of phenomena in the etiology of writing disorders:

1) Constitutional prerequisites: individual features of the formation of functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres, the presence of writing disorders in parents, mental illness in relatives.

2) Encephalopathic disorders caused by harmful effects in the periods of pre-, pre- and postnatal development. Damage at the early stages of ontogenesis often causes abnormalities in the development of subcortical structures. Later exposure to pathological factors (birth and postnatal development) affects the higher cortical regions of the brain to a greater extent. Exposure to harmful factors leads to deviations in the development of brain systems. The uneven development of brain structures adversely affects the formation of functional systems of the psyche. According to the data of neuropsychology (research and) the functional immaturity of the frontal parts of the brain and the insufficiency of the neurodynamic component of mental activity can manifest itself in a violation of the organization of writing (instability of attention, non-retention of the program, lack of self-control) (2, p. 91).

The anatomical features of the central nervous system explain the facts known to doctors of good drawing abilities in dysgraphics. This is to be expected, because in such a child the more "ancient", automated area of ​​the right hemisphere is in no way altered. Disagreements with the Russian language do not prevent these children from “explaining themselves” with the help of a drawing.

He associates three variants of desontogenesis with the pathogenesis of writing disorders: delayed development of mental functions; uneven development of individual sensorimotor and intellectual functions; partial underdevelopment of a number of mental functions.

3) Unfavorable social and environmental factors, which include: discrepancy between actual maturity and the beginning of literacy education; the volume and level of literacy requirements not correlated with the child's capabilities; discrepancy between the methods and pace of teaching the individual characteristics of the child.

So, difficulties in mastering writing arise mainly as a result of a combination of three groups of phenomena: biological insufficiency of the brain systems that arise on this basis of functional insufficiency; environmental conditions that place increased demands on retarded or immature mental functions.

It has been noticed that sometimes dysgraphia compensates over time, but in some cases it remains at an older age.

The question of the symptoms of dyslexia remains debatable. A number of authors believe that dyslexia is a monosymptomatic disorder that manifests itself only in reading errors (,
and etc.). Others believe that this disorder should be considered as a syndrome that includes, in addition to the shortcomings of the reading process itself, a complex of speech and non-speech symptoms (, etc.).

Until recently, in the domestic literature, dyslexia was associated mainly with disorders of oral speech: its aspects and the lexical and grammatical structure (,
, and etc.).

Recent studies have shown a close connection of reading disorders not only with speech deficiencies, but also with the unformedness of such mental functions as intellectual activity, memory, visual-spatial representations, visual-motor and auditory-motor coordination, as well as with features of functional asymmetry (8 ).

Another interesting observation of psychologists: dyslexia and dysgraphia occur in boys 3-4 times more often than in girls. About 5 to 8 percent of schoolchildren suffer from dyslexia and dysgraphia.

It is important that at preschool age it is possible to identify the prerequisites for dysgraphia, which will manifest itself in children with the beginning of schooling if appropriate preventive measures are not taken. The following prerequisites for dysgraphia should be indicated (3):

1) Lack of auditory differentiation of acoustically similar sounds: hard - soft; voiced - deaf, whistling - hissing, as well as sounds [p], [d], [l], which further leads to interchangeability in writing.

2) The presence of complete sound substitutions in oral speech, the incorrect pronunciation of words in the process of writing during the period of literacy training inevitably leads to the corresponding letter substitutions.

3) The lack of formation of the simplest types of tic analysis of words available to preschool children. In particular, these types of analysis include the following: recognition of a sound against the background of a word; highlighting a stressed vowel from the beginning of a word and a final consonant from the end of a word; determining the approximate place of a sound in a word.

4) Lack of formation of visual-spatial representations and visual analysis and synthesis. This makes it difficult for a child to differentiate similar letters in the process of literacy, which leads to optical dysgraphia.

5) The lack of formation of grammatical systems and, which is manifested in the child's incorrect use of word endings in oral speech. This leads to agrammatic dysgraphia.

