Where did fascism originate? History of fascism in Western Europe

In some cases, fascism is characterized by rejection of the monarchy.

Fascist states are characterized by a developed economy with a strong regulatory role of the state, corporatization of the state through the creation of a system of mass organizations and social associations, violent methods of suppressing dissent, rejection of the principles of liberal democracy, open terror against the labor movement.

Common features of fascist parties

Often, a factor in the emergence and growth of fascist parties is the presence of an economic crisis in the country, if it also causes a crisis in the social and political field.

Fascist parties were often militarized and adopted an unusual political style at the time: mass demonstrations, mass marches, emphasis on the masculine and youthful character of the party, forms of some secularized religiosity, uncompromising approval and the use of violence in political conflicts.

The fascist parties had comparable ideologies and goals, the hallmark of which was their underlying ambivalence. Fascist ideology reveals simultaneously anti-socialist and anti-capitalist, anti-modernist and specifically modern, extremely nationalistic and tendentiously transnational moments. These relations do not appear in the same form in all types of fascism.

The anti-capitalist points of the program, for the most part formulated in a deliberately vague way, in the course of the development of the Italian NFP and the NSDAP increasingly receded into the background. They were relatively strong in the Hungarian Arrow Cross, in the Romanian Iron Guard, in parts of the Phalanx, in the French FNP Doriot, and in the Austrian National Socialists before the Anschluss. On the contrary, they were relatively weak among the Austrian Heimwehrites, the Norwegian "National Unity", the Belgian Rexists, some parts of the rest of the French fascist parties and the Dutch NSS.

Extremely anti-modernist attitudes are found among the NSDAP, the Iron Guard and the Ustashe. But even these movements by no means refused to use specifically modern tools and methods in propaganda, politics, military affairs and economics. Therefore, fascism in general cannot be described either as an exclusive anti-modernism, or as a "rush towards the modern", or, even more so, as a "social revolution".

All fascist parties were extremely nationalistically oriented; for the most part they were guided by certain "glorious" periods of the corresponding national history. But small fascist movements, willingly or unwillingly, had to take into account to some extent the national interests of other fascist movements, and above all of fascist regimes. It was precisely because of this orientation towards a foreign fascist model that not only the left, but also the right-wing forces of an extremely national direction fought with these parties.

All fascist parties showed a determined and uncompromising will to destroy their political opponents, as well as - partly arbitrarily chosen - minorities.

Etymology

Word fascism comes from italian fascio (fashio) - "union" (the name of the political radical organization of B. Mussolini - Fascio di combattimento- "Union of Struggle"). This word, in turn, goes back to the Latin fascism- “bundle, bundle”, which, in particular, denoted the symbols of magisterial power - fascia, bundles of rods with a stuck ax. The image of the fasces became a symbol of Mussolini's movement, which appealed to the imperial traditions of ancient Rome (in particular, Mussolini claimed that Julius Caesar was the first fascist.)

Italian fascism

Emblem with symbols of the Italian fascist movement

Fascism in the narrow sense of the word, that is, the doctrine of Benito Mussolini, brought to the fore the idea of ​​a corporate state - the state as the power of corporations, representing and harmonizing the interests of all segments of the population (as opposed to parliamentary democracy as the power of parties). Fascist ideology originated in Italy in the late 1990s, the Italian Fascist Party came to power and established Mussolini's dictatorship in 1922. Mussolini himself, in his book La Dottrina del Fascismo, used the word "fascism" both in the sense of "regime" and in the sense of "ideology":

"Il fascismo, oltre a essere un sistema di governo, è anche, e prima di tutto, un sistema di pensiero" ("Fascism is not only a system of government, it is also, and above all, a system of thought")

Fascism and the Comintern

Back in November 1922, Lenin compared the Italian fascists with the "gangs" (according to the author's vocabulary) of the Black Hundreds of the tsarist time.

At the same time, almost simultaneously, socialist and communist authors began to designate as "fascist" all anti-revolutionary movements and regimes.

Subsequently, in the discussion of the communists about the concept of fascism, such a generalization, apparently, was not in doubt, although in the early 1920s Clara Zetkin, Antonio Gramsci, Palmiro Togliatti and some other Italian authors warned against labeling all anti-democratic and anti-communist phenomena as fascist, since at the same time, the specific features of Italian fascism were erased.

Since the late 1920s, opponents of German National Socialism have increasingly referred to it as "fascism". In particular, this was also characteristic of Soviet political phraseology.

The classic Marxist definition of fascism is considered to be the definition presented in the resolution of the XIII Plenum of the ECCI and repeated at the VII Congress of the Comintern by Georgy Dimitrov, a speaker on this issue (the so-called "Dimitrov" definition):

Fascism is an open terrorist dictatorship of the most reactionary, the most chauvinistic, the most imperialist elements of finance capital... Fascism is not supra-class power, nor is it the power of the petty bourgeoisie or lumpen-proletariat over finance capital. Fascism is the power of finance capital itself. This is the organization of terrorist reprisals against the working class and the revolutionary part of the peasantry and intelligentsia. Fascism in foreign policy is chauvinism in its grossest form, cultivating zoological hatred against other peoples.

At the same time, for the regime and the dominant ideology of some countries, the term "fascism" was almost never used, although it was suitable on formal grounds. For example, in the USSR it was customary to characterize the political regime of Japan as "Japanese militarism." This is probably due to the peculiarities of the formation of the reactionary regime in Japan in the 20-40s, mainly "from above" by the hands of military extremists. Although the zaibatsu often used criminals to intimidate and kill opponents of the reaction, there is no evidence of the formation of stormtrooper detachments outside the control of the army.

