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Chapter vi. technogenic environmental pollution

Technogenic emissions and impacts

The previous chapter dealt essentially with two broad categories of anthropogenic impacts: a) alteration of landscapes and the integrity of natural complexes, and b) withdrawal of natural resources. This chapter is devoted to technogenic pollution of the ecosphere and the human environment. Technogenic pollution of the environment is the most obvious and fast-acting negative causal relationship in the ecosphere system: "economy, production, technology, environment." It causes a significant part of the nature intensity of the technosphere and leads to the degradation of ecological systems, global climatic and geochemical changes, and to the defeat of people. The main efforts of applied ecology are aimed at preventing pollution of nature and the human environment.

Rice. 6.1. Classification of technogenic environmental pollution

Classification of technogenic impacts, caused by environmental pollution, includes the following main categories:

1. Material and energy characteristics impacts: mechanical, physical (thermal, electromagnetic, radiation, acoustic), chemical, biological factors and agents and their various combinations (Fig. 6.1). In most cases, these agents are emissions(i.e. emissions - emissions, sinks, radiation, etc.) of various technical sources.

2. Quantitative characteristics impacts: strength and degree of danger (intensity of factors and effects, masses, concentrations, characteristics such as "dose - effect", toxicity, acceptability according to environmental and sanitary and hygienic standards); spatial scales, prevalence (local, regional, global).

3. Time parameters and differences in impacts by the nature of the effects: short-term and long-term, persistent and unstable, direct and indirect, with pronounced or hidden trace effects, reversible and irreversible, actual and potential; threshold effects.

4. Categories of objects of influence: various living recipients (i.e., capable of perceiving and reacting) - people, animals, plants; environmental components (environment of settlements and premises, natural landscapes, ground surface, soil, water bodies, atmosphere, near-Earth space); products and structures.

Within each of these categories, a certain ranking of the environmental significance of factors, characteristics and objects is possible. In general, in terms of the nature and scale of actual impacts, the most significant chemical pollution, and the biggest potential threat comes from radiation. As for the objects of influence, in the first place, of course, is the person. Recently, not only the growth of pollution, but also their total impact, which often exceeds the simple summation of the consequences in terms of final effect, is of particular danger.

From an ecological point of view, all products of the technosphere that are not involved in the biotic cycle are pollutants. Even those that are chemically inert, as they take up space and become the ballast of ecotopes. Production products also become pollutants over time, representing "deposited waste". In a narrower sense, material pollutants - pollutants(from lat. pollutio - soiling) - they consider waste and products that can have a more or less specific negative impact on the quality of the environment or directly affect recipients. Depending on which of the media - air, water or earth - is polluted by certain substances, they distinguish accordingly aeropollutants, hydropollutants and terrapollutants.

Environmental pollution refers to unintentional, albeit obvious, easily perceived environmental violations. They come to the fore not only because many of them are significant, but also because they are difficult to control and fraught with unforeseen effects. Some of them, for example, technogenic CO 2 emissions or thermal pollution, are fundamentally inevitable as long as fuel energy exists.

Quantification of global pollution. The scale of waste from the global anthropogenic material balance has been described in the previous chapter. Recall that the total mass of wastes of modern mankind and products of the technosphere is almost 160 Gt/year, of which about 10 Gt form a mass of products, i.e. "delayed departure".

Thus, on average, one inhabitant of the planet accounts for about 26 tons of all anthropogenic emissions per year. 150 Gt of waste are distributed approximately as follows: 45 Gt (30%) are released into the atmosphere, 15 Gt (10%) are discharged into water bodies, 90 Gt (60%) fall on the surface of the earth.

These emission volumes are so large that even small concentrations of toxic impurities in them can add up to a huge amount. According to various expert opinions, the total mass of technogenic pollutants attributed to different hazard classes ranges from 1J5 to 1/8 Gt per year. those. approximately 250-300 kg for each inhabitant of the Earth. That's what it is minimum score global chemical pollution.

Chemicalization of the technosphere has reached by now such scales that significantly affect the geochemical appearance of the entire ecosphere. The total mass of manufactured products and chemically active wastes of the entire world chemical industry (together with related industries) exceeded 1.5 Gt/year. Almost all of this amount can be attributed to pollutants. But the point is not only in the total mass, but also in the number, variety and toxicity of the many substances produced. There are more than 10 7 chemical compounds in the world chemical nomenclature; every year their number increases by several thousand. More than 100 thousand substances are produced and offered on the market in noticeable quantities, about 5 thousand substances are produced on a mass scale. However, the vast majority of produced and used substances have not been evaluated in terms of their toxicity and environmental hazard.

Sources of technogenic emissions divided into organized and unorganized, stationary and mobile. Organized sources are equipped with special devices for directional emission output (pipes, ventilation shafts, discharge channels and gutters, etc.);

emissions from unorganized sources are arbitrary. Sources also differ in geometric characteristics (point, line, areal) and in the mode of operation - continuous, periodic, salvo.

Processes and technologies. The sources of the predominant part of chemical and thermal pollution are thermochemical processes in the energy sector - fuel combustion and related thermal and chemical processes and leaks. The main reactions that determine the emission of carbon dioxide, water vapor and heat (Q):

Coal: C + O 2 ¾® CO 2 and

Hydrocarbons: C n H m + (n + 0.25m) O 2 ¾® nCO 2 + (0.5m) H 2 O,

where Q = 102.2 (n + 0.25m) + 44.4 (0.5 m) kJ/mol.

Associated reactions that determine the emission of other pollutants are associated with the content of various impurities in the fuel, with the thermal oxidation of air nitrogen and secondary reactions, already occurring in the environment. All these reactions accompany the operation of thermal power plants, industrial furnaces, internal combustion engines, gas turbine and jet engines, metallurgy processes, and the firing of mineral raw materials. The greatest contribution to energy-dependent pollution of the environment is made by thermal power engineering and transport.

Rice. 6.2. The impact of a thermal power plant on the environment

1 - boiler; 2 - pipe; 3 - steam pipe; 4 - electric generator;

5 - electrical substation; 6 - capacitor; 7 - water intake for condenser cooling; 8 - boiler water supply; 9 - power transmission line;

10 - consumers of electricity; 11 - body of water

The general picture of the impact of a thermal power plant (TPP) on the environment is shown in fig. 6.2. When fuel is burned, its entire mass is converted into solid, liquid and gaseous waste. Data on emissions of the main air pollutants during the operation of thermal power plants are given in Table. 6.1.

Table 6.1

Specific emissions into the atmosphere during the operation of a 1000 MW TPP operating on different types of fuel, g/kW * hour

The range of values depends on the quality of the fuel and the type of combustion units. A coal-fired power plant with a capacity of 1000 MW, subject to the neutralization of 80% sulfur dioxide, annually emits 36 billion m 3 of exhaust gases, 5000 tons of SO 2, 10000 tons of NO x 3000 tons of dust and smoke particles, 100 million m 3 of steam, 360 thousand tons of dust into the atmosphere. tons of ash and 5 million m 3 of wastewater with an impurity content of 0.2 to 2 g/l. On average, about 150 kg of pollutants are emitted per 1 ton of standard fuel in the fuel heat and power industry. In total, about 700 million tons of pollutants of various hazard classes are emitted annually by stationary heat and power sources of the world, including about 400 million tons of air pollutants.

Number internal combustion engines(ICE) in the world exceeded 1 billion. About 670 million of them are car engines. The rest of the amount refers to other modes of transport, agricultural machinery, military equipment, small motor vehicles and stationary internal combustion engines. More than 80% of the fleet is made up of passenger cars. Of the 3.3 billion tons of oil currently produced in the world, almost 1.5 billion tons (45%) are used by all modes of transport, including 1.2 billion tons by cars.

Consider the metabolism of an "average" passenger car with a carburetor engine with a fuel consumption in the mixed driving mode of 8 liters (6 kg) per 100 km. With optimal engine operation, burning 1 kg of gasoline is accompanied by the consumption of 13.5 kg of air and the emission of 14.5 kg of waste substances. Their composition is shown in Table. 6.2. The corresponding emission of a diesel engine is slightly less. In general, up to 200 individual substances are registered in the exhaust of a modern car. The total mass of pollutants - an average of about 270 g per 1 kg of gasoline burned - gives, in terms of the entire volume of fuel consumed by passenger cars in the world, about 340 million tons. A similar calculation for all road transport (plus trucks, buses) will increase this figure by at least up to 400 million tons. It should also be borne in mind that in the actual practice of operating vehicles, spills and leaks of fuel and oils, the formation of metal, rubber and asphalt dust, and harmful aerosols are very significant.

Table 6.2

The composition of the exhaust gases of the car,% by volume

Metallurgical processes based on the recovery of metals from ores, where they are contained mainly in the form of oxides or sulfides, using thermal and electrolytic reactions. The most typical total (simplified) reactions:

(iron) Fe 2 O 3 + 3C + O 2 . ¾®2Fe + CO + 2CO 2;

(copper) Cu 2 S + O 2 ¾® 2Cu + SO 2;

(aluminum, electrolysis) Al 2 O 3 + 2O ¾® 2A1 + CO + CO 2.

Process chain in ferrous metallurgy includes the production of pellets and agglomerates, coke, blast furnace, steelmaking, rolling, ferroalloy, foundry and other auxiliary technologies. All metallurgical stages are accompanied by intense environmental pollution (Table 6.3). In coke production, aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, ammonia, cyanides and a number of other substances are additionally released. Ferrous metallurgy consumes large amounts of water. Although 80 - 90% of industrial needs are met by circulating water supply systems, the intake of fresh water and the discharge of polluted effluents reach very large volumes, respectively, about 25 - 30 m 3 and 10 - 15 m 3 per 1 ton of full-cycle products. Significant amounts of suspended solids, sulfates, chlorides, and heavy metal compounds enter water bodies with runoff.

Table 6.3

Gas emissions (before treatment) of the main stages of ferrous metallurgy (without coke production), in kg / t of the corresponding product

* kg/m metal surface

Non-ferrous metallurgy, despite the relatively smaller material flows of production, it is not inferior to ferrous metallurgy in terms of total emission toxicity. In addition to a large amount of solid and liquid waste containing such hazardous pollutants as lead, mercury, vanadium, copper, chromium, cadmium, thallium, etc., many air pollutants are also emitted. During the metallurgical processing of sulfide ores and concentrates, a large mass of sulfur dioxide is formed. Thus, about 95% of all harmful gas emissions from the Norilsk Mining and Metallurgical Plant are SO 2 , and the degree of its utilization does not exceed 8%.

Technologies of the chemical industry with all its branches (basic inorganic chemistry, oil and gas chemistry, wood chemistry, organic synthesis, pharmacological chemistry, microbiological industry, etc.) contain many essentially open material cycles. The main sources of harmful emissions are the processes of production of inorganic acids and alkalis, synthetic rubber, mineral fertilizers, pesticides, plastics, dyes, solvents, detergents, oil cracking. The list of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes of the chemical industry is huge both in terms of the mass of pollutants and their toxicity. In the chemical complex of the Russian Federation, more than 10 million tons of hazardous industrial waste is generated annually.

