Aft and other organic compounds of the cell. Organic cell compounds
Fats, polysaccharides and nucleic acids, there are several thousand other organic compounds. They can be conditionally divided into final and intermediate products of biosynthesis and decay.
The end products of biosynthesis are organic compounds that play an independent role in the body or serve as monomers for the synthesis of biopolymers. Among the end products of biosynthesis are amino acids, from which proteins are synthesized in cells; nucleotides - monomers from which nucleic acids (RNA and DNA) are synthesized; glucose, which serves as a monomer for the synthesis of glycogen, starch, cellulose.
The path to the synthesis of each of the final products lies through a number of intermediate compounds. Many substances undergo enzymatic cleavage and breakdown in cells.
Consider some finite organic compounds.
adenosine phosphoric acids. The adenyl nucleotide, to which two more phosphoric acid residues are attached, plays a particularly important role in the bioenergetics of the cell. This substance is called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In the chemical bonds between the residues of phosphoric acid of the ATP molecule, energy (E) is stored, which is released when phosphate is eliminated:
ATP - ADP+P+E
This reaction produces adenosine diphosphoric acid (ADP) and phosphoric acid (phosphate, F).
All cells use the energy of ATP for the processes of biosynthesis, movement, heat production, transmission of nerve impulses, luminescence (for example, in luminescent bacteria), that is, for all life processes.
ATP is a universal biological energy accumulator. The light energy of the Sun and the energy contained in the food consumed are stored in ATP molecules.
Regulatory and signaling substances. The end products of biosynthesis are substances that play an important role in the regulation of physiological processes and the development of the organism. These include many animal hormones. Along with protein hormones, which are mentioned in § 4, hormones of a non-protein nature are known. Some of them regulate the content of sodium and water ions in the body of animals, others provide puberty and play an important role in the reproduction of animals. Hormones of anxiety or stress (for example, adrenaline) under conditions of tension increase the release of glucose into the blood, which ultimately leads to an increase in ATP synthesis and the active use of energy stored by the body.
Insects produce a number of special odorous substances that act as signals that inform about the presence of food, about danger, attracting females to males (and vice versa).
Plants have their own hormones. Under the influence of certain hormones, the maturation of plants is significantly accelerated, and their productivity increases.
Plants produce hundreds of diverse volatile and non-volatile compounds that attract pollen-carrying insects; repel or poison insects that feed on plants; sometimes suppress the development of plants of other species growing nearby and competing for minerals in the soil.
Vitamins. Vitamins are end products of biosynthesis. These include vital compounds that organisms of this species are not able to synthesize themselves, but must receive in finished form from the outside. For example, vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is synthesized in the cells of most animals, as well as in the cells of plants and microorganisms. The cells of humans, great apes, guinea pigs, and some types of bats have lost the ability to synthesize ascorbic acid. Therefore, it is a vitamin only for humans and listed animals. Vitamin PP (nicotinic acid) is not synthesized by animals, but it is synthesized by all plants and many bacteria.
Most of the known vitamins in the cell become components of enzymes and participate in biochemical reactions.
The daily human need for each vitamin is a few micrograms. Only vitamin C is needed in an amount of about 100 mg per day.
The lack of a number of vitamins in the human and animal body leads to disruption of the work of enzymes and is the cause of serious diseases - beriberi. For example, a lack of vitamin C is the cause of a serious illness - scurvy, with a lack of vitamin D, rickets develops in children.
1. What organic substances do you know?
Organic substances: proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, fats (lipids), vitamins.
2. What vitamins do you know? What is their role?
Allocate water-soluble (C, B1, B2, B6, PP, B12 and B5), fat-soluble (A, B, E and K) vitamins.
3. What types of energy do you know?
Magnetic, thermal, light, chemical, electrical, mechanical, nuclear, etc.
4. Why is energy necessary for the life of any organism?
Energy is necessary for the synthesis of all the specific substances of the body, maintaining its highly ordered organization, active transport of substances within cells, from one cell to another, from one part of the body to another, for the transmission of nerve impulses, the movement of organisms, maintaining a constant body temperature and for other purposes.
Questions
1. What is the structure of the ATP molecule?
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide consisting of a nitrogenous base adenine, a ribose carbohydrate and three phosphoric acid residues.
2. What is the function of ATP?
ATP is a universal source of energy for all reactions occurring in the cell.
3. What bonds are called macroergic?
The bond between phosphoric acid residues is called macroergic (it is denoted by the symbol ~), since when it breaks, almost four times more energy is released than when other chemical bonds are split.
4. What role do vitamins play in the body?
Vitamins are complex ol organic compounds that are necessary in small quantities for the normal functioning of organisms. Unlike other organic substances, vitamins are not used as an energy source or building material.