During the Great Patriotic War, the Soviet people fought against the Nazi invaders

With the outbreak of World War II, this understanding of the term was adopted by the bourgeois-democratic and democratic layers of the countries participating in the anti-Hitler coalition. Here, for example, is what the Encyclopædia Britannica writes:

Between 1922 and 1945 fascist parties and movements came to power in a number of countries: in Italy, the National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista) led by Mussolini, in Germany, the National Socialist Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei), or the Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler and representing his national - socialist movement

In modern media

After World War II word fascist acquired an extremely negative connotation, and it became unpopular for political groups to correlate with fascism. Currently, some politicians use the word "fascism" in their speeches to brand their political opponents and their beliefs. The word "fascism" has become a dirty word in political demagogy, often losing its semantic content. For some, accusations of fascism have become a weapon in the fight against political opposition.

In the media, fascism is often referred to as any real or imaginary manifestation of totalitarianism, combined with the idea of ​​national or racial exclusivity, as well as sympathy for Nazi symbols and aesthetics.

Contemporary studies of fascism

Since the late 1980s, there has been considerable interest among academic historians and sociologists in the study of the phenomenon of fascism. A number of scientific monographs are published, both in Europe (see, for example, Roger Griffin) and in Russia (see, for example, Alexander Galkin).

Fascism and religion

See also the section "National Socialism and Religion" in the article "National Socialism"

“in a fascist state, religion is regarded as one of the deepest manifestations of the spirit, therefore it is not only revered, but is protected and patronized”

Benito Mussolini. Doctrine of fascism. 1932

In fact, the attitude of the fascist regime in a given state to religion and the church depended on how deeply it was connected with traditional structures - for example, the close relationship between the fascist regime and the church was characteristic of Romania, Hungary and Spain.

Italian fascism began as an atheistic and anti-clerical movement, but then compromised with the church. The Catholic Church was given even more power and influence by the Lateran Treaty of February 1929 than before. Along with significant state subsidies, she negotiated for herself far-reaching rights of intervention and control in the field of education and family life. Insulting the Pope has become a criminal offense.

Hitler was supported by some high-ranking representatives of the Russian Church Abroad and the Moscow Patriarchate. This is explained by the fact that the leaders of the Orthodox Churches saw in the attack of Germany and its allies on the USSR an opportunity to restore church life in the occupied territories, which was almost destroyed or driven underground by the Soviet anti-religious policy, and in the future - to restore pre-revolutionary forms of power in Russia.

The position of the German authorities in the occupied territories of the USSR combined several trends. Reich Minister of the Eastern Lands Alfred Rosenberg sought to revive Orthodoxy in the minds of the people through the creation of autonomous church structures, divided along national and territorial lines and controlled by Nazi officials. On the other hand, the fascist military in every possible way welcomed the revival of Orthodoxy in the occupied territories and participated in the restoration of churches. According to numerous testimonies, when the Nazis occupied the next settlement of the USSR (and sometimes even before the arrival of the Nazi troops), churches were immediately opened in it on the initiative of Orthodox believers, which the Soviet authorities did not have time to destroy. Thousands of parish and monastic communities, who had gone underground in Soviet times, have returned to church services. For the first time in many years, the once closed temples were restored and overflowed with worshipers. At one time, there were more active churches in the occupied territories than in the rest of Soviet Russia.

At the same time, in the territories controlled by the USSR, representatives of the Russian Orthodox Church declared spiritual support for the Soviet people (appeal to the believers of the Patriarchal Locum Tenens Metropolitan Sergius on June 22, 1941 (first published in 1943), about supporting besieged Leningrad), they organized a number of actions in the fight against the fascist army (transferring funds to the defense and Red Cross funds, collecting clothes and food in parishes, raising funds for the construction of a tank column named after Dmitry Donskoy), which were assessed by the Soviet government as populist. At the same time, some of these actions were organized on the initiative of the Soviet government itself.

According to Orthodox researchers, the strengthening of Orthodoxy was not part of the goals of the German leadership. The revival of popular religiosity, in their opinion, was used by Germany solely for propaganda purposes to counter the Soviet leadership. In support of their point of view, Orthodox researchers cite the thesis that Hitler wanted to see the Orthodox Church fragmented, and its dioceses in the occupied territories independent of the influence of the Moscow Patriarchate. Also, in support of this point of view, facts are cited that some hierarchs and simple priesthood resisted the alleged German policy towards the Orthodox Church. Their skepticism is rather confirmed by the real instructions of Hitler and Goering about the post-war destruction of the Russian people.

In some cases, the German occupation authorities banned local churches. So, on September 27, 1942, the Orthodox Church of the Czech Lands and Slovakia was banned. Its Primate Bishop Gorazd and several priests were shot, the property of the Church was confiscated, churches were closed, the clergy were arrested and imprisoned, the laity were sent to forced labor in Germany. The reason for this was that Orthodox priests hid in the Cathedral of Saints Cyril and Methodius a group of Czech agents abandoned from Great Britain and shot General SS Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich.

Story

see also

• Economic socialization

Notes

Links

• Own definitions:
  • Benito Mussolini"Fascist Doctrine"
  • Julius Evola"Fascism from the point of view of the right"