Various technologies in the manufacturing industries, primarily in mechanical engineering, include a large number of various thermal, chemical and mechanical processes (foundry, forging and pressing, machining production, welding and cutting of metals, assembly, galvanic, paint and varnish processing, etc.). They give a large amount of harmful emissions that pollute the environment. A significant contribution to the overall environmental pollution is also made by various processes accompanying the extraction and enrichment of mineral raw materials and construction. The contribution of various branches of industrial production to environmental pollution is shown in fig. 6.3.

Agriculture and the life of people in terms of their own waste - the remains and waste products of plants, animals and humans - are essentially not sources of environmental pollution, since these products can be included in the biotic cycle. But, firstly, modern agricultural technologies and municipal services are characterized by a concentrated discharge of most of the waste, which leads to significant local excesses of the permissible concentrations of organic matter and such phenomena as eutrophication and contamination of water bodies. Secondly, and even more seriously, agriculture and human life are intermediaries and participants in the dispersal and spread of a significant part of industrial pollution in the form of distributed emission flows, residues of petroleum products, fertilizers, pesticides and various used products, garbage - from toilet paper to abandoned farms and cities.

Between all environments there is a constant exchange of part of the pollutants: a heavy part of aerosols, gas-smoke and dust impurities from the atmosphere falls onto the earth's surface and into water bodies, part of solid waste from the earth's surface is washed into water bodies or dispersed by air currents. Environmental pollution affects a person directly or through a biological link (Fig. 6.4). In technogenic flows of pollutants, a key place is occupied by transport media - air and water.

Rice. 6.3. Relative contribution of Russian industries to environmental pollution, % (1996)

A - emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere;

B - discharges of polluted wastewater

Rice. 6.4. Scheme of environmental pollution effects

Air pollution

Composition, quantity and danger of air pollutants. Of the 52 Gt of global anthropogenic emissions into the atmosphere, more than 90% are carbon dioxide and water vapor, which are usually not classified as pollutants (the special role of CO 2 emissions is discussed below). Technogenic emissions into the air include tens of thousands of individual substances. However, the most common, "multi-tonnage" pollutants are relatively few in number. These are various solid particles (dust, smoke, soot), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO 2), nitrogen oxides (NO and NO 2), various volatile hydrocarbons (CH x), phosphorus compounds, hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S ), ammonia (NH 3), chlorine (C1), hydrogen fluoride (HF). The amounts of the first five groups of substances from this list, measured in tens of millions of tons and emitted into the air around the world and Russia, are presented in Table. 6.4. Together with other substances not listed in the table, the total mass of emissions from all organized sources whose emissions can be measured is about 800 million tons. These amounts do not include air pollution from wind erosion, forest fires and volcanic eruptions. This also does not include that part of the harmful substances that is captured by various means of cleaning exhaust gases.

The greatest pollution of the atmosphere is confined to industrial regions. About 90% of emissions occur in 10% of the land area and are concentrated mainly in North America, Europe and East Asia. The air basin of large industrial cities is especially heavily polluted, where technogenic heat and air pollutant flows, especially under adverse weather conditions (high atmospheric pressure and thermal inversions), often create dust domes and phenomena. syllable - toxic mixtures of fog, smoke, hydrocarbons and harmful oxides. Such situations are accompanied by strong excesses of MPC of many air pollutants.

Table 6.4

Emissions into the atmosphere of the five main pollutants in the world and in Russia (million tons)

According to state records, the total emissions of pollutants on the territory of the Russian Federation for 1991-1996. decreased by 36.3%, which is a consequence of the fall in production. But the rate of decrease in emissions is less than the rate of decline in production, and per unit of GNP, emissions into the atmosphere remain at the same level.

More than 200 cities in Russia, with a population of 65 million people, are constantly exceeding the MPC of toxic substances. Residents of 70 cities are systematically faced with exceeding the MPC by 10 or more times. Among them are such cities as Moscow, St. Petersburg, Samara, Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Kemerovo, Khabarovsk. In these cities, the main contribution to the total emissions of harmful substances falls on the share of vehicles, for example, in Moscow it is 88%, in St. Petersburg - 71%. In terms of gross emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere, the Ural economic region is the leader. Along with this, Russia as a whole is not the main supplier of harmful emissions into the atmosphere, since the flow of air pollutants per inhabitant and per unit area of the country is much lower than in the United States and Western European countries. But they are noticeably higher per unit of GNP. This testifies to the high resource intensity of production, outdated technologies and insufficient use of emission cleaning agents. Of the 25 thousand Russian enterprises that pollute the atmosphere, only 38% are equipped with dust and gas cleaning plants, of which 20% do not work or work inefficiently. This is one of the reasons for the increased emissions of some small, but toxic pollutants - hydrocarbons and heavy metals.

Russia occupies a disadvantageous geographical position in relation to the transboundary transfer of air pollutants. Due to the predominance of westerly winds, a significant proportion of air pollution in the European territory of Russia (ETR) comes from aerogenic transport from the countries of Western and Central Europe and neighboring countries. About 50% of foreign compounds of sulfur and nitrogen oxides are supplied to the ETR by Ukraine, Poland, Germany and other European countries.

For integral assessment of the state of the air basin apply the index of total air pollution:

(6.1)

where q i is the annual average concentration in the air of i-ro substances;

A i - hazard index i-ro of the substance, inverse MPC of this substance: A i = 1/MPC i ;

C i - coefficient depending on the hazard class of the substance: C i is equal to 1.5; 1.3; 1.0 and 0.85, respectively, for hazard classes 1, 2, 3 and 4 (summary information on MPC and hazard classes of the main air pollutants is given in Appendix PP).

I m is a simplified indicator and is usually calculated for t = 5 - the most significant concentrations of substances that determine the total air pollution. This five most often includes substances such as benzopyrene, formaldehyde, phenol, ammonia, nitrogen dioxide, carbon disulfide, and dust. Index I m varies from fractions of one to 15-20 - extremely dangerous levels of pollution. In 1996, the list of cities with the highest level of air pollution (Im > 14) included 44 cities in Russia.

The earth's atmosphere has the ability to self-purify itself from pollutants, thanks to the physical, chemical and biological processes taking place in it. However, the power of technogenic sources of pollution has increased so much that in the lower troposphere, along with a local increase in the concentration of certain gases and aerosols, global changes occur. Man interferes with the cycle of substances balanced by biota, sharply increasing the release of harmful substances into the atmosphere, but not ensuring their removal. The concentration of a number of anthropogenic substances in the atmosphere (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides, etc.) is growing rapidly. This indicates that the assimilation potential of the biota is close to exhaustion.

Technogenic oxides of sulfur and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Acid precipitation. According to a number of indicators, primarily in terms of the mass and prevalence of harmful effects, the number one air pollutant is sulfur dioxide. It is formed during the oxidation of sulfur contained in the fuel or in the composition of sulfide ores. Due to the increase in the capacity of high-temperature processes, the conversion of many thermal power plants to gas and the growth of the car fleet, emissions are growing nitrogen oxides, formed during the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen. The entry into the atmosphere of large amounts of SO 2 and nitrogen oxides leads to a noticeable decrease in the pH of precipitation. This is due to secondary reactions in the atmosphere, leading to the formation of strong acids - sulfuric and nitric. These reactions involve oxygen and water vapor, as well as technogenic dust particles as catalysts:

2SO 2 + O 2 + 2H 2 O ¾® 2H 2 SO 4;

4NO 2 + 2H 2 O + O 2 ¾®4HNO 3.

A number of intermediate products of these reactions also appear in the atmosphere. The dissolution of acids in atmospheric moisture leads to precipitation "acid rain". The pH value of precipitation in some cases decreases by 2 - 2.5 units, i.e. instead of the normal 5.6 - 5.7 to 3.2 - 3.7. It should be recalled that pH is the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen ions, and therefore water with pH = 3.7 is a hundred times “acidic” than water with pH = 5.7. In industrial areas and in areas of atmospheric introduction of sulfur and nitrogen oxides, the pH of rainwater ranges from 3 to 5. Acid precipitation is especially dangerous in areas with acidic soils and low buffering of natural waters. In America and Eurasia, these are vast territories north of 55 ° N. latitude. Technogenic acid, in addition to a direct negative effect on plants, animals and microflora, increases the mobility and leaching of soil cations, displaces carbon dioxide from carbonates and soil organic matter, and acidifies the water of rivers and lakes. This leads to adverse changes in aquatic ecosystems. The natural complexes of Southern Canada and Northern Europe have long felt the effects of acid precipitation.

In large areas, degradation of coniferous forests is observed, the fauna of reservoirs is getting poorer. In the 70s, salmon and trout began to die in the rivers and lakes of Scotland and Scandinavia. Similar phenomena occur in Russia, especially in the North-West, in the Urals and in the region of Norilsk, where vast areas of taiga and forest-tundra have become almost lifeless due to sulfur emissions from the Norilsk plant.

Destruction of the ozone layer. In the 1970s, there were reports of regional decreases in ozone in the stratosphere. The seasonally pulsating the ozone hole over Antarctica with an area of more than 10 million km 2 , where the O 2 content has decreased by almost 50% in the 1980s. Later, "wandering ozone holes", although smaller in size and not with such a significant decrease, began to be observed in winter in the Northern Hemisphere, in the zones of persistent anticyclones - over Greenland, Northern Canada and Yakutia. The average rate of global decline for the period from 1980 to 1995 is estimated at 0.5-0.7% per year.

Since the weakening of the ozone screen is extremely dangerous for the entire terrestrial biota and for human health, these data attracted the close attention of scientists, and then the whole society. A number of hypotheses have been put forward about the causes of ozone depletion. Most experts are inclined to believe that technogenic origin ozone holes. The most substantiated idea is that the main reason is the entry into the upper layers of the atmosphere of technogenic chlorine and fluorine, as well as other atoms and radicals capable of extremely actively attaching atomic oxygen, thereby competing with the reaction

O + O 2 ¾® O 3.

Rice. 6.5. World production of chlorofluorocarbons

The introduction of active halogens into the upper atmosphere is mediated by volatiles. chlorofluorocarbons(CFC) type freons (mixed fluorochlorides of methane and ethane, for example, freon-12 - dichlorodifluoromethane, CF 2 CI 2), which, being inert and non-toxic under normal conditions, decompose under the action of short-wave ultraviolet rays in the stratosphere. Breaking free, each chlorine atom is able to destroy or prevent the formation of many ozone molecules. Chlorofluorocarbons have a number of useful properties that have led to their widespread use in refrigeration units, air conditioners, aerosol cans, fire extinguishers, etc. Since 1950 world production

Rice. 6.6. Global warming data:

A - deviations from the average value of surface air temperature in the 20th century and forecast,

B - global trend of average temperature in the second half of the century

CFC increased annually by 7 - 10% (Fig. 6.5) and in the 80s amounted to about 1 million tons. Subsequently, international agreements were adopted obliging member countries to reduce the use of CFCs. As early as 1978, the United States introduced a ban on the use of CFC aerosols. But the expansion of other applications of CFCs has again led to an increase in their global production. The transition of the industry to new ozone-saving technologies is associated with large financial costs. In recent decades, other, purely technical ways of bringing active ozone destroyers into the stratosphere have appeared: nuclear explosions in the atmosphere, emissions of supersonic aircraft, launches of rockets and reusable spacecraft. It is possible, however, that part of the observed weakening of the Earth's ozone screen is associated not with man-made emissions, but with secular fluctuations in the aerochemical properties of the atmosphere and independent climate changes.