The biological effect of vitamins in the human body is the active participation of these substances in metabolic processes. In the metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, vitamins take part either directly or as part of complex enzyme systems. Vitamins are involved in oxidative processes, as a result of which numerous substances are formed from carbohydrates and fats, which are used by the body as an energy and plastic material. Vitamins contribute to the normal growth of cells and the development of the whole organism. Vitamins play an important role in maintaining the body's immune responses, ensuring its resistance to adverse environmental factors.
Tasks
Having summarized your knowledge, prepare a report on the role of vitamins in the normal functioning of the human body. Discuss with classmates the question: how can a person provide his body with the necessary amount of vitamins?
Timely and balanced receipt of the required amount of vitamins contributes to the normal functioning of a person. Most of them enter the body with food, so it is important to eat right (for food to contain vitamins in the right amount, it must be varied and balanced).
The role of vitamins in the human body
Vitamins are vital substances that our body needs to maintain many of its functions. Therefore, a sufficient and constant intake of vitamins in the body with food is extremely important.
The biological effect of vitamins in the human body is the active participation of these substances in metabolic processes. In the metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, vitamins take part either directly or as part of complex enzyme systems. Vitamins are involved in oxidative processes, as a result of which numerous substances are formed from carbohydrates and fats, which are used by the body as an energy and plastic material. Vitamins contribute to the normal growth of cells and the development of the whole organism. Vitamins play an important role in maintaining the body's immune responses, ensuring its resistance to adverse environmental factors. This is essential in the prevention of infectious diseases.
Vitamins soften or eliminate the adverse effect on the human body of many drugs. The lack of vitamins affects the state of individual organs and tissues, as well as the most important functions: growth, procreation, intellectual and physical capabilities, protective functions of the body. A long-term lack of vitamins leads first to a decrease in working capacity, then to a deterioration in health, and in the most extreme, severe cases, this can result in death.
Only in some cases, our body can synthesize individual vitamins in small quantities. For example, the amino acid tryptophan can be converted in the body into nicotinic acid. Vitamins are necessary for the synthesis of hormones - special biologically active substances that regulate a variety of body functions.
It turns out that vitamins are substances that are irreplaceable factors of human nutrition, and are of great importance for the life of the body. They are necessary for the hormonal system and the enzyme system of our body. They also regulate our metabolism, making the human body healthy, vigorous and beautiful.
Most of them enter the body with food, and only a few are synthesized in the intestines by beneficial microorganisms living in it, but in this case they are not always enough. Many vitamins are quickly destroyed and do not accumulate in the body in the right quantities, so a person needs a constant supply of them with food.
The use of vitamins for therapeutic purposes (vitamin therapy) was originally entirely associated with the impact on various forms of their insufficiency. Since the middle of the 20th century, vitamins have been widely used for fortification of food, as well as feed in animal husbandry.
A number of vitamins are represented by not one, but several related compounds. Knowledge of the chemical structure of vitamins made it possible to obtain them by chemical synthesis; along with microbiological synthesis, this is the main way to produce vitamins on an industrial scale.
The primary source of vitamins are plants in which vitamins accumulate. Vitamins enter the body mainly with food. Some of them are synthesized in the intestines under the influence of the vital activity of microorganisms, but the resulting amounts of vitamins do not always fully satisfy the needs of the body.
Conclusion: Vitamins affect the absorption of nutrients, contribute to the normal growth of cells and the development of the whole organism. Being an integral part of enzymes, vitamins determine their normal function and activity. Lack, and even more so the absence of any vitamin in the body leads to metabolic disorders. With a lack of them in food, a person’s working capacity decreases, the body’s resistance to diseases, to the action of adverse environmental factors. As a result of a deficiency or lack of vitamins, vitamin deficiency develops.
Question 1. What is the structure of the ATP molecule?
ATP is adenosine triphosphate, a nucleotide belonging to the group of nucleic acids. The concentration of ATP in the cell is low (0.04%; in skeletal muscles 0.5%). The adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecule resembles one of the nucleotides of the RNA molecule in its structure. ATP consists of three components: adenine, a five-carbon sugar, ribose, and three phosphoric acid residues, interconnected by special macroergic bonds.
Question 2. What is the function of ATP?
ATP is a universal source of energy for all reactions occurring in the cell. Energy is released when phosphoric acid residues are separated from the ATP molecule when macroergic bonds are broken. The bond between phosphoric acid residues is macroergic; when it is cleaved, about 4 times more energy is released than when other bonds are cleaved. If one residue of phosphoric acid is separated, then ATP passes into ADP (adenosine diphosphoric acid). This releases 40 kJ of energy. When the second residue of phosphoric acid is separated, another 40 kJ of energy is released, and ADP is converted to AMP (adenosine monophosphate). The released energy is used by the cell. The cell uses the energy of ATP in the processes of biosynthesis, in movement, in the production of heat, in the conduction of nerve impulses, in the process of photosynthesis, etc. ATP is the universal energy accumulator in living organisms.