• Alexander Tarasov"There are many fascisms"
• Boris Kagarlitsky"Fascism for your own use"
• Umberto Eco"Eternal fascism"
• Wolfgang Wippermann European fascism in comparison 1922-1982
• Wilhelm Reich"Psychology of the masses and fascism"
• Alexander Chantsev"Aesthetic fascism"
• I. S. Kon"Psychology of prejudice" - a detailed material on the socio-psychological roots of ethnic prejudice, as one of the foundations of fascism
• A. Mikhailov"On the Criticism of the Phenomenology of Fascism" (about the basis of fascism)
• Ilya Smirnov"Fascism in the Baltics during World War II"
• B. Mussolini, Doctrine of fascism, Translation by V. N. Novikov, La Renaissance, Paris, 1938.
• Galkin A. Russian fascism / / Sociological journal, No. 2, 1994. P. 17-27.
• Ganelin R., Bune O. et al. The National Right Before and Now.
• Dashichev VI, Bankruptcy of the strategy of German fascism. In 2 volumes. Moscow, Nauka Publishing House, 1973.
  • Volume 1 - Preparation and deployment of Nazi aggression in Europe 1933-1941;
  • Volume 2 - Aggression against the USSR. The fall of the "third empire".
• Ilyushenko V. Russian fascism and religion // Dia-Logos. 1998-1999. Issue. II.160-172.
• Laker W. Black Hundred: The Origin of Fascism in Russia - M.: Text, 1994.
• Likhachev V. Modern Russian Right and Anti-Semitism: Conflict Escalation or Reconciliation? - Tirosh. Proceedings of the second youth conference of the CIS on Jewish Studies. Issue. II. M.: 1998. S.146-153.
• Moroz E. Vedism and fascism// Barrier, No. 3, 1993. P. 4-8.
• Nesterova T. Fascist mysticism: the religious aspect of fascist ideology // Religion and Politics in the XX century. Materials of the Second Colloquium of Russian and Italian Historians. M., 2005, p. 17-29
• Manuel Sarkisyants. English roots of German fascism. From the British to the Austro-Bavarian "master race"
• Rodzaevsky K. V. Testament of a Russian fascist. M., 2001.
• Nightingale V. Fascism in Russia: conceptual approaches - Democracy and fascism. M., 1995. S.45-54.
• Stefan D. Russian fascists. Tragedy and farce in emigration, 1925-1945 - Moscow: Slovo, 1992.
• Krysin Mikhail. Baltic fascism. History and modernity. PUBLISHING HOUSE: Veche. 2007. PAGES: 576. ISBN 978-5-9533-1852-5
• Umland A. An old question re-posed: what is "fascism"? (Roger Griffin's theory of fascism) // Political Studies, No. 1 (31), 1996
• Filatov S. New birth of an old idea: Orthodoxy as a national symbol // Polis (political studies), No. 3, 1999.
• Shnirelman V. Eurasians and Jews // Bulletin of the Jewish University in Moscow, No. 12 (11), 1996. P.4-45.
• My language ... The problem of ethnic and religious intolerance in the Russian media - Ed. Verkhovsky A. M .: ROO "Panorama", 2002.

Foreign language publications

• Agursky M. The Third Rome: National Bolshevism in the USSR - Boulder, 1987.
• Allersworth W. The Russian Question: Nationalism, Modernization, and Post-Communist Russia - Lanham, MD: Bowman and Littlefild, 1998.
• Antisemitism, Xenophobia and religious Persecution in Russia's Regions - Washington, 1999.
• Brundy Y. Reinventing Russia. Russian Nationalism and the Soviet State, 1953-1991 - Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: Harvard university press, 1998
• Die schwarze Front: Der neue Antisemitismus in der Sowjetunion - Reinberk bei Hamburg, 1991.
• Dunlop J. The Faces of Contemporary Russian Nationalism - Princeton: Princeton university press, 1983.
• Dunlop J. Alexander Barkashov and the Rise of National Socialism in Russia// Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization, 1996, Vol. 4, No. 4. P.519-530.
• Griffin R. The Nature of Fascism - London, 1993.
• Griffin R. Fascism - Oxford, 1995.
• Laquer W. Black Hundred: The Rise of the Extreme Right in Russia - New York, 1993.
• Parland T. The Rejection of Totalitarian Socialism and Liberal Democracy: A Study of the Russian New Right// Commentationes Scenarium Socialium, 46th Vol., Helsinki, 1993.
• Pribylovsky V. A Survey of Radical Right-Wing Groups in Russia// RFE/RL Research Report, No. 16, 1994.
• Pribylovsky V. What Awaits Russia: Fascism or a Latin American-style Dictatorship?// Transition, vol. I, No. 23. 23 June 1995.
• Shenfield S. Russian Fascism: Traditions, Tendencies, Movements - USA: M.E.Sharpe, 2000.
• Simonsen S. Alexander Barkashov and Russian National Unity: Blackshirt Friends of the Nation// Nationalities Papers, Vol.24, No. 4.
• Williams Ch., Hanson S. National-Socialism, Left Patriotism, or Superimperialism? The "Radical Rigth" in Russia. - The Radical Right in Central and Eastern Europe since 1989. Ed. by Ramet S. The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, Pennsylvania, 1999. P. 257-279.
• Stepanov S. Silent Lie: Soviet Fascism - Ukraine: Kievizdat, 2008.
• Ramone T. Stalinism - Eastern Fascism? - London, 1968.

Wikimedia Foundation. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

- [it.] - an adherent of fascism; member of the fascist organization Big Dictionary of Foreign Words. Publishing house "IDDK", 2007 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

fascist- see: Get a grenade, fascist! … Dictionary of Russian Argo

I m. 1. An adherent of fascism. 2. Member of a fascist organization. 3. unfold A soldier or officer of Nazi Germany who fought with the USSR in 1941-1945. II m. 1. unfold. reduced Extremely vicious, aggressive person. 2. Used as a censure or abusive ... ... Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Efremova

Fascist, fascists, fascists, fascists, fascists, fascists, fascists, fascists, fascists, fascists, fascists

This is immediately an ideology, a political trend and a state regime aimed at the destruction of democratic principles and freedoms.

The ideology of fascism is anti-communism, racism (sorting peoples into “higher” and “lower”), chauvinism (preaching of national exceptionalism), the emergence of a cult of the leader (leader), violence, control over the individual, the total power of the state, militarization (building up military power) , aggression (use of force against the independence of other states or peoples), rejection of humanism, nationalism.

This ideology was supported by many. Even Pope Pius XI was delighted that Mussolini was not disturbed by the "prejudices of liberalism."

Socio-political roots and essence of fascism

The desire for dictatorship existed even before the appearance of the word "fascism". This concept gave rise to the global economic crisis of the 1930s., as an opportunity for monopolists to save their position in society, their fear of communism and the search for a ruler who could solve all social problems (get rid of poverty, hunger, unemployment, etc.).

The origin of fascism began in Western Europe. Italy and Germany were the first to do this, where the fascists managed not only to form their own party with a clearly formulated program, but also to come to power.