Greenhouse effect and climate change. Technogenic pollution of the atmosphere is to a certain extent associated with climate change. We are talking not only about the quite obvious dependence of the mesoclimate of industrial centers and their environs on thermal, dust and chemical air pollution, but also about the global climate.

From the end of the 19th century to date, there is a tendency to increase the average temperature of the atmosphere (Fig. 6.6); over the past 50 years, it has risen by about 0.7°C. This is by no means small, considering that in this case the gross increase in the internal energy of the atmosphere is very large - about 3000 EJ. It is not associated with an increase in the solar constant and depends only on the properties of the atmosphere itself. The main factor is the decrease in the spectral transparency of the atmosphere for long-wavelength return radiation from the earth's surface, i.e. gain greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is created by an increase in the concentration of a number of gases - CO 2 , CO, CH 4 , NO x , CFCs, etc., named greenhouse gases. According to data summarized recently by the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), there is a fairly high positive correlation between greenhouse gas concentrations and deviations in global atmospheric temperature. Currently, a significant part of greenhouse gas emissions is of anthropogenic origin. The dynamics of their average concentrations over the past 200 years is shown in fig. 6.7.

Trends global warming is given great importance. The question of whether it will happen or not is no longer worth it. According to experts from the World Meteorological Service, at the current level of greenhouse gas emissions, the average global temperature in the next century will increase at a rate of 0.25 ° C per 10 years. Its growth by the end of the 21st century, according to different scenarios (depending on the adoption of certain measures), can range from 1.5 to 4°C. In the northern and middle latitudes, warming will affect more than at the equator. It would seem that such an increase in temperature should not cause much concern. Moreover, possible warming in countries with a cold climate, such as Russia, seems almost desirable. In fact, the consequences of climate change can be catastrophic. Global warming will cause a significant redistribution of precipitation on the planet. The level of the World Ocean due to the melting of ice can rise by 2050 by 30 - 40 cm, and by the end of the century - from 60 to 100 cm. This will create a threat of flooding of significant coastal areas.

Rice. 6.7. Changes in greenhouse gas concentrations from the beginning of the industrial revolution to the present

CFC-11 - freons, chlorofluorocarbons

For the territory of Russia, the general trend of climate change is characterized by weak warming, the average annual air temperature from 1891 to 1994 increased by 0.56°C. Over the period of instrumental observations, the last 15 years were the warmest, and 1999 turned out to be the warmest. In the last three decades, a tendency towards a decrease in precipitation is also noticeable. One of the alarming consequences of climate change for Russia may be the destruction of frozen soils. An increase in temperature in the permafrost zone by 2-3° will lead to a change in the bearing properties of soils, which will jeopardize various structures and communications. In addition, the reserves of CO 2 and methane contained in the permafrost from thawed soils will begin to enter the atmosphere, aggravating the greenhouse effect.

Along with such forecasts, there are certain doubts about the entirely technogenic causation of climate change. They are based, in particular, on the fact that the change in global temperature during the industrial era still does not go beyond the range of natural secular temperature fluctuations in the past, while greenhouse gas emissions have far exceeded natural changes.

CHAPTER VI. Technogenic environmental pollution

Technogenic emissions and impacts

Rice. 6.1. Classification of technogenic environmental pollution

Classification of technogenic impacts, caused by environmental pollution, includes the following main categories:

emissions from unorganized sources are arbitrary. Sources also differ in geometric characteristics (point, line, areal) and in the mode of operation - continuous, periodic, salvo.

Coal: C + O 2 ¾® CO 2 and

Hydrocarbons: C n H m + (n + 0.25m) O 2 ¾® nCO 2 + (0.5m) H 2 O,

where Q = 102.2 (n + 0.25m) + 44.4 (0.5 m) kJ/mol.

Rice. 6.2. The impact of a thermal power plant on the environment

1 - boiler; 2 - pipe; 3 - steam pipe; 4 - electric generator;

5 - electrical substation; 6 - capacitor; 7 - water intake for condenser cooling; 8 - boiler water supply; 9 - power transmission line;

10 - consumers of electricity; 11 - body of water

Table 6.1

Specific emissions into the atmosphere during the operation of a 1000 MW TPP operating on different types of fuel, g/kW * hour

Table 6.2

The composition of the exhaust gases of the car,% by volume

(iron) Fe 2 O 3 + 3C + O 2 . ¾®2Fe + CO + 2CO 2;

(copper) Cu 2 S + O 2 ¾® 2Cu + SO 2;

(aluminum, electrolysis) Al 2 O 3 + 2O ¾® 2A1 + CO + CO 2.

Table 6.3

Gas emissions (before treatment) of the main stages of ferrous metallurgy (without coke production), in kg / t of the corresponding product

* kg/m metal surface

Scientific and technological progress, determined by many socio-economic, scientific, technical and other factors, has led to a significant increase in the use of natural resources. At the same time, pollutant emissions also increased. At the same time, the most dangerous is the fact that in the process of production activities such substances began to be produced that nature itself had not previously produced. These pollutants, entering the environment, are not processed for many years due to the natural cycle, accumulate in soil, water and air and pose a serious threat to the flora and fauna, including human health.

The ecological load on the environment has increased especially sharply over the last century. In the 20th century, the population increased from 1.5 to 6 billion people. At the same time, there was a significant increase in the consumption of natural resources.

So, for example, if up to 1900 mankind used up to 150 mrd. tons and natural natural resources, after 70 years this value amounted to 250 billion. tons, and at the end of the 20th century it exceeded 450 billion. tons.

Electricity production over the past century has increased by more than 1000 times, and since about 80% of electricity is generated at thermal power plants, the extraction of fuel resources has also increased accordingly.

With the growth of industry and the process of urbanization, thousands of square kilometers are annually lost from the agricultural cycle. At the same time, it is required to obtain higher yields of agricultural products from smaller areas, which cannot but lead to serious depletion of agricultural land.

The above has so seriously affected the balance of substances in nature that in some regions we can already seriously talk about an ecological catastrophe. Therefore, in order to prevent an ecological catastrophe on a global scale, humanity, along with the consumption of natural resources, must direct maximum efforts to protect and restore the environment.

Environmental pollution is a process of undesirable loss of natural raw materials, energy, labor and funds, the transformation of raw materials and equipment into irretrievably lost waste, and their dispersion in the biosphere.

Pollution is a consequence of irreversible destruction of both individual components of the ecosystem and the biosphere as a whole.

As a result of pollution, there is a decrease in soil fertility, a decrease in the productivity of water bodies, and a deterioration in the chemical state of the air environment. It largely affects the moral state of a person and his health.

Therefore, protecting the environment from pollution is one of the main tasks in the problem of rational nature management.

The main sources of industrial pollution of the environment include transport and industrial installations, but not a small role is played by power plants, municipal services of cities and, to a certain extent, agriculture.

Transport is the biggest polluter of the environment. During engine operation, exhaust gases are emitted directly into the atmosphere.

With these gases, such harmful compounds as carbon monoxide, oxides and dioxides of sulfur and nitrogen, heavy hydrocarbons, heavy metals, soot and dust with an oil emulsion enter the air environment.

Carbon monoxide at a concentration of about 200 mg/m3 causes the first signs of poisoning. It affects the nervous system, causing suffocation.

Sulfur dioxide at a concentration of 20-30 mg / m3 has a noticeable effect on the mucous membrane of the eye and the respiratory tract.

Sulfur oxides in contact with water form sulfurous acid, which falls to the ground in the form of acid rain. It is dangerous for vegetation and, first of all, for conifers, leading them to death. Sulfur oxides accelerate the corrosion of metals.

Oxides and dioxides of nitrogen in moist air form nitric acid, which, falling on the ground in the form of rain, affects the land cover and is deposited in agricultural products in the form of nitrates. Compounds of nitrogen oxides with heavy hydrocarbons are especially dangerous. Human poisoning begins with a cough. The resulting acids can lead to pulmonary edema.

Hydrocarbons and, first of all, heavy ones, such as benzopyrene, sooty compounds and tars, have carcinogenic properties, causing cancer.

Light hydrocarbons in the form of gasoline and diesel fuel vapors in small doses have narcotic properties, but with prolonged exposure, a person feels a headache, dizziness, and an unpleasant sensation in the throat.

Lead compounds affect the content of hemoglobin in the blood, lead to diseases of the respiratory tract and urinary organs.

Fine dust with particle sizes from 0.1 to 1 mm easily penetrates into human lungs. Especially dangerous are oily fogs and dust from industrial sources, which can adsorb fluorine compounds, chlorine and other highly toxic harmful substances.

During the technical operation and repair of vehicles, the soil is contaminated as a result of the runoff or drain of working fluids and oils. These harmful liquids with rains when snow melts or with irrigation water enter the reservoirs.

Up to 10,000,000 tons of oil and oil products enter the world's oceans annually, of which industrial enterprises and transport account for up to 40%.

The presence of an oil or oil film on water surfaces impairs gas exchange between air and water, which leads to a decrease in the oxygen concentration in the water and, as a result, a deterioration in the state of flora and fauna, the death of fish and birds.

Pollution of nature also occurs from transport enterprises and, in general, from the entire transport infrastructure. In the areas of large railway stations and car fleets, the surface of the earth is also polluted with various mechanical impurities. These include ash, slag, building materials, metal, plastic and wood fiber dust. The territories of transport facilities are often littered with household garbage and industrial waste. They may also contain the most dangerous and harmful substances, such as lead, cadmium, and mercury. The land in the area of railway stations is saturated with various pesticides, creosote and oil products, which turns the areas adjacent to the stations into ecological disaster zones.

The role of industrial enterprises in the matter of biosphere pollution is no less significant, but, unlike transport, stationary sources of harmful substances are easier to control.

The operation of any industrial enterprise constantly requires natural resources in the form of raw materials and fuel, electricity, clean water, oxygen.

As a result of production processes, along with the main products, enterprises generate significant losses of materials, waste of raw materials and products, as well as polluted waste water, air emissions and energy pollutants.

The largest industrial pollutants of the environment are enterprises of the metallurgical, chemical and oil refining profile.

So, in particular, when melting 1 ton of metal, up to 1000 m3 of top gas is emitted into the atmosphere, containing CO, SO2, NOx, oil vapors, SiO2, CaO, Al2O3, MgO, FenOn and C.

Approximately the same composition of harmful gases is released during electric arc welding.

In the workshops of machine-building plants, dust is emitted containing acid and oil aerosols, carbon and sulfur oxides, ammonia and hydrogen cyanide vapors. The concentration of dust in the air in some areas reaches 7 g/m3 of air, and the average acid content is 2.5 g/m3.