Often both types of disorders: dyslexia and dysgraphia are observed in the same child. At the same time, signs of mental retardation are most often not observed. Thus, the inevitability of the appearance of all the main types of dysgraphia in children can be determined in the lower grades, and accordingly, everything possible can be done to eliminate it at the initial stage, until the violation of written speech has led the child to lag behind in all subjects in the future.

So, he believes that errors in dysgraphia are persistent and specific, which allows them to be distinguished among the errors that are characteristic of most children of primary school age during the period when they begin to master writing. Dysgraphic errors are numerous, repetitive and persist for a long time, associated with the lack of formation of the lexical and grammatical structure of speech, underdevelopment of opto-spatial functions, the inferior ability of children to differentiate phonemes by ear and in pronunciation, analyze sentences, carry out syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis (6) .

Interestingly, researchers characterize the types of dysgraphic errors in different ways. For example, he identifies the following groups of errors in writing, correlating them with one or another type of dysgraphia:

Distorted spelling of letters;

Replacement of handwritten letters that have a graphic similarity, as well as denoting phonetically similar sounds;

Distortion of the sound-letter structure of the word (permutations, omissions, additions, perseverations of letters, syllables);

Distortions in the structure of the sentence (separate spelling of the word, continuous spelling of words, contamination of words);

Agrammatisms in writing (6, p. 112).

But not all authors identify groups of specific errors, correlating them with different types of dysgraphia. In particular,
defines the main groups of errors, characterizing the possible mechanisms and conditions for their appearance in children's writing. For example, errors at the letter and syllable level can be due to (11):

Unformed actions of the sound analysis of words (omission, rearrangement, insertion of letters or syllables);

Difficulties in differentiating phonemes that have an acoustic-articulatory similarity (mixing paired voiced and voiceless consonants; labialized vowels;

Sonorant, whistling and hissing sounds, affricate); kinesthetic similarity in writing letters (replacement of letters that have identical graphomotor movements);

Phenomena of progressive both in oral and written speech, associated with the weakness of differential inhibition (distortion of the phonetic content of words: perseveration - stuck on any letter, syllable, or repetition in a word; - anticipation of a letter or syllable).

Errors at the word level may be due to difficulties in isolating speech units and their elements from the speech stream (violation of the individualization of words, manifested in the separate writing of parts of the word:

Prefixes or initial letters, syllables resembling a preposition, union,;

In word breaks during confluence of consonants due to weak articulatory fusion; in the continuous spelling of service words with the next or previous word, the continuous spelling of independent words);

Gross violations of sound analysis (contamination - the connection of parts of different words);

Difficulties in the analysis and synthesis of parts of words (agrammatism in the form of word formation errors: incorrect use of prefixes or suffixes; assimilation of various morphemes; incorrect choice of the form of the verb) (1, p.14-15).

Errors at the sentence level may be due to the insufficiency of linguistic generalizations, which does not allow schoolchildren to "catch" the categorical differences in parts of speech; violations of the connection of words: coordination and control (agrammatism, manifested in errors in changing words according to the categories of number, gender, case, time).

Writing disorders caused by a disorder of elementary functions (analyzer) are not considered as dysgraphia. In modern theory, it is also not customary to refer to dysgraphic errors that have the nature and are due to pedagogical neglect, impaired attention and control, writing as a complex speech activity.

Essential for the diagnosis and organization of psychological and pedagogical correction of dysgraphia is its differentiation from the position of the development of the defect, proposed. The author identified the following four groups of writing (and reading) disorders, taking into account the age of children, the stage of learning to read and write, the severity of impairments and the specifics of their manifestations (10):

1) Difficulties in mastering writing. Indicators: fuzzy knowledge of all letters; difficulties in translating a sound into a letter and vice versa, when translating a printed grapheme into a written one; difficulties of sound-letter analysis and synthesis; reading individual syllables with clearly learned printed characters; writing under the dictation of individual letters. They are diagnosed in the first half of the first year of study.