The social basis of fascism was lies and demagogy. The Nazis talked about the need to eliminate class inequality, promised to put an end to unemployment and economic crises. This deception was designed for the middle class, who lost their jobs and life prospects. Officials and the military, police and security guards, gendarmes and workers became fascists. Hitler also assured that he would give citizens the same rights and obligations. He swore to protect and uphold the laws of the Republic.

Dreams of conquering the whole world or most of it, dominating it did not interfere with the international economic relations of the Nazis. Moreover, their cooperation (political and military) with other countries began with the economy.

The backbone of fascism was the monopolies that sponsored it. For example, all the "coal and steel" concerns in Germany paid a mandatory contribution in the form of tax to the presidential election campaign (1932), and three million marks of Thyssen (head of the "Steel Trust"), transferred to the Nazis during the elections, helped Hitler's agitation to reach stunning sizes. The Nazi Party, in return, gave them the opportunity to stay in power and dream of ending strikes and world domination.

Prerequisites for the emergence of fascism:

These are: dissatisfaction with the results of the 1st World War, reparations, territorial possessions, secured by the Treaty of Versailles, a thirst for a revision of the Versailles-Washington system and the redivision of the world.

Causes of fascism:

• consequences of the global economic crisis (in the economy, politics and social sphere): people believed the promises of the Nazis that their ideology would give a better life
• fear of communism: Western monopolists could not allow the emergence of a system similar to Soviet Russia. This was directly opposed by fascism.

The history of the birth of fascism

The thesis "fascism", when faced with it, is perceived as a curse, although its translation and meaning does not represent anything terrible and terrible. Initially, this is just “alliance”, “unification”, i.e. a word that does not have the content that will appear in it later.

The roots of the Italian word "fascism" are of Latin origin: in ancient Rome, lictors (guards of the consul) carried bundles of rods called "fascis". Many socialists, republicans and labor unions of the 19th century used the thesis "fascio" - "union" in order to distinguish their groups.

In the first decades of the 20th century, the "union" called itself the right, which in 1917. united in the "Union of National Defense".

In 1915, the “Union of Revolutionary Actions” was formed, and in 1919, the militant “Union of Struggle” of Mussolini, from former front-line soldiers (right-wing / fascist / movement). It was called the Black Legion. In 1921 "unions" united, creating the "National Fascist Party" (NFP)

Thus, history of fascism in Western Europe begins with the formation of the fascist movement in Italy, led by Benito Mussolini, who considered war the highest manifestation of the human spirit, and revolution an explosion of violence.

Prerequisites for the emergence of fascism in Italy were due to the situation that arose after the First World War. The country was in the ranks of the winners, but was defeated, as it was seriously "deprived" of the Treaty of Versailles. Mussolini's dreams of redividing the world formed the basis for determining the ultimate goal that his party was to achieve.

The NFP of Italy was compared with the Escherich organization of Austria, the "Volunteer Corps" of Germany, with the "whites" of Russia, Hungary and Bavaria. Lenin equated them with the Russian "Black Hundreds", which gave impetus to the tendency to call all anti-revolutionary movements in Russia "fascist". Although individual communists (for example, Palmiro Togliatti, Antonio Gramsci, Clara Zetkin) argued that it was impossible to call all movements directed against democracy and communism "fascist", since in this case it was difficult to consider the specifics of Italian fascism.

The history of German fascism dates back to about the same time, but in the Land of Soviets, after the Fifth World Congress of the Comintern (1924), it was decided not to differentiate not only the true manifestations of fascism, but also to call all parties of a non-communist nature “fascist”. So, for example, all social democratic parties were classified as fascist only because they stood in defense of parliamentary democracy.

An attempt to clarify was made by Georgy Dimitrov in 1935. during the 7th World Congress of the Comintern. But no one paid any attention to her.

History of German fascism as well as Italian, is rooted in the crisis phenomena of the economy and public life after the 1st World War.

Reasons for the birth of fascism in Germany these are: dissatisfaction with the results of the war (the idea of ​​​​creating a Great State), social discontent due to the decline of the economy (unemployment up to 50%, a reduction in production by 40%, strikes, strikes), fear of the communist movement (ready to seize power), reparations, restrictions, prohibitions and territorial changes of the Treaty of Versailles.

All this led to the creation of paramilitary "voluntary" formations with a semi-fascist character. One of them was the German Workers' Party, in which, thanks to the support of Captain E. Röhm in Munich, Adolf Hitler quickly found himself in the leadership from an agitator, renaming it the National Socialist German Workers' Party.

Soon enough, not only in Italy and Germany, but also in many other countries, the fascist movement acquired an organized character, action programs took shape, and numerous parties were formed.

It is with them that the further history of the birth of fascism, which covered many other European countries, is connected. However, in each country fascism had its own specifics. All of them initially differed economically and socially. Only their political situation was similar: democracy was not stable here. In addition to Italy and Germany, these were Spain, Austria and Hungary, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia, Hungary and Romania, Finland, Poland and Lithuania. Thus, the interwar period became the "epoch of fascism".

The history of German fascism differs from others in its prerequisites laid down in the economy and the social sphere: the social support of fascism in Germany was not the impoverished sections of the rural population, as in Italy, but the layers of small entrepreneurs ruined and declassed by the economic crisis. Fascism in these countries had more differences than similarities.

The emergence of fascism was encouraged by the governments of these countries, but only in some of them did the fascists occupy leadership positions at the top of power. Therefore, in each of the above, and not listed countries (France, England, USA), fascism took various forms, manifesting itself to a greater or lesser extent.

In Soviet literature, almost all countries of the world (from Austria to Japan) are described as "fascist". This seriously blurred the very concept of “fascism”, turning it into a dirty word, and not noticing some similarities between the communist and fascist parties (for example, in the unacceptability of parliamentary democracy, the practice of power). Of course, they cannot be identified because of the global differences in the structure of power, goals and social systems to which they have led.

A detailed history of German fascism, French, Italian and many others is available in separate articles.