In terms of a ton of products, dust emission is 200 g/t, while fine dust accounts for up to 80%.

When processing wood, plastic, graphite and other non-metallic materials, in terms of one machine, an average of up to 1000 g of dust per hour is released.

In welding shops, in terms of 1 kg of electrodes, up to 40 g of dust, 2 g of hydrogen fluoride, 1.5 g of oxides C and N are formed.

In paint shops, vapors of solvents and paint aerosols enter the indoor air, the total concentration of which reaches 400 mg/m3.

Since emissions of harmful substances occur in the area of the enterprise, significant environmental pollution is formed in the adjacent territory.

On the territory of enterprises, wastewater is generated, which can be divided into three groups:

domestic wastewater that is generated during the operation of showers, canteens, toilets and laundries in enterprises. This water is sent to purification stations.

surface sewage, which is formed as a result of the washout of the territory by rain, melt water and irrigation water. The main impurities in it are solid particles of any origin, petroleum products, chemical compounds, etc.

industrial waters that are used in technological cycles.

In general, for enterprises, the volume of treated water is approximately 10%. Therefore, enterprises are given the value of the maximum allowable discharge of harmful compounds and an increased payment is established both for excess discharge of polluted water and for increased use of clean water from the city's water supply system.

Emissions into the atmosphere and discharge of polluted water from industrial enterprises and transport significantly affect the state of adjacent enterprises and main roads of land.

Soil pollution with heavy metals in combination with sulfurous pollution leads to the formation of technological deserts. The species of coniferous forests, birch, oak, and beech are most sensitive to such pollution. With a content of 2-3 g of lead in 1 kg of soil, the soil becomes necrotic. At the same time, in the areas of large highways and railway stations, the content of lead in the soil reaches 10-15 g per 1 kg.

When removing waste to unequipped landfills, there is a real threat of pollution of the surface and groundwater. Groundwater, as a result of interaction with polluted soil, becomes acidic and carries with it compounds of various harmful substances.

The construction of transport infrastructure and industrial facilities requires the withdrawal of significant land areas. In this area, natural water flows are disturbed, the nature of the soil layer is changing and the natural balance is disturbed.

In addition to the above, transport and industrial enterprises also create energy pollution of the environment, which include excessive heat generation, noise, vibration, electromagnetic waves and ionizing radiation.

Increased thermal emissions lead to increased evaporation of moisture, the formation of fog, and a decrease in the number of sunny days. As a result, there is an increase in the average annual temperature in the earth's atmosphere. Over the past 50 years, it has already increased by 1.3 ˚С. This, ultimately, affects the increased melting of glaciers and polar ice, which affects the rise in the level of the world's oceans. An analysis of heat emissions shows that there are areas in industrial cities where heat releases range from 10 to 200 W/m2. In these areas, stable spatial heat islands are formed, in which the air temperature is 1-1.5 ˚С higher than the equilibrium natural air temperature on average in the city. These areas are most likely to experience fog, cloudiness and suburban precipitation. And since the content of sulfur and nitrogen oxides increases in moist air, acid rain is also likely. They reduce soil fertility, impair human health, destroy metal structures due to rapid corrosion, and adversely affect flora and fauna.

The flow of heat into water bodies leads to an increase in their temperature, a decrease in the concentration of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen in the water, which in turn adversely affects the aquatic flora and fauna.

Noise in the environment is created by single or complex sources, which include transport, technical equipment of industrial enterprises, etc.

Noise in cities now often exceeds the norm by 10-25 dB, which affects the human nervous system, leads to fatigue, loss of sleep, and, with increased noise levels in some production processes, to early deafness.

Vibration occurs as a result of the operation of technical impact equipment, the movement of heavy vehicles and the operation of large power equipment. Vibration propagates through the ground and affects the foundations of buildings, causing them to settle and collapse, leading to the formation of landslides. The effect of vibration is especially noticeable in wet soils and in sand.

Vibration causes irritation in a person, reduces his performance, and with constant daily exposure leads to serious diseases. Depending on the source and the condition of the ground, vibration can spread from 50 to 200 m.

Electromagnetic fields from anthropogenic sources occur at radio engineering, television and location facilities, in electrothermal shops, microwave units, as well as at high-voltage substations and along high-voltage lines. The zone of influence of electromagnetic waves reaches up to 100-150 m.

Electromagnetic fields affect the human nervous system, causing headaches, fatigue, memory impairment and sleep disturbance.

Technogenesis is the process of changing natural complexes under the influence of human production activities. Technogenesis consists in the transformation of the biosphere, caused by a set of geochemical processes associated with the technical and technological activities of people. In most cases, human production activity is accompanied by a negative impact on the biosphere, the result of which is its gradual degradation. One of the main components of this process is anthropogenic pollution of ecosystems. The continuously increasing human economic activity has led to the fact that in many developed countries there are practically no unpolluted regions left. The economic damage from environmental pollution (OS) in developed countries is equal to the loss of 5-10% of the gross national product. For Russia, environmental damage annually amounts to 50-100 billion rubles. (in 1990 prices) . Russia is characterized by some features of socio-economic development that cause intensive degradation of the natural environment:
- industry in the Russian Federation is still predominantly extractive and includes many resource- and energy-intensive industries;
– the technological potential of the country does not exceed the level of the 70s, that is, it corresponds to the period of the “dirty industry”;
- a high degree of wear and tear of industrial equipment and an extremely low provision of production facilities with treatment facilities, which increases the risk of accidents with severe environmental consequences.

As a result of human economic activity, a large number of organic and inorganic substances of various chemical classes are excreted in the environment. It is beyond our scope to consider all of them, and in this review we will restrict ourselves to heavy metals (HMs). In addition to chemical pollution, the Earth's biosphere is exposed to physical pollution. Since the late 1940s, OS has been experiencing intense radiation pollution. In addition, with the intensive development of electrical engineering and electronic means of communication, there is a sharp anthropogenic increase in the electromagnetic background of the biosphere and, especially, the industrial and residential areas of man.

The genetic effects of certain chemical classes of compounds (for example, pesticides) have been studied quite well, although there are many unresolved problems in these areas. The mutagenicity of HM has been less studied. This is explained by the fact that the period of methodological improvement of experimental mutagenesis coincided with the period of widespread use of pesticides throughout the world. Intensive environmental pollution with pesticides and their direct threat to the health and heredity of people led to close attention to their genetic effects. At present, due to the improvement of biological selectivity and the increase in the biological activity of pesticides, their share in the total pollution of the natural environment is gradually decreasing. But instead of them, HMs become priority environmental pollutants. Therefore, our insufficient knowledge about the mutagenicity of HMs for organisms of various levels of organization becomes an obstacle to the improvement of environmental practices.

The genetic effects of electromagnetic fields are currently practically not studied, and in connection with this, there are very few published works on this issue.

Since anthropogenic environmental pollution occurs in a complex way, i.e. simultaneously with a large number of chemical and physical factors, the genetic effects of the combined, complex and combined action of these factors are of interest. This area of experimental mutagenesis is also very poorly studied. Below we provide an overview of the sources and extent of environmental pollution by the factors we are studying, as well as their mutagenic properties.

1.1.1. Environmental pollution with heavy metals

In the mid-70s, the head of the toxicological group of the program "Man and the Biosphere" F. Korte, groups of substances polluting the biosphere were arranged in the following order, decreasing in terms of their degree of danger: pesticides, HMs, carbon and sulfur oxides. According to F. Korte, at the beginning of the 21st century, HMs will move to the first place in this series (). In all likelihood, this gloomy prediction came true by the end of the 1990s, at least for Russia.

Heavy metals include a group of chemical elements with a density of more than 5 g / cm 3 or an atomic mass of more than 40. The mass distribution of HMs, the biological cycle and migration cycles of HMs are considered in a number of reviews.

Within each zonal soil type, there can be territories of different areas with sharply different chemical composition of the soil cover. These are the so-called natural biogeochemical anomalies. In the zone of activity of many industrial enterprises (mines, mines, metallurgical plants, etc.), technogenic biogeochemical anomalies (provinces) arise. Elevated concentrations of HMs in the bioinert components of the natural environment (natural geochemical provinces) can occur in places where ore-bearing rocks come to the earth's surface. The development of metal ores leads to intense environmental pollution, and the natural geochemical province is transformed into a technogenic province. For example, mining enterprises annually emit up to 20 million tons of dust and gas substances, a significant proportion of which are aerosol particles of various HM compounds. An intensive source of environmental pollution with HMs are enterprises for the processing and enrichment of metal ores. Enrichment plants annually send up to 10 km 3 of solid and liquid waste to tailings and treatment facilities. An intensive source of local pollution of the HM environment can be transport transporting mine metal concentrates from processing plants to the place of their further processing. Pollution occurs as a result of spraying fine fractions of concentrates.

Currently, mankind extracts from the Earth over 120 billion tons of various ores, fuel and building materials. A significant part of the mined goes to waste and dumps, is subjected to water and wind erosion, the products of which, being sprayed in the atmosphere or dissolving in water, pollute the environment. The content of various elements (including HM) in the ecosystems of various plant zones of the Earth is currently being intensively studied.

The average levels of anthropogenic global input into the biosphere of HM are shown in Table. 1. The total toxicity of the HMs listed in the table significantly exceeds the total danger of radioactive and organic contamination.

Table 1. Levels of global input of heavy metals into the biosphere, million tons/year.

Element	Air	Water	The soil
Zinc	131,88	226	2245
Copper	35,37	112	2073
Lead	332,35	138	1354
Nickel	55,65	113	412
Arsenic	18,82	41	97
Molybdenum	3,27	11	102
Selenium	3,79	41	42
Antimony	3,51	18	57
Vanadium	8,6 0	12	67
Cadmium	7,57	9,4	28
Mercury	3,56	4,6	12

In the early 1990s, researchers from the University of Montana determined that over the last decade of the 20th century in the United States, in the process of grinding, beneficiation, processing and smelting of metals, from 7·10 3 to 70·10 3 tons of HM will be thrown into water sources alone.

There are several regions on the territory of the Russian Federation (Middle and South Urals, the Kola Peninsula, southern Siberia) in which industries that are especially environmentally hazardous are concentrated: energy, raw materials extraction, the production of artificial materials, and the military industry. Such production complexes are very stable and their transformation into environmentally less hazardous ones is associated with large economic costs, which are not real at this stage of the development of the state. An extremely difficult ecological situation exists in large industrial cities. Moscow can serve as an example of this, where on the territory of about 5% the total indicator of environmental pollution reaches the limit values established for areas of environmental disasters. The soil in some districts of the capital is heavily polluted with zinc, lead, copper, chromium, vanadium, mercury, nickel, tin, cadmium and other HMs. Consequently, the intense impact of such industrial centers on ecosystems and human health will continue for the foreseeable future. In this regard, the development of methods of biological indication in environmental monitoring is a priority in environmental practice.