2) Violation of the formation of the writing process. Indicators: mixing of written and printed letters on various grounds (optical, motor); difficulties in retaining and reproducing the semantic alphabetic row; difficulty in merging letters into syllables and merging syllables into a word; reading letter by letter; writing off written letters from printed text is already being carried out, but independent writing is in the process of formation. Typical mistakes in writing: writing words without vowels, merging several words or splitting them. It is diagnosed in the second half of the first and at the beginning of the second year of study.

3) Dysgraphia. Indicators: persistent errors of the same or different types. It is diagnosed in the second half of the second year of study.

4) Dysorphography. Indicators: inability to apply spelling rules in writing according to the school curriculum for the corresponding period of study; a large number of spelling errors in written works. Diagnosed in the third year of study.

So, the causes of digraphia and dyslexia are diverse and can be due to both external and internal factors. The symptomatology of the phenomena under consideration plays an important role for their diagnosis and correction. At preschool age, the following necessary prerequisites for writing should be formed: listening to all speech sounds, including acoustically and articulatory close ones (voiced - deaf, soft - hard, whistling - hissing, R-L-Y); correct pronunciation of all speech sounds; possession of the simplest types of analysis available to preschool children (singling out a sound against the background of a word; determining the place of a sound in a word (beginning, middle, end); highlighting a stressed vowel sound from the beginning and end of a word).

Conclusion

In the process of work, we analyzed the psychological, pedagogical, speech therapy and methodological literature on this topic and came to the conclusion that reading disorders (dyslexia) and writing disorders (dysgraphia) are the most common forms of speech pathology. From the usual, common to all, the so-called "physiological" errors or growth errors, these errors differ in persistence, specificity, multiplicity and have certain, similar causes and mechanisms.

For many decades, the theoretical development of the problem of dysgraphia and dyslexia was carried out mainly by representatives of speech therapy science. Even in the current critical situation, it should be recognized that the speech therapy approach to the study of these phenomena has fully justified itself, since it is impossible to deny the deep organic connection between oral and written speech.

The causes of dyslexia and dysgraphia can be organic and functional, biological and social. Reading and writing disorders can be caused by organic damage to the cortical areas of the brain involved in the process of reading and writing, delayed maturation of these brain systems, and disruption of their functioning. Reading and writing disorders can be associated with long-term somatic diseases of children in the early period of their development, as well as with adverse external factors.

Since the violations we are considering are amenable to prevention and correction, this issue should be given special attention, since it is the path of prevention that should become the most basic in solving this problem. Already at preschool age, according to a number of signs, it is possible to foresee in advance which of the children is "threatened" by the appearance of dysgraphia and dyslexia, to outline a plan.

List of used literature

Amanatova of phonemic processes in speech therapy classes // Logopedia. - 2007. - No. 1. - P.13-17. , Fotekova of speech disorders of schoolchildren using neuropsychological methods. – M.: Vlados, 2002. – 120 p. Identification and overcoming of speech disorders in preschool age: method. allowance / Comp. . – M.: Iris-press, 2005. –
224 p. , Savchenko and dysorphography. Study, methodology, fairy tales. – M.: KARO, 2008. – 544 p. The roots of reading and writing in children: . - St. Petersburg: MiM, 2003. - 330 p. , Venediktova reading and writing in younger students: Diagnosis and correction: a teaching aid. _ St. Petersburg: SOYUZ Publishing House, 2004. - 224 p. Speech therapy: a textbook for students of defectological faculty. ped. higher educational institutions / Ed. . - M .: Humanitarian ed. center VLADOS, 2006. - 703 p. Ogarkina, predisposition to dyslexia in preschoolers: Author's abstract. diss. cand. psycho. Sciences / . - M., 2002. - 24 p. Paramonova: diagnostics, prevention, correction. - St. Petersburg: CHILDHOOD-PRESS, 2006. - 128 p. Povalyaeva and correction of written speech: teaching aid. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2006. - 192 with Sadovnikov teaching schoolchildren with reading and writing disorders. – M.: Vlados, 2005. – 140 p. Feigenzon, dyslexia in preschoolers aged 6-7 with general underdevelopment of speech // Festival of Pedagogical Ideas "Open Lesson". - 2006. - No. 2. - P.8-12.