National specifics of fascism

in Italy- it was totalitarianism (full state control), the creation of a "corporate state" (where the class struggle was canceled), dreams of how the Mediterranean will turn into an "Italian lake", and an empire will be created in Africa (the revival of the "greatness of ancient Rome")

In Germany- it was Nazism with plans to eliminate the Versailles and Saint-Germain treaties, seize numerous lands and colonies and create Greater Germany on them.

In England and France fascism was considered a measure to strengthen capitalism, and the coming war was considered a means of getting rid of the hated Soviet Union. But there was no direct threat to the monopolies in them, and they preferred to preserve democratic forms in the state system, leaving the "bench" to the fascist groups.

Fascist dictatorships were able to emerge only in a few states. Forms of dictatorships looked in different versions: fascist, monarcho-fascist, semi-fascist, military-dictatorial. Sometimes the names were generated by the locality ("sanation" in Poland).

In Bulgaria, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Romania At the same time, parliaments were not dissolved, but they served the dictatorships, and only a small fraction of voting rights remained (they were cut that way).

In Spain during the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, the Cortes were dissolved.

In Yugoslavia after the coup (1929) the National Assembly was liquidated. The Italian Duce ruled the country while maintaining the power of the king.

A strong base of fascism has developed only in Germany and Italy. Here appeared the "fuhrerism" - the power of dictators not limited by laws. There were no "fuhrers" in other states. Similarity was Piłsudski (Poland) and several rulers in Latin America.

The dictatorship of a number of countries had a monarcho-fascist form, that is, it was based on the power of the king (in Greece and Yugoslavia), the king (in Bulgaria), and the emperor (in Japan).

The differences of fascism in different countries were reduced to the degree of severity of racism, chauvinism, rejection of the Communists and Soviet Russia as a whole, as well as the destruction of those who were against it.

Image caption Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini are most often called fascists

The terms "fascist" and "fascism" may seem like simple labels to some, but dig deeper and the eye will open up many intricacies that give rise to endless scientific debate.

More than six decades have passed since the end of World War II and the collapse of Nazi Germany, but those events continue to be the prism through which the world views the word "fascism".

The first fascist movement to come to power was Mussolini's Blackshirts. This happened in 1922.

This movement can definitely be called nationalistic and authoritarian, and also accepts violence as a form of political struggle. But most of its other distinguishing features have long been academic disputes.

Common denominator?

"Unfortunately, I can't give a simple definition," says Cardiff University's Kevin Passmore, author of a book on fascism. "It all depends on definitions."

If we accept that "fascist" is someone who is a follower of fascism, then the term "fascism" itself still needs a clear definition.

"You can say, 'Is fascism a movement that is similar to the fascism that existed in Italy?'" Passmore says. However, for most, the terms "fascism" and "fascist" are the common denominator of Italian fascism and German Nazism.

However, in a letter to the British newspaper Times, Sir Peregrine Worsthorn is quick to emphasize the differences between the concepts. The 85-year-old former editor of the Sunday Telegraph admits that, like "most of my generation of 80-year-old Britons... in the past, I believed in white supremacy."

But that "in no way means that [we] were fascists," Sir Peregrine says, adding that he is no longer a racist.

Individual characteristics

One of the problems with trying to link fascism to Nazism is that the two are not at all as easily interchangeable as some people seem to think.

Racism, and especially anti-Semitism, was at the center of Nazi ideology, although in Italian fascism the view on this issue was much less unambiguous.

Therefore, for some scholars, the mere racism in the ideology of a modern organization may not be enough to brand it as fascist.

Fascism in Italy was also distinguished by the presence of corporatism in its political structure. It is usually understood as a political or economic system in which individuals are gathered into various groups - for example, "locksmiths" or "priests" - within the state, who negotiate with other groups in order to achieve progress.

In contemporary liberal democracies the situation is different, where the simplest political element is the individual. In the corporate model, cooperation is given priority over rivalry.

Another characteristic related to fascism is autarchy - a self-sufficient economy. However, modern autarky - the same Afghanistan during the reign of the Taliban - is not at all considered to be fascist states.

Symbolism

The theme of fascist symbols also seems to be very significant.

The term itself comes from the word "facies" - the symbolic armament of the soldiers of the honorary guard of officials in ancient Rome, which Mussolini liked the fascists.

The Falangists, led by Franco, made their symbol the arrows connected with a collar, the symbol of Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand.

The Nazis made the swastika their symbol.

Symbols that somehow resonate with such long-standing motifs are generally common among modern extremists.

Breadth of definitions

Another problem that arises when trying to clearly define the concept of "fascist" is that often the declared ideology of the Italian fascists and German Nazis did not completely coincide with their policies.

However, the most obvious difficulty is how widely the term "fascist" has been used over the years.

Some consider it an insult, but, say, the Oxford English Dictionary gives different definitions: "(broadly) a person holding right-wing authoritarian views" and "a person who promotes a certain point of view or order in a manner that is considered intolerant or authoritarianism." Hence we get "racism on the basis of the physical characteristics of the body" (body racism).

"Bad word"

In general, the word "fascist" is much more often used as a term of abuse than as an attempt to give a clear definition.

The Nazis were bad, and according to this way of looking at things, their ideology was fundamentally tied to fascism, which means that fascism is fundamentally bad.

"It's a handy political weapon to say that any modern political movement smells of fascism," Passmore notes.

And organizations for which opponents often use the term "fascist" - for example, the British National Party - prefer not to use this term as a self-characteristic.

"One might ask why they don't call themselves fascists, given that they are attracted to certain aspects [of fascism]. Why does this word continue to be considered a bad word? Anti-fascists have often said that fascism is the same as Nazism," says Passmore.

Someone may prefer the "elephant in a china shop" option, believing that a fascist can always be distinguished, even if it is difficult to find an exact definition of this word.

For such people, any nationalist political movement that is authoritarian, opposes free speech, promotes statehood under a single party or dictator, and tends to be racist is often labeled "fascist."

But the debate over the exact definition of "fascism" and "fascist" will continue.

“Students tend to assume that such and such a word means such and such,” says Passmore. “I tend to the view that it is much more interesting to look at exactly how the term was used. what do the words mean.