In Russia, by the beginning of the 20th century, per capita accounted for 4.5 hectares of disturbed landscapes, while in the United States - 3.6 hectares (with much more intensive agriculture and more extensive infrastructure), in Western Europe - from 0.25 (in Netherlands) up to 1.2 ha (in Spain). Extensive disturbances of ecosystems were made in the European part, in the North, in the Middle and Southern Urals and in the south of Siberia along the Siberian railway. In the urban and industrial regions of Russia, 10 million hectares of soil are contaminated with HMs. For example, in the vicinity of the city of Monchegorsk, which is located in the zone of influence of emissions from industrial enterprises of RAO Norilsk Nickel, the content of copper in the soil is 250, and nickel is 450 times higher than the natural background. As a result of this contamination, on an area of 3500 km 2, berries and mushrooms are contaminated with nickel to a level that poses a danger to humans. Production Association "Pechenganickel" in the period 1970-1990. annually emitted into the atmosphere from 140 to 449 tons of aerosol nickel, up to 300 tons of copper and up to 18 tons of cobalt. For 14 years (1979-1992), per unit area of the catchment area of one of the lakes (Kocheyavr), 11.2 g/m 2 of nickel and 2.6 g/m 2 of copper fell out of the atmosphere, which amounted to 1.1 and 1.2 tons respectively. A significant part of the fallout fell into the lake and was buried in bottom sediments. Subtoxic effects are observed in fish living in this and neighboring lakes. A high level of pollution of crop and livestock products is recorded in the emission zone of the Novolipetsk Metallurgical Plant. For example, concentrations of chromium are recorded in milk - up to 250 MPC, nickel - up to 3 MPC, lead - up to 1.9 MPC, iron - up to 33 MPC.

Not only the development of deposits and enrichment of ores can lead to environmental pollution with HMs. In the process of coal mining, a large amount of waste rock is extracted, which is stored in dumps on the surface of the Earth. By the end of the 1980s, there were more than 3.3 billion m 3 of rock in the dumps of coal mining enterprises, occupying more than 10 thousand hectares. Dumps usually contain easily soluble HM salts. Heavily saline (from 1.5 to 4.3%) are the rocks of the dumps of the Moscow region coal basin. The chemical activity of dumps is determined by the sulfur compounds contained in the rock. As a result of their oxidation, sulfuric acid is formed, which contributes to the chemical decomposition of many minerals and the transformation of HM compounds into soluble forms. The development of coal deposits and the erosion of waste rocks is accompanied by a significant increase in the mineralization of groundwater. Groundwater is subjected to very severe pollution in the dumps of the mines of the Moscow and Kizelovsky coal basins, consisting of toxic pyritized rocks.

An intense source of HMs are aerosol emissions from enterprises of the fuel and energy complex (GRES, TPP, TPP), especially those that are heated by coal or oil products. Areas of HM pollution with a diameter of 10-20 km are formed around large thermal power plants. In addition, HMs also pollute surface water bodies. For example, CHPPs and GRESs in Moscow are daily drained into the city sewer or directly into the river. Moscow about 100 tons of salts formed during filter cleaning.

A large amount of wastewater containing HMs is discharged into the sewerage system or directly into natural water bodies by metalworking and mechanical engineering enterprises. Thus, Moscow enterprises discharge 720,000 m 3 of wastewater into the sewerage system, and out of 800 industrial facilities with local treatment facilities, only 66 wastewater is treated to the established standards. As a result, up to 15.6 tons of HM accumulate daily in the sediments of urban aeration stations. One of the main sources of HM environmental pollution is galvanic production at machine building and instrument making enterprises. There were more than 8 thousand of them on the territory of the former USSR; 960 of them are in Moscow and most of the rest are in Russia. For electroplating, only about 30% of the total mass of non-ferrous metals is used, and 70-90% of the amount used for these purposes goes to wastewater. As a result, the annual average volume of galvanic wastewater is 1 km 3 with a dissolved content of 50 thousand tons of HM ions, 100 thousand tons of acids and alkalis. As a rule, electroplating shops and sites do not have treatment facilities, and they themselves are located directly among residential areas.

Each industrial enterprise, depending on the volume and harmfulness of emissions, has a sanitary protection zone (SPZ) around it with a radius of 3 to 5 km or more. SPZ is a legal area of pollution. In the Russian Federation, by 1990, 103 million hectares were alienated under the SPZ, with a total area of agricultural land of 556.3 million hectares, including 226.7 million hectares of arable land. At the same time, industrial enterprises pollute not only the SPZ, but also the adjacent territory within 10-30 km, especially in the direction of the prevailing winds.

Most HMs form geochemical anomalies around industrial point sources (factories, combines, mines). The exception is lead, the elevated concentrations of which are confined mainly to the lands of settlements and areas adjacent to highways. This is due to the use of etiolated automotive fuel. Most of the HMs contained in air emissions from industrial enterprises eventually end up in the soil, where they gradually accumulate. As a result of special studies, it was found that in the ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, an environmentally significant result can be achieved with a reduction in gross emissions by 10 times or more. In reality, ministries and departments include long-term plans to reduce emissions by only 1.5-2 times as environmental protection.

As a result of the conditions described above, a very difficult environmental situation is developing in many industrial regions of Russia. For example, around the machine-building plant in the city of Votkinsk (Perm region), the content of HM in water and soil is 5-6 times higher than the MPC. The content of heavy metals (manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, copper, etc.) in the natural environment of Kemerovo is 50-100 times higher than the background, the soil of the 10-kilometer zone surrounding the city contains from 2 to 22 MPCs of zinc, from 1.5 to 31 MPC for lead, from 30 to 35 MPC for arsenic. In the 10-kilometer zone around the city of Novokuznetsk, 6-fold excesses of MPC for cadmium are observed in the soil, 2-3-fold excesses for copper and nickel. In these zones there are residential workers' settlements with individual household plots, summer cottages of townspeople. Agricultural plants grown on such soil contain a large amount of HMs (Table 2) and other harmful substances.

Table 2 - The content of heavy metals in food plants (mg/kg) grown in the zone of influence of the zinc plant, Belovo, Kemerovo region

plant type
Potato



onions, leaves
Onion, bulb
MPC in vegetables

A certain amount of HM can enter agroecosystems with mineral fertilizers and some types of pesticides containing copper, mercury, and chromium. Another intensive source of pollution of agroecosystems with HMs (arsenic, chromium, lead, mercury, nickel, vanadium, etc.) are sludge from industrial and municipal wastewater treatment plants, which are widely used for fertilizing agricultural fields. The results of studies evaluating the contribution of mineral fertilizers, pesticides and silt fractions of sewage treatment plants to the accumulation of HMs by living organisms are quite contradictory and require further study.

The soil retains accumulated substances longer than other components of the environment. According to experts, HMs will remain in the soil almost forever. Thus, the duration of the first period of HM half-removal, according to the calculations of K. Iimura et al., for soils under lysimeter conditions varies from 70 to 510 years for zinc, from 13 to 1100 years for cadmium, from 310 to 1500 years for copper, and from 740 years for lead. up to 5900 years.

Since part of our research is related to the elucidation of the mutagenicity of HMs entering plants from the soil, it is necessary to dwell on some physicochemical characteristics of soils that determine the availability of metals to plants.

HM migration along trophic chains begins with their accumulation by plants. The accumulation of HMs by plants and their toxicity are determined mainly by the amount of mobile forms of HMs in the soil, and not by their total content. The ratio of mobile and bound forms of HMs is largely determined by the type and properties of the soil: granulometric composition, content of organic substances, capacity of exchange cations, pH of the medium, phosphate content. Many factors influence the mobility and entry of HMs into plants: plant species and physiological state, soil characteristics, and climatic conditions. Therefore, having studied these processes in detail, one can largely influence the ecological purity of the products obtained, the intake of HMs into the body of animals and humans. By changing the intensity of metal intake into the body, it is possible to regulate the intensity of the mutagenic load.

Technogenic soil contamination with xenobiotics has a strong impact on the soil microflora. In the industrial area, very strong soil contamination with HM causes the complete disappearance of algae in the soil. Pollution with HMs and acids leads to the formation of communities dominated by green algae. When the soil is alkalized or contaminated with organic substances, blue-green algae begin to predominate in algal groups. An increase in the concentration of HMs in the soil affects the number of microscopic fungi and Azotobacter in the soil. The population dynamics depends on the species of fungi and bacteria, the nature of the heavy metal and its concentration in the soil. The microflora can bind more than half of the mobile forms of iron, cesium, and some other HMs that fall on the soil surface with plant litter and aerosol fallout. The binding of HM cations by microorganisms depends on the temperature and humidity of the environment. The binding of cesium does not decrease with an increase in its concentration in the soil solution, so soil microorganisms can bind significant amounts of radionuclides. Soil fungi are especially effective accumulators of cesium. Soil microorganisms can bind 3% cobalt, 11% iron, 22% calcium and strontium, 24% cesium contained in plant litter. Drying and freezing can lead to the release of 95% of the cesium included in the microbial biomass.

In coniferous forests, the epiphytic lichen cover degrades as it approaches the industrial source of polymetallic dust; in lichen thalli, the content of nickel (more than 90 mg/kg of dry matter) and copper (more than 200 mg/kg) increases. An interesting feature of the reaction of lichens to technogenic pollution of ecosystems was discovered. It turned out that the “dose-effect” dependence of the response of lichens to pollution of a point source of HM emission is significantly non-linear and in most cases has an S-shaped form, and the transition between the background and impact state of plants is very sharp. This transition occurs when the impact level of pollution exceeds the background level by 1.5-2.3 times.

Among agricultural plants, vegetable crops, especially fodder beet and legumes, accumulate HM most actively. Many HMs penetrate the vegetative organs of wheat much weaker: in the leaves of this plant, the concentration of lead is 20-40 times less than in the roots, and cadmium is 20 times less. This fact indicates the presence of a barrier in the roots, which significantly hinders the penetration of toxic ions into the underground organs of plants. The authors suggest that the main part of HM was retained on the periphery of the roots in the zone of the so-called Caspari band. At the same time, plant resistance to one of the HMs is in no way related to resistance to other metals. According to the degree of toxicity, the studied HMs can be arranged in the following row:
Hg(II) > Cu(II) > Pb(II) > Cd(II) > Cr(III) > Zn(II) > Ni(II) > Al(III).

An excess of HMs coming from the soil into plants causes an imbalance of nutrients in them, disrupts the synthesis of many enzymes, vitamins, and pigments. Nevertheless, plants quite easily adapt to relatively high concentrations of HMs in the soil. A striking example of this can be the rapid colonization by plants of waste rock dumps after the extraction of metal ore. For example, individual bent grasses ( Agrostis tenius) and fescue ( Festica ovina) grow quite well on soils containing up to 1% lead.

Quite close correlations have been proved between the average long-term content of HMs in the atmosphere and the bark of tree species growing in the HM-contaminated zone. The content of HMs in plants, as a rule, does not depend on their content in urban soils. Such a relationship was found only for nickel, lead and copper. This is probably due to the fact that HMs are in a form that is inaccessible to plants.