Hydrolysis of a phosphoric acid residue releases energy:
ATP + H 2 O \u003d ADP + H 3 RO 4 + 40 kJ / mol
Question 3. What bonds are called macroergic?
Bonds between phosphoric acid residues are called macroergic, since when they break, a large amount of energy is released (four times more than when other chemical bonds are split).
Question 4. What role do vitamins play in the body?
Metabolism is impossible without the participation of vitamins. Vitamins are low molecular weight organic substances vital for the existence of the human body. Vitamins are either not produced at all in the human body, or are produced in insufficient quantities. Since vitamins are most often a non-protein part of enzyme molecules (coenzymes) and determine the intensity of many physiological processes in the human body, their constant intake into the body is necessary. Exceptions to some extent are vitamins of groups B and A, which can accumulate in small amounts in the liver. In addition, some vitamins (B 1 B 2 , K, E) are synthesized by bacteria that live in the large intestine, from where they are absorbed into the human blood. With a lack of vitamins in food or diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, the supply of vitamins to the blood decreases, and diseases that have the general name of hypovitaminosis occur. In the complete absence of any vitamin, a more severe disorder, called beriberi, occurs. For example, vitamin D regulates the exchange of calcium and phosphorus in the human body, vitamin K is involved in the synthesis of prothrombin and contributes to normal blood clotting.
Vitamins are divided into water-soluble (C, PP, B vitamins) and fat-soluble (A, D, E, etc.). Water-soluble vitamins are absorbed in an aqueous solution, and when they are in excess in the body, they are easily excreted in the urine. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with fats, so a violation of the digestion and absorption of fats is accompanied by a lack of a number of vitamins (A, O, K). A significant increase in the content of fat-soluble vitamins in food can cause a number of metabolic disorders, since these vitamins are poorly excreted from the body. Currently, there are at least two dozen substances related to vitamins.
In any cell, in addition to proteins, fats, polysaccharides and nucleic acids, there are several thousand other organic compounds. They can be conditionally divided into final and intermediate products of biosynthesis and decay.
The end products of biosynthesis are organic compounds that play an independent role in the body or serve as monomers for the synthesis of biopolymers. Among the end products of biosynthesis are amino acids, from which proteins are synthesized in cells; nucleotides - monomers from which nucleic acids (RNA and DNA) are synthesized; glucose, which serves as a monomer for the synthesis of glycogen, starch, cellulose.
The path to the synthesis of each of the final products lies through a number of intermediate compounds. Many substances undergo enzymatic cleavage and breakdown in cells.
Consider some finite organic compounds.
adenosine phosphoric acids. The adenyl nucleotide, to which two more phosphoric acid residues are attached, plays a particularly important role in the bioenergetics of the cell. This substance is called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In the chemical bonds between the residues of phosphoric acid of the ATP molecule, energy (E) is stored, which is released when phosphate is eliminated:
ATP → ADP + P + E
This reaction produces adenosine diphosphoric acid (ADP) and phosphoric acid (phosphate, F).
All cells use the energy of ATP for the processes of biosynthesis, movement, heat production, transmission of nerve impulses, luminescence (for example, in luminescent bacteria), that is, for all life processes.
ATP is a universal biological energy accumulator. The light energy of the Sun and the energy contained in the food consumed are stored in ATP molecules.
Regulatory and signaling substances. The end products of biosynthesis are substances that play an important role in the regulation of physiological processes and the development of the organism. These include many animal hormones. Along with protein hormones, which are mentioned in § 4, hormones of a non-protein nature are known. Some of them regulate the content of sodium and water ions in the body of animals, others provide puberty and play an important role in the reproduction of animals. Hormones of anxiety or stress (for example, adrenaline) under conditions of tension increase the release of glucose into the blood, which ultimately leads to an increase in ATP synthesis and the active use of energy stored by the body.
Insects produce a number of special odorous substances that act as signals that inform about the presence of food, about danger, attracting females to males (and vice versa).
Plants have their own hormones. Under the influence of certain hormones, the maturation of plants is significantly accelerated, and their productivity increases.
Plants produce hundreds of diverse volatile and non-volatile compounds that attract pollen-carrying insects; repel or poison insects that feed on plants; sometimes suppress the development of plants of other species growing nearby and competing for minerals in the soil.
Vitamins. Vitamins are end products of biosynthesis. These include vital compounds that organisms of this species are not able to synthesize themselves, but must receive in finished form from the outside. For example, vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is synthesized in the cells of most