The term Fascism, in terms of the number of lies, falsifications and modifications attributed to it, is probably unparalleled. In the short period of the present, several new types of fascism have emerged: neo-fascism, Russian fascism, Islamic fascism, Ziono-fascism and, eventually, Glo-fascism. It has become the most frequently used in modern democratic media, and is almost always unjustified and inappropriate.

The whole gamut of negative activities is attributed to him: aggression, reaction, totalitarianism, violations of human rights, racism, chauvinism, anti-Semitism, xenophobia, even the "holocaust" and much more.

Previously, there were publications in which attempts were made to give information about the origin of fascism, but, oddly enough, there was nothing concrete and truthful in them. This will be shown next. Therefore, there was an urgent need for a complete and objective disclosure of the history of origin, ideology and activities of the movement, called "fascism".

So. Fascism originates in Italy, its ancestor, "godfather" was Benito Mussolini.

Mussolini (1883 - 1945) came from a poor family, his mother was a teacher, his father was a blacksmith. From his father, he inherited a socialist orientation. But he did not have a clear class political platform; all the dissatisfied people who wanted to satisfy their ambitions gathered around him.

Mussolini proved to be an outstanding orator and publicist.

In 1904, he began publishing the newspaper La Lotta di Classe (The Class Struggle); in 1912 he became the editor of the Avanti newspaper and began publishing his own magazine, Utopie, but the magazine did not receive wide interest, and the Avanti newspaper became very popular in the country. Mussolini wrote a lot and spoke a lot, this brought him great fame and recognition of the masses.

At this time, Mussolini moved more and more away from socialism, while he claimed that K. Marx had the greatest influence on him. A portrait of Marx always hung on the wall of his offices (he removed it in 1917). The matter ended with the fact that in 1914 he was expelled from the Socialist Party.

The revolutionary processes in Europe that took place in 1917 caused a negative reaction from Mussolini, he spoke negatively about Lenin.

On March 23, 2019, Mussolini organized the first combat organization, the Union of Struggle, and gave it the name "Fashi", which in Russian means: "bundle, bundle of rods", but this was the name of the "dignity of the masters" sign. This factor turned out to be decisive.

The first ideology of fascism was formulated by Giovanni Gentile, Mussolini only put his signature under it.
In 1919, he first took part in parliamentary elections, but did not succeed, in 1921 he re-elected and received 35 mandates.

Subsequent events showed that fascism was not a doctrine, but a method or method of seizing power, it could not be attributed to either the left or right forces, especially to the center, it had no desire for autocracy.

From 1919 to 1922, Mussolini carried out intensive activities to increase the size of the fascist organization.
Mussolini's activities during this period were financed by big capital, presumably Zionist. With these funds, he began to publish the newspaper Popolo de Italia, the public accused him of betrayal.

On October 24, 22, the first congress of the fascist organization took place in Naples at the San Carlo Theater. At the congress, Mussolini put forward the following requirements (basic):

Dissolution of Parliament, change of the electoral system, holding new elections;

Obtaining five ministerial portfolios: foreign affairs, military, maritime, labor and public works and aviation commissariat;

It follows from this that the Nazis had no program and class affiliation.

More than 40,000 people took to the streets in support of the congress.

From confidential information it is known that Mussolini received 20 million lire from bankers, probably Zionist, to organize a campaign against Rome.

On October 30, 22, columns of jubilant fascists moved to Rome, without any interference or resistance, they entered Rome. Mussolini went to the Roman railway station as head of the new cabinet.

Once in power, Mussolini retreated from the demands announced in Naples. He did not dissolve parliament, he created a coalition government.

He began his activity with the defeat of liberalism (in culture, politics and administration). Then he proclaimed the construction of a fascist state, where "Everything should be in the state and nothing outside the state." Crushed dissent. The political parties of the working class: communist, socialist, unitary socialist were thrown into the margins of political life. The then fashionable slogan "Freedom, Equality, Fraternity" was replaced by the principle "Order, Hierarchy, Discipline".

Fascism was gone, only Mussolini remained.

Regarding the issues that are currently attributed to fascism, the following should be noted.

The fascist state of Italy and personally Mussolini did not have anti-Semitism, racism, chauvinism, etc., there was no discrimination, persecution, executions, etc.
Mussolini did not recognize the racial theory of Hitler at all (who was not even in power in those years) and frankly laughed at it, believing that pure blood could not be found in those years.

Suffice it to say that during the war in Italy, 7,680 people were repressed. Jewish nationality (and even then not from the hands of Mussolini), in Greece 67,000 people, in France 77,000 people, in Austria 65,439 people.

It is very important to note that neither Mussolini nor his organization was engaged in the spread of fascism in other countries.
As previously noted, Italian fascism had no ideology, no program, that is, there was nothing to pass on to others. However, movements under this name appeared in Spain, Austria, Croatia, Romania, Belgium, France, England and finally in Germany. This is what Zionism did.

All these years, Mussolini was not familiar with Hitler, their first meeting took place only in 1934, when they were already heading the governments in their countries and at the same time remained dissatisfied with each other.

In Germany, the dominant, and then the state, was the ideology of National Socialism. At the third meeting of Hitler and Mussolini in 1938, it was decided “to strengthen the ties between fascism and National Socialism”, to exchange ideologies, no specific and significant agreements, of course, did not have.

In Germany, National Socialism was developing during this period.

In the fundamental program of the SS (Racial Hygiene and Population Policy in National Socialist Germany, published in 1940), there is not a single word about its connection with fascism. Moreover, in this program there is not a single word about a negative attitude towards other peoples, especially about their genocide. In the program, the word "Jew" occurs only once, and then as part of a table of statistical data. This is a very healthy program, it contains thoughtful care for its people, which provides for the introduction of such social and organizational measures aimed at reviving and improving the life of the people, which were not even in the socialist USSR. It is very probable that at the present time there is no such program in any party.