A general idea of the content of HMs in the soil and some agricultural plants of the Tula region can be drawn from the results of a few published works (Table 1). 3).

Table 3 - Gross content of heavy metals (mg / kg) in the soil and grain of plants of the Plavsky district of the Tula region (averaged data)

	Spring wheat	Winter wheat


Manganese

The issues of HM accumulation and their toxicity to animals, which are the subject of a wide range of works, are beyond the scope of our review. We note only a few key points.

To analyze the mutagenic hazard of HM pollution in ecosystems, it is advisable to know the background levels of their content in bioinert media and biological objects (Table 4).

Table 4 - The content of the studied heavy metals in soils, fresh waters, plants and muscle tissue of animals (µg/kg dry weight)

	fresh water	Plants	Animals








Strontium

The danger of HM environmental pollution leads to their excessive intake and accumulation in the body. Table 1 shows various levels of daily HM intake in the human body. 5.

Table 5. - Daily doses of heavy metals in the human body (based on a weight of 70 kg)

Intake (g/day)
scarce	normal	toxic	lethal

The intake of HMs with food in animals of ecologically close species living in the same area can differ significantly, since it depends on food specialization. The existence of such differences is shown, for example, in the study of birds in the zone of influence of emissions from a copper smelter. Consequently, in the same areas, the influence of HMs on the heredity of animals of different species will be different.

The deposition of HMs by organisms largely depends on their physiological role in the body. It has been shown that an increase in the diet of bank voles of physiologically active copper and zinc (by 9 and 2.2 times, respectively) practically does not lead to an increase in the level of these elements in animal tissues. A different picture is observed in the case of lead and cadmium. An increase in their intake into the body with food (by 1.2-1.9 and 2.6-5.4 times, respectively) leads to a significant increase in the content of these metals in the body of animals. Similar processes have been noted in the American mink. The entry of HMs into ecosystems with industrial and municipal effluents can lead to their active accumulation in the upper tiers of trophic pyramids. It is logical to assume that mutagenesis induced by heavy metals in animals of the same ecosystem may be more intense in organisms at higher levels of the trophic pyramids.

Many genetic studies use rodents. Therefore, it is important to note the dependence of the HM content in rodent tissues on the season of their capture and, consequently, on the age of the animals (Table 6).

Table 6. Dependence of the accumulation of microelements on the season of trapping (age) of rodents (August/May, relative units)

	trace element

Microtus oeconomus
Clethriomys glereolus

If we take into account that the response of organisms to the action of clastogens increases with age, then the frequency of genetic disorders may vary in different individuals in a sample of different ages. A different degree of accumulation of HMs by males and females was also established (Table 7), which can also affect the intensity of mutagenesis in animals of different sexes.

Table 7. Dependence of the accumulation of microelements on the sex of animals (males/females, relative units)

	trace element

Microtus oeconomus
Clethriomys glereolus
Cl. granulatus
Cl. glabratus

According to the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation in 1998, about 50 million Russians live in conditions where the concentration of harmful substances in the air is 10 times higher. Half of these substances are emitted by vehicles. Currently, Russian cars emit 30-50 times more toxic substances into the atmosphere per 1 kilometer of run than cars from the United States or Western Europe. The total emission of harmful substances from vehicles is 15.6 million tons/year. Gas emissions from vehicles and industrial production contain a large amount of mutagenic substances, including HMs. With the help of luminescent spectral analysis of pine needle cells, a negative effect in winter of emissions from boiler houses operating on brown coal from the Moscow region coal basin on the metabolic processes of plants was shown. It has been established that in an area of 425 km 2 around a point source of gas emissions from coke production, plants show increased frequencies of chromosome aberrations (ACh). The clastogenic effect of emissions from a lead smelting plant on the hereditary structures of spruce cells ( Picea abies) . In grapes growing in the zone of influence of industrial emissions from enterprises and areas overloaded with vehicles, significant violations of macro- and microsporogenesis were found. Similar disturbances in microsporogenesis were found in Vicia cracca in the industrial zones of Novokuznetsk.

Using the Ames test, it was shown that acetone extracts of air samples taken from the workplaces of metallurgical production are several times more mutagenic than air samples taken from administrative premises. The mutagenicity of dusts of nickel ores has been proved. To assess the genotoxicity of nickel blast furnace emissions, rats were exposed to blast furnace smoke aerosols at solids concentrations ranging from 1 to 100 mg/m 3 . In addition to iron and nickel oxides, oxides of chromium, cobalt, aluminum, lead, zinc, etc. were found in aerosols. A clear dose-dependent cytogenetic effect was established ().

In a study of 28 traffic police officers with more than 10 years of work experience, it was found that in the cells of their peripheral blood, the frequency of cells with chromosome aberrations and the frequency of sister chromatid exchanges were statistically significantly higher than in the control group (15 people). This increase did not correlate with blood lead levels or length of service.

In addition to aerosol emissions, heavy metals can enter the environment with industrial, agricultural and municipal effluents. Around ore deposits, water dispersion flows are formed, in which many toxic components can significantly exceed the MPC established for them. The increased mutagenicity of effluents from non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises has been proven by numerous studies. Pogosyan et al. studied the process of microsporogenesis in Tradescantia after treatment of flower buds with non-ferrous metallurgy production effluents containing compounds of copper, zinc, lead and other metals. It has been established that the number of violations increases with long-term (1.5 months) treatment. L.A. Ghukasyan et al. using tradescantia, proved the mutagenicity of effluents from a copper-molybdenum plant. Sokolov V.V. and Ganasi E.E. showed an increase in the frequency of ACh in root cells V. faba and C. capillaris during their germination on technogenic silt of bottom sediments containing HM.

Solid waste from industrial enterprises associated with the processing of metal ores and metalworking pose a significant environmental hazard. This is due to the large volumes of waste, the high content of heavy metals and other toxic compounds in them. Under the influence of environmental factors, the waste erodes, and in the form of dust or rain runoff enters the natural environment. The genetic danger of such waste has been proven. For example, using the Ames test, the mutagenicity of aqueous extracts of industrial waste from ceramic, foundry, galvanic and other industries, where various heavy metals were the main components, was shown.

1.1.2. Environmental pollution with radionuclides

Living organisms inhabiting the Earth are exposed to natural sources of ionizing radiation. The latter can be divided into two groups: cosmic sources and sources located on the Earth (for example, radioactive geological rocks, radon). The level of cosmic radiation is relatively stable. The equivalent external dose rate due to cosmic radiation corresponds to approximately 3.2-10 -8 Sv/h at sea level. As you rise above sea level, the dose rate of this exposure increases. The dose of external radiation received by the population from terrestrial natural sources is determined by the geological composition of parent, soil-forming rocks. The dose of this radiation for the majority of the population is approximately 3.5·10 -8 Sv/h. In some areas of the Earth, in those places where radioactive rocks come to the surface, the dose received by the population can be 10 times greater.

Global contamination of the biosphere with anthropogenic radionuclides began in 1945, from the moment the testing and use of nuclear weapons began. For the period from 1945 to 1980. 450 nuclear explosions with a total capacity of 545 Mt were carried out in the Earth's atmosphere. The radioactive products formed as a result of the explosions ended up in the atmosphere and were carried by air currents over almost the entire surface of the Earth. The monitoring of radioactive fallout carried out on the territory of Moscow showed that from the end of the 1950s to 1964 (the period of active testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere), the fallout density periodically exceeded 1000 mCi/km 2 . The content of radionuclides in the air at that time reached (110-450)·10 -17 Ci/l. In the period 1964-1980. the density of radioactive fallout was 12-100 mCi/km 2 . The content of radionuclides in the atmospheric air during this period fluctuated within (2.5-81)·10 -17 Ci/l. After the termination of testing of nuclear warheads in the atmosphere, the fallout density stabilized at the level of 6.5-8.7 mCi/km 2 . Accordingly, the content of radionuclides in the atmospheric air decreased to (0.4-1.7)·10 -17 Ci/l. The Chernobyl accident led to an increase in the deposition density in 1986 to 418 mCi/km 2 , which then decreased in subsequent years.

The radioecological problems of Russia and the CIS countries are not limited to background contamination with radionuclides and the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. The rigid framework of the review does not allow considering in it the radiobiological problems caused by the decay of radon and the exposure that the population of Russia receives as a result of medical examinations, as well as the problems associated with the existence of vast areas of radiation contamination at the Semipalatinsk test site, Novaya Zemlya and the territory of the East Ural radioactive trace ( EURS). At the same time, there is no need to prove that the radiation pollution of ecosystems is quite large and the radiobiological problems of the combined action of chemical mutagens and ionizing radiation are extremely relevant for biota and the population of many regions of the former USSR.

The Tula region, where part of our research was carried out, was exposed to radioactive contamination as a result of the Chernobyl accident. In this regard, it is necessary to consider some of the radiobiological problems associated with the effect of radiation pollution on biota.

In 1996, there were 9 nuclear power plants operating in Russia, which operated 29 power units with an installed capacity of 21,000 MW. According to the Russian Information and Analytical Center for the Prevention of Accidents at Nuclear Power Facilities, none of these power units fully meets modern safety requirements. For the period 1993-1996. 550 violations of the normal operation of reactors were registered at nuclear power plants. Spent nuclear fuel storage facilities at NPPs are overfilled and all 9 NPPs continue to accumulate spent nuclear fuel in excess of design values.

In April 1986, an accident occurred at Unit 4 of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. As a result of the explosion, a large amount of radioactive substances was released into the environment. Depending on the distance and time elapsed from the moment of the explosion to the fallout of radionuclides on the Earth's surface, these fallouts are divided into three types: 1) near; ) and 3) global .

The total area of land with 137 Cs pollution density over 1 Ci/km 2 was 3.2% of the European territory of the former USSR and over 0.2 Ci/km 2 - 23%. The areas affected by pollution as a result of the Chernobyl accident are shown in Table. 8 and 9.

Table 8. Areas of territories (thousand ha) contaminated with 137 Cs as a result of the Chernobyl accident

State	Degree of pollution, Ki/km 2
State


Belarus

Table 9. - Distribution of areas contaminated with 137 Cs with a level of 1.0 to 5.0 Ci / km 2 in the administrative territories of the European part of Russia

Territory	Pollution area
Territory	km 2	%
Belgorodskaya	1620	6,4
Bryansk	6050	17,3
Voronezh	1160	2,2
Kaluga	3500	11,7
Kursk	1200	4,0
Lipetsk	1470	6,1
Leningradskaya	850	1,0
Mordovia	1630	6,3
Nizhny Novgorod	20	0,02
Orlovskaya	9300	37,2
Penza	4130	9,6
Ryazan	5210	13,0
Saratov	150	0,2
Smolensk	100	0,2
Tambov	330	1,0
Tula	10320	39,7
Ulyanovsk	1060	2,9
TOTAL	48100

Note: The table does not include areas with pollution over 5 Ci/km 2 .

On the territory contaminated as a result of the Chernobyl accident, the so-called patchy-mosaic structure of the area pollution is observed, which causes, against the background of the average radiation level characteristic of the area, the presence of local spots with a significantly higher density of pollution. So, according to the data of the Plavsky chemicalization center in the Plavsky district of the Tula region, with an average level of radiation pollution of 10-15 Ci/km 2, spots up to 40 Ci/km 2 were registered.

Outside the 30 km zone of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (within the borders of the Ukrainian Polissya), the biological availability of 137 Cs is high and is comparable to the availability of the nuclide introduced in a water-soluble form. This, according to the authors, allows all long-term experimental data obtained before the Chernobyl accident on the dynamics of cesium in ecosystems to be used to assess the possible levels of contamination of crop products in the ChRS territories. However, the data obtained by us on the territory of the Tula region indicate that almost all cesium (at least by 1997) is in the form bound by the soil absorbing complex. Therefore, the entry of 137 Cs into plants is mainly determined by their biological properties. Our results are consistent with the data on the forms of radionuclides in EURT soils (Table 10).

Table 10. - Content (%) of water-soluble (A), exchangeable (B), acid-soluble (C) and fixed (D) forms of radionuclides in the soils of the East Ural radioactive trace 36 years after the accident.

Soils	137Cs				90Sr
Soils	A	B	C	D	A	B	C	D
Sod-podzolic	0,20	0,40	0,4	99,0	2,5	45,8	44,2	7,5
gray forest	0,02	1,18	2,7	95,1	2,4	58,0	30,0	9,6
Chernozem	0,10	1,10	2,1	96,6	1,8	55,9	30,9	11,4

The assessment of the doses of ionizing radiation received by the population as a result of the Chernobyl accident and the harm caused by these doses varies greatly among different authors. In 1988, the Ministry of Health adopted the standard "The limit of individual dose for life, established for the population, controlled areas of the RSFSR, BSSR and Ukrainian SSR, exposed to radioactive contamination as a result of the Chernobyl accident", equal to 35 rems. If the dose is higher, then resettlement of people to clean areas is required. However, this limit, which is a criterion for resettlement, was turned into an upper limit of acceptable risk, according to which the population receiving less than 35 rems per life was not resettled and they were guaranteed safe living. At the same time, if we proceed from the non-threshold concept of the dependence of stochastic genetic effects on the radiation dose, then it is incorrect to consider living in contaminated areas as safe for health. The conclusion about the safety of the dose of 35 rem was made on the basis of information received earlier than 1988. Moreover, there is an opinion that there is no scientific system of views regarding the safety of a dose of 35 rem. There is only a willful decision to equate the population living in the affected areas with the people living near the nuclear power plant, for whom the dose of 0.5 rem has been established. Multiplying this value by 70 years (average life expectancy), and the value of 35 rem was obtained. In the last decade, more accurate epidemiological and dosimetric data from the International Commission for Radiological Protection (ICRP) indicate that the risk of malignant neoplasms with a 35-rem concept was underestimated by 2-4 times. In addition, with the combined action of radiation and certain factors of a physical and chemical nature, the risk of malignant diseases and mutagenic effects can increase tenfold.

If we proceed from the dose that was before the Chernobyl disaster, which is 100 mrem (or 7 rem per life), then in Ukraine, Belarus and Russia more than 1.5 million people would have to be resettled.

1.1.3. Environmental pollution by electromagnetic fields

A person is almost constantly exposed to magnetic and electromagnetic fields in connection with the use of many machines and devices that are used in transport, in industry and in everyday life. The average level of energy flux density to which the population is exposed is 0.005 μW/cm 2 . In manufacturing, the levels are much higher. The levels of electric field strength at substations can reach 20 kV / m 2, under power lines - 10 kV / m 2. Electromagnetic fields act on regulatory mechanisms at all levels of organization of living beings, including molecular, intracellular and intercellular. It is possible that one of these mechanisms is electrolyte metabolism. The impact of EMF on biological structures occurs suddenly (especially in technogenic conditions), and the intensity of the body's response largely depends on its individual characteristics. If a healthy organism can maintain balance, then intensive changes can occur in a sick body that can bring it to a pathological state. The authors showed that on days of geomagnetic disturbances, there is a statistically significant increase in the content of sodium and potassium in whole blood compared to their level on magnetically quiet days (C=0). In the erythrocytes of healthy people during the days of geomagnetic disturbances, there is a significant increase in the concentration of sodium, potassium and calcium, as well as a decrease in the concentration of these elements in plasma.

Technogenic sources of electromagnetic fields can affect the physiological parameters of the body. So, violations of the blood composition are observed in people at a distance of even 300 m from high-voltage power lines. Cases of leukemia were noted when people lived 40 m from such lines. In practice, under a high-voltage line, the field strength is determined at a distance of 1 m from the ground. The maximum electric field on the ground under a 380 kW high voltage line ranges from 10 to 15 kW/m. In the human body, such an electric field induces a current of 0.15-0.23 mA, which is below the threshold for human sensation of current - 0.36 mA (less than 50% of the population). However, some people are able to sense electric fields from 1 to 5 kW/m. Magnetic fields under the high-voltage line 380 kW are characterized by a magnetic induction of 0.055-0.5 mT, which is significantly lower than the limit of harmful effects on humans (5-60 mT, 1-2 T). On a daily basis, a person experiences stronger magnetic fields than the magnetic field under a high voltage line. The health risk from electric and magnetic fields, which are caused by the structures around us, transport and household appliances, is practically eliminated. The limits for the electric field, with a long stay in it, are as follows: for the population - about 10 kW / m; for workers located in high voltage structures - about 20 kW / m.

In humans, high-frequency electric fields can cause a violation of thermoregulation, the development of eye cataracts, headaches, irritability, and sleep disturbance. The unit of influence of microwave radiation on the human body is the "Specific Absorption Rates" (SAR), numerically equal to the energy of absorbed radiation per gram (sometimes kilogram) of biological tissue. When absorbing a unit of radiation for 20 minutes, the tissues heat up by 1 degree. Heating is adequately (or inadequately) compensated by exchange processes.

Low frequency electromagnetic fields can reduce blood pressure, reduce heart rate, cause tachycardia, hematological changes, ECG changes, increased fatigue. The movement of blood through the vessels located in a magnetic field is accompanied by the appearance of an electric current in the tissues of the cardiovascular system. At an electric current density of up to 10 mA/m 2 there are no noticeable biological effects. In the range of 10-100 mA/m 2 , which may correspond to a person being in a magnetic field of 5-50 mT, the appearance of phosphenes is noted. At an electric current density above 1000 mA / m 2 (500 mT), there is a real threat to life associated with the development of cardiac fibrillation. Electromagnetic fields with a frequency of 60 Hz suppress the activity of T-lymphocytes. At the same time, an opinion is expressed that with the direct impact of low-frequency electromagnetic fields on a person, the density of currents arising in his body is an order of magnitude lower than the thresholds of dangerous action established by physiologists. Therefore, the author believes that it is not yet possible to draw convincing conclusions about the pathogenic effect of these fields.

The review considered the problems associated with the use and impact on biological objects of electromagnetic radiation with a frequency of 300 kHz-300 GHz. To standardize impact assessments for frequencies >300 MHz, the authors recommend using units of power density, for frequencies of 300 kHz-300 GHz - units of electric and magnetic fields. The specific absorption rate and exposure time are characteristics of the irradiated object. For humans, the maximum specific absorption rate was recorded at 70 MHz (for normal body sizes). Under extreme conditions, a specific absorption rate of 1-4 V/kg and an exposure frequency of 70 MHz is accompanied by an increase in body surface temperature by 2°C for 1 hour. magnetic stimulation, as one of the examples of non-thermal effects on nerve and muscle tissue. Responses to the impact of electromagnetic radiation with a frequency of 300 kHz-300 GHz were registered at the level of behavioral reactions, endocrine shifts, at the cellular, subcellular and molecular levels.

Alternating electric currents with a frequency of 50 and 60 Hz are constantly present in the human environment. Variable electromagnetic fields (VEM) generated from these currents induce weak electrical currents in the human body. Numerous studies have shown that PMPs have various weak effects on the body: they disrupt circadian rhythms, change the levels of cell proliferation, inhibit the functions of lymphocytes, modify the activity of enzymes, and change the functions of cell membranes. All these changes can be prerequisites for the emergence of tumors. It has been shown that persons professionally associated with high levels of PMP have a 20% increased risk of leukemia. Children living near power lines are also at higher risk of developing it. At the same time, epidemiological studies are contradictory and do not clearly prove the etiological role of UMP in the development of tumors in humans.

When conducting 4-year therapeutic and neurological examinations (1982-1985) of employees of distribution stations operating in an electric field of 400 and 220 kV, it was found that they have neurotic syndrome and slight EEG changes somewhat more often than among other population groups. . The rate of conduction of nerve impulses along the peripheral motor nerves did not differ from the norm. When examining male controllers of short-wave equipment (3-30 MHz) aged 20 to 50 years and with work experience from 2 to 30 years, it was shown that the biological effects of modulated EMF on the brain of workers begin to appear after more than 10 years of work experience. Adaptation of the subjects to radio wave exposure occurred against the background of high activity of the right hemisphere. The amplitude-frequency parameters of the bioelectrical activity of the brain of the main and control groups did not differ, however, with an increase in professional contact with radio waves, the functional activity of the structures of the right hemisphere decreased, which indicated a decrease in the adaptive reserves of the brain.

The research results indicate a strong influence of electromagnetic radiation from cell phones on brain tissue. Low-energy radio and microwave radiation can change intracellular biochemical processes. This can cause changes in the tissues and functions of the brain, which in some cases are preliminary stages of carcinogenesis and weakening of the general immunity of the body. European organizations recommend a SAR limit for cell phones (see above) of 2 mW/g.

The effect of radiation from video displays on the frequency of spontaneous abortions in women has been studied . The total sample was 214108 women aged 15 to 44 years, the number of pregnancies was 24362, of which 2248 or 9.2% ended in spontaneous abortions. The authors found no effect of working with video displays on the frequency of spontaneous abortions.

The maximum allowable exposure level in the HF range is 20 V/m. When examining 80 workers of the enterprise, in the technological process of which high-frequency currents were used, a 5-7-fold excess of the permissible level was established. The majority of workers who were within the range of high-frequency currents showed neurocirculatory dystonia of varying severity.

The results of studies of the biological activity of electromagnetic fields of low and ultra-low frequencies by the beginning of the 1990s were extremely contradictory. A number of works note the absence of specific harm from electric and magnetic fields of industrial frequencies (see, for example,). At the same time, the data accumulated by the beginning of the 90s were sufficient to demonstrate a reliable relationship between exposure to electromagnetic fields of ultra-low frequencies and the development of cancer in humans. Reviews show that for people professionally associated with electrical equipment, the risk of death from acute leukemia increases by 2.6 times; in people exposed to non-ionizing radiation, the risk of cancer is increased by 4 times; 10 to 15% of childhood cancers are related to electrical fields in the home. The use of electrically heated blankets in the winter causes an increase in miscarriages in women compared to the summer months.