Thus, there was no fascism in Germany in any form, it is prescribed to her by ideological saboteurs. There is information that the Germans were offended when they were called fascists.

The swastika, which is now called fascist, was not such, it was only a symbol of National Socialism. The book by M. Ilyinsky contains 14 photographs of Mussolini, incl. a few in military uniform, but none of them bear him with the swastika now called fascist. Moreover, Mussolini had his own emblem in the form of a triangle with an eagle holding a cross in the center.

A. Hitler described the origin of the swastika in his book “Mein Kampf”: “After a series of experiments and alterations, I myself compiled a completed project: the main background of the banner is red, a white circle inside, and in the center of this circle is a black hoe-shaped cross. … The color red represents the social ideas embedded in our movement. White color - the idea of ​​nationalism. The hoe-shaped cross is the mission of the struggle for the victory of the Aryans and at the same time for the victory of creative work, which from time immemorial has been anti-Semitic and anti-Semitic and will remain.
From which it is clear that either he did not know, or he convinced himself, or the public, that he did not know how long the swastika existed and what exactly it meant. Hitler brought this symbol under his ideology (in other words, he stole it).

Thus, the emblem of National Socialism - the swastika - was never fascist.

Not likely, there was no fascism in Germany, there was no swastika in Italy, and as a result there was a “fascist swastika”
This is an example of ideological sabotage or ideological insanity on a global scale.

This provision is known in the modern state circles of the Russian Federation, including legal ones. So, in paragraph 3 of Article 1 of the "Law on Combating Extremist Activities" there is a correct entry: "... including the works of the leaders of the National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany, the Fascist Party of Italy ..." (we are talking about the prohibition of publishing books).

During the reign of Mussolini, the country experienced an economic boom. He introduced state regulation of the economy; carried out effective measures to improve the health of the nation, as a result of which the population of the country increased significantly; organized the draining of swamps in the region of the Romagna Valley, which made it possible to put into circulation large areas of land; organized the construction of a public recreation center on its coast, in Rome he organized large-scale work to renovate the city and conduct archaeological excavations. Until now, in the southern regions of the country, the people remember Mussolini with respect and gratitude, and in the northern regions, a cool attitude towards him.

Currently, a neo-fascist party is functioning in Italy, its leaders are represented in parliament, it is headed by Alessandra Mussolini, the granddaughter of Benito Mussolini. And this does not cause a negative reaction in anyone.

Soviet propaganda in wartime abused the use of the term "fascism" in assessing relations with Germany. This is recognized by the Israeli definition of "fascism", it says: "...Soviet propaganda cliche, in which Hitler's ideology and the religion of the Third Reich based on it were invariably called fascist."

Modern, now democratic, propaganda continues the trend of wartime propaganda, which indicates that it comes from the same source.

Soviet Encyclopedia: “Fascism is the most reactionary political trend that arose in the capitalist countries during the period of the general crisis of capitalism and expresses the interests of the most aggressive circles of the imperialist bourgeoisie. Characteristic of fascism is anti-communism, the destruction of democratic freedoms, the cult of violence, chauvinism and racism, aggression; Since its inception, fascism has acted as the striking force of international reaction.

In the State Duma, at the hearings of the draft law “On the Prohibition of Propaganda of Fascism in the Russian Federation”, the following definition of fascism was given: “Fascism in this Law refers to the ideology and practice of the domination of some races and nations and the suppression of others, expressed in encroachments on the rights and freedoms of citizens, the cult of cruelty and violence."

The Russian Academy of Sciences; “Fascism is an ideology and practice that asserts the superiority and exclusivity of a particular nation or race and is aimed at inciting national intolerance, justifying discrimination against representatives of other peoples, denying democracy, establishing the cult of the leader, using violence and terror to suppress political opponents and any form of dissent justification of war as a means of solving interstate problems.

In the materials of the Nuremberg trials, it was noted: "Fascism is a racist political ideology aimed at territorial conquest and the physical destruction of the "lower" races."

Israeli definition (abbreviated): “Fascism is an ideology, mass movements and political regimes of a totalitarian type, based on the cult of the nation, the state and violence. Like all other varieties of totalitarianism, fascism represents the maximum reaction to the costs, contradictions and conflicts that have been found in Western society based on the principles of parliamentarism, liberalism and pluralism. Common to fascism and any other totalitarianism is the attitude towards the destruction of Western democratic society and its creation on other principles ... "

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Dictionary Ushakov

Fascism

fashi zm, fascism, pl. No, husband. (ital. fascismo from lat. fascis - a bunch of rods, which in ancient Rome served as a symbol of power) ( neol. polit.). One of the forms of open bourgeois dictatorship in some capitalist countries, which arose in Italy after the first imperialist war in the context of a general crisis of capitalism.

Political Science: Dictionary-Reference

Fascism

(ital. fascismo, from fascio bundle, bundle, association)

socio-political movements, ideologies and state regimes of a totalitarian type. In a narrow sense, fascism is a phenomenon of the political life of Italy and Germany in the 20-40s. 20th century In any of its varieties, fascism opposes the institutions and values ​​of democracy to the so-called. new order and extremely rigid means of its approval. Fascism relies on a mass totalitarian political party (when it comes to power, it becomes a state-monopoly organization) and the unquestioned authority of the "leader", "fuhrer". Total, including ideological, mass terror, chauvinism, xenophobia turning into genocide in relation to "foreign" national and social groups, to the values ​​of civilization hostile to it, are indispensable elements of ideology and politics. Fascist regimes and movements of the fascist type make extensive use of demagoguery, populism, slogans of socialism, imperial sovereignty, and apologetics for war. Fascism finds support mainly in socially disadvantaged groups in the context of national crises and cataclysms of modernization. Many features of fascism are inherent in various social and national movements of the right and left. Despite the apparent opposition of ideological attitudes (for example, “class” or “nation”), in terms of the methods of political mobilization of society, the methods of terrorist domination and propaganda, the totalitarian movements and regimes of Bolshevism, Stalinism, Maoism, the Khmer Rouge, etc., are close to fascism. given the weakness of democratic institutions, there remains the possibility of the development of movements of the fascist type and the transformation of fascism into a serious threat.

Culturology. Dictionary-reference

Fascism

(it. facio - association) - an open terrorist dictatorship of the most reactionary, chauvinistic elements. The fascist system was first established in Italy (1922), then in Germany (1933) and a number of other countries. The ideology of fascism is based on irrationalism, chauvinism, racism and anti-humanism. In Germany, fascism appeared under the guise of National Socialism. After the defeat of fascist Germany in World War II, there are attempts to revive the ideas of fascism in some countries.

Political science. Glossary of terms

Fascism

(from Italian fascismo - bundle, bunch, association) - a variant of a totalitarian political regime, a feature of which is the desire to establish a rigid, hierarchically structured power, preaching unquestioning obedience to the authority of the leader, justifying the use of extreme coercive measures to ensure stability and order in the country, introducing a one-party system, a bet on the nationalization of all aspects of life and an ideological monopoly.

The birthplace of fascism is Italy and Germany. It arose in 1919 in Italy, in the 1920s and 1930s the fascist parties seized power in Italy and Germany, as well as in other capitalist countries, and established an openly terrorist dictatorship in them.

Mussolini's party took as a symbol of the fascia - bunches of rods with an ax in the middle, tied with a belt - signs of dignity of the ancient Roman magistrates.

The ideology of fascism is anti-democratism and anti-Marxism. All fascist policy documents contain the thesis of the ideological and actual bankruptcy of liberalism and socialism. All fascist ideologists - from Mussolini, Hitler to N. Ustryalov - branded parliamentary democracy. Mussolini declared that the post-war experience marked the defeat of liberalism. The Russian ideologist of fascism N. Ustryalov preached that in Russia and Italy "it is possible to rule in addition to and against any liberal ideology ... People are tired of freedom ... there are other words that evoke charm, much more majestic: order, hierarchy, discipline."

Political scientists have made more than one attempt to classify the features that incorporate such a phenomenon as fascism. One way or another, they include: absolutization of power; hatred or hostility towards other nations; reliance not on civil society, but on the authority of the leader, his will, power structures, etc.

One of the fruitful attempts of this kind belongs to the Russian scientist V. Yadov. He gave a detailed description of the fascist system of views, singled out the main features of this ideology, which are combined with the principles of their practical implementation and are called upon to satisfy certain social interests. These include:

1. The unconditional dominance of the national interest over any other, i.e. international or universal.

2. Approval of the special mission of this people (chosen, according to the philosophy of Nietzsche) in creating a just order either throughout the world, or at least in the zone of "geopolitical interests" of this people. Hence the principle of dividing the world into spheres of influence, which was an important element of the well-known pact of the countries of the fascist "axis".

3. The rejection of the democratic system as a form of government in favor of a strong dictatorial power, which, in the interests of the whole nation, provides a fair order and guarantees the well-being of all segments of the population, including the poor and the disabled (hence "socialism").

4. The establishment of a special, national code of moral and moral principles, the resolute rejection of any universal moral norms.

5. approval of the principle of using force (military force, a repressive regime within the country and in the zone of geopolitical interests of a given nation) to suppress dissent and, moreover, resistance to the established order through practical actions.

6. rampant demagogy as a style of propaganda, i.e. an appeal to the ordinary interests of ordinary people and the designation, depending on the situation, of a national enemy (people of a different race, other political views, a different religion, etc.). Constant fixation of attention on a certain (or several) dangerous enemy should contribute to the rallying of the nation, the establishment of national solidarity, consecrated by this ideology.

7. Finally, the cult of a charismatic leader, a leader who is endowed with the traits of foresight given from above, unconditional devotion to national interests, decisiveness, incorruptibility and a sense of unconditional justice within the framework of the national code of moral principles.

The acuteness of the social problems being experienced gives rise to the ground for fascism. If the nation feels disadvantaged, people are overwhelmed by a sense of anxiety due to the coming chaos, they do not trust those in power, then there are real socio-psychological prerequisites for fascism and extremism, no matter how they are called.

Konovalov V.N.

Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language (Alabugina)

Fascism

BUT, m.

An openly terrorist dictatorship, a totalitarian regime seeking to eradicate democracy in its own country and forcibly subjugate other countries to its will.

* modern fascism. *

|| adj. fascist, th, th.

* Fascist regime. *

Thesaurus of Russian business vocabulary

encyclopedic Dictionary

Fascism

(Italian fascismo, from fascio - bundle, bundle, association), socio-political movements, ideologies and state regimes of a totalitarian type. In a narrow sense, fascism is a phenomenon of the political life of Italy and Germany in the 20-40s. 20th century In any of its varieties, fascism opposes the institutions and values ​​of democracy to the so-called. new order and extremely rigid means of its approval. Fascism relies on a mass totalitarian political party (coming to power, it becomes a state-monopoly organization) and unquestioned authority "leader", "fuhrer". Total, including ideological, mass terror, chauvinism, turning into genocide xenophobia in relation to "foreign" to national and social groups, to the values ​​of civilization hostile to it - are indispensable elements of ideology and politics. Fascist regimes and movements of the fascist type make extensive use of demagoguery, populism, slogans of socialism, imperial sovereignty, and apologetics for war. Fascism finds support mainly in socially disadvantaged groups in the context of national crises and cataclysms of modernization. Many features of fascism are inherent in various social and national movements of the right and left. With the apparent opposite of ideological attitudes (for example, "Class" or "nation"), according to the methods of political mobilization of society, methods of terrorist domination and propaganda, totalitarian movements and regimes of Bolshevism, Stalinism, Maoism are close to fascism, "Khmer Rouge" and others. In the context of the weakness of democratic institutions, the possibility remains of the development of movements of the fascist type and the transformation of fascism into a serious threat.
ideology, political currents, open political dictatorship and repressive
regime aimed at suppressing progressive social movements and
destruction of democracy; ideology of superiority over all other nations,
elevated to state and international politics.

Russian language dictionaries