The need to establish the maximum permissible values of the strength of electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields acting on a person, and methodological approaches to solving this problem are shown in many works. To substantiate the hygienic standards of electromagnetic energy differentiated by frequency range for the population living in the locations of television transmitting stations, a study was conducted on white rats of the biological effects of electromagnetic energy of very high frequency. The level of electromagnetic field strength in the experiment was 96, 82, 48 and 14 V/m. The total duration of exposure to the electromagnetic field was 120 days. As a result of the experiment, it was shown that the maximum inactive field strength with a frequency of 80 and 202 MHz for rats is 20.2 and 8.4 V/m, respectively.

The levels of permissible exposure in force in the USSR are determined by GOST 12.1.006-76 “Electromagnetic fields of radio frequencies. General safety requirements”. The normalized parameters in the frequency range 60 kHz -300 MHz are the intensity E and H electromagnetic field. This is explained by the fact that the induction zone extends for considerable distances around the source. R < или = λ/6), в которой человек находится под воздействием практически независимых друг от друга электрической и магнитной составляющих электромагнитного поля. В диапазоне 300 МГц-300 ГГц нормируется плотность потока энергии (ППЭ) (Вт/м), так как зона индукции находится у самого источника (длина волны, им излучаемая, очень маленькая), поэтому человек около такого источника находится в зоне излучения, поле в которой сформировано и определяется в основном плотностью потока энергии.

Rationing of permanent magnetic fields is carried out according to SN 1748-72 "Maximum permissible levels of permanent magnetic field strength at the workplace when working with magnetic devices and magnetic materials." According to GOST 12.1.002-75 “Electric fields of currents of industrial frequency with a voltage of 400 kV and above. General safety requirements” exposure to an electric field is regulated both by the magnitude of the intensity and by the duration of the action.

It is believed that power lines with a voltage of 420 kV are not dangerous to the health of people living near them. Electric fields up to 20 kV / m 2 and magnetic fields up to 0.3 T are not dangerous to health in case of their isolated or combined effect on a person. For static magnetic fields, it is recommended to limit the dose to 0.2 T for 60 minutes and 0.02 T for a longer time. Based on the data of his own research, as well as on the published results of other researchers, R. Howf came to the conclusion that electric fields up to 20 kV / m 2 and magnetic fields up to 5 mT do not have any effect on human health and well-being. At the same time, it is emphasized that the magnitudes of electric and magnetic fields that a person encounters in the course of labor activity are significantly lower than the above. According to the standards of the Federal Republic of Germany, approved in 1986, a voltage of 20 kV / m 2 and an induction of 5 mT are considered long-term permissible, and short-term values \u200b\u200bare 50% more.

The above norms are based on analyzes of purely physiological parameters and do not at all take into account the possible genetic consequences of exposure to EMF. In addition, all these norms were compiled in the analysis of the physiological effects of the isolated action of EMF. However, in the human environment, in addition to EMF, there are simultaneously a large number of other physical and chemical factors, the interaction with which may manifest a synergistic effect of some of them. These possible synergistic effects have not yet been taken into account by hygienic standards.

Taking into account the wide prevalence of AMF, their impact on living organisms requires further study.

Technogenic pollution of the environment

All parts of the biosphere (atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere) are actively polluted by various substances and their compounds.

Atmosphere. This is a mixture of gases that do not interact under normal natural conditions. The composition of the atmosphere near the Earth's surface (up to altitudes of about 50 km) remains constant: nitrogen - 78.08%, oxygen - 20.95%, argon - 0.9%, in small fractions of a percent - carbon dioxide, helium and other gases. A special place among small impurities is occupied by ozone (2 ... 7) 10 ~ b%. It strongly absorbs the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun, which has great biological activity and, at high intensities, has a detrimental effect on organic life as a whole. The main mass of ozone is concentrated in the atmospheric layer of 15-55 km with a maximum concentration at altitudes of 20-25 km.

The standard chemical composition of the atmosphere is always superimposed with some amount of impurities of natural origin. Impurities emitted by natural sources include:

dust (of volcanic, vegetable, cosmic origin; released during the weathering of soil and rocks; particles of sea salt that enter the air masses during the disturbance of the seas and oceans). For example, during the weathering of sedimentary and igneous rocks, 3.5 thousand tons of mercury enter the atmosphere annually;

smoke and gases from forest and steppe fires, gases of volcanic origin;

products of plant and animal origin.

All these sources have a spontaneous short-term character and are spatially distributed locally.

The level of atmospheric pollution with natural impurities is background for it (“chemical background”) and changes little with time.

The state and composition of the atmosphere largely determine the intensity of solar radiation on the Earth's surface. The screening role of the atmosphere in the process of transferring thermal energy from the Sun to the Earth and from the Earth to Space affects the average temperature of the biosphere, which is about +15°C.

The main part of solar radiation is transmitted to the Earth's surface as visible radiation and reflected from the Earth's surface in the form of infrared (thermal) radiation. Therefore, the proportion of reflected radiant energy absorbed by the atmosphere depends on its gas composition and dust content. The greater the concentration of impurity gases and dust, the less reflected solar radiation goes into outer space and the more thermal energy remains in the atmosphere (greenhouse effect).

As calculations and measurements show, an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere leads to a slight increase in temperature near its surface: by +0.05, +0.17 and +0.46 °C, respectively.

in 1978, 2000 and 2025, which significantly affects climate change.

The main air pollutants are vehicles, metallurgy, thermal power, chemical industry, building materials production, which account for 30, 26, 25, 8 and 6% of emissions, respectively.

Thus, only during the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels, about 400 million tons of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are annually emitted into the atmosphere of the planet (or 70 kg per inhabitant of the Earth). At the same time, it should be taken into account that the needs of mankind in energy carriers are growing at a rate of 3 - 4% per year, i.e. double every 20-30 years.

The growing chemical pollution of the air basin of large cities can be considered as an environmental emergency. So, with an average annual mileage of a car of about 15,000 km, it consumes about 4350 kg of oxygen and emits 3250 kg of carbon dioxide, 530 kg of carbon monoxide and about 1 kg of lead into the atmosphere.

We list the most common substances polluting the atmosphere: sulfur dioxide (SO 2) - 17.5%, carbon oxides (CO, CO 2) - 15%, nitrogen oxides (NO, NO 2) - 14.5%, solid impurities (dust , soot) - 14.5%.

It has been established that dust is annually emitted into the atmosphere, million tons: when burning coal - 93.6, when producing cement - 53.4, by metallurgical enterprises - 26.7.

Most of the atmospheric air impurities in cities penetrate into residential and other premises. In summer (with open windows), the composition of the air in the room corresponds to atmospheric by 90%, in winter - by 50%.

Freons - gases or volatile liquids containing fluorine and chlorine - have a significant effect on the ozone layer. The duration of their "life" in the atmosphere is about 100 years, resulting in the accumulation of impurities in the ozone layer. Sources of freon intake: refrigeration units in case of violation of the tightness of the thermal circuit, household spray cans for spraying various substances, etc.

As a result of technogenic impact on the atmosphere, the following are possible:

exceeding the permissible concentrations of harmful impurities in cities and towns;

smog and acid rain;

the emergence of the greenhouse effect, which contributes to an increase in the average temperature of the Earth's surface.

Hydrosphere. The earth is almost three-quarters covered with water. Depending on the concentration of salts, natural waters are divided into fresh (salt concentration is not more than 1 g / l) and sea water.

cue. Fresh water accounts for about 3% of the total mass of water, with 2% enclosed in inaccessible ice.

The most convenient for use are river and lake waters. As a rule, they are mineralized to one degree or another, mainly due to the salts of calcium, magnesium, etc., soluble in them.

Sea water is chemically the same within the oceans. The average concentration of salt in it is

3.5%, and unlike fresh water, salts are represented mainly by chlorides.

A characteristic feature of technogenic pollution of the natural environment is the entry into it from the technosphere of gaseous, aerosol, solid and liquid pollutants unusual for it.

The main pollutants of the hydrosphere are: domestic and industrial effluents from public utilities, food, medical, pulp and paper industries; agriculture (about 1000 UZ of fertilizers applied to the soil is washed into rivers and lakes); maritime transport (first of all, oil from tankers - about 0.1% of annual oil transportation goes to sea).

Every year, 26.5 million tons of oil products (which is approximately 1% of their production), 0.46 million tons of phenols, 5.5 million tons of synthetic fiber production waste, and 0.17 million tons of plant organic residues enter the hydrosphere from the world runoff.

The impact of the technosphere on the hydrosphere leads to the following negative consequences:

The reserves of drinking water with an acceptable content of impurities are decreasing;

the state and development of the flora and fauna of the oceans, seas, rivers and lakes is changing;

the natural circulation of many substances in the biosphere is disturbed.

Land pollution is caused primarily by agricultural production (fertilizers and pesticides). It may lead to:

to the reduction of arable land and the reduction of their fertility;

saturation of plants with harmful substances, which inevitably leads to food contamination (at present, up to 70% of the harmful effects on humans come from food products);

imbalance of ecosystems due to the death of insects, birds, animals, some plant species.

In a particular area, air pollution, followed by water and soil pollution, is formed due to the following three components:

global, due to the presence on Earth of numerous sources of industrial pollution and their transboundary transport over long distances;

regional, related to emissions in a given industrial region;

local (local), due to emissions of a particular object in a given area.

With long-range transfer, the speed of propagation of air masses is usually hundreds of kilometers per day. Therefore, only those chemicals whose lifetime in the atmosphere exceeds 12 hours can spread over long distances. For a noticeable accumulation of harmful substances (coming from the atmosphere) in soil and water, their lifetime in these media must be at least a year. Long-lived impurities include CO 2 , freons and a number of others. The lifetime of the order of ten days or less have oxides of sulfur and nitrogen.

To ensure environmental safety requirements, the content of the entire range of chemicals released into the environment is strictly regulated. For these purposes, two main quantitative indicators are used:

maximum allowable concentration (MAC);

maximum allowable emission (MAE).

Maximum allowable concentration - maximum concentration (mass of impurity (g) per unit volume (l) of air, water or mass (kg) of soil), which does not have a direct or indirect harmful effect on a person, his offspring and sanitary living conditions. Currently, MPCs have been established per average person for the air environment of enterprises, the atmosphere of cities and other settlements, and for the water of open reservoirs. MPCs have been established in soils for the content of pesticides, heavy metals, and organic compounds. The average daily MPC is averaged over a long period of time, up to a year. These MPCs are calculated taking into account the global and regional components of the technogenic chemical background.

Depending on the MPC norms, water sources are divided into two categories: sources for household and drinking purposes, including for water supply to food industry enterprises, and reservoirs within the boundaries of settlements, as well as for swimming, sports, and recreation.

Hygienic requirements for domestic drinking, fishery water sources, as well as requirements for drinking water are regulated by the relevant standards and sanitary norms.

For the purpose of practical control of the entry of harmful substances into the environment from the source of emissions, the MPE of harmful substances is calculated for it on the basis of the established MACs. MPE is established for each stationary and mobile source by the relevant regulatory documents (for example, "Sanitary standards for the design of industrial enterprises" SN-245-71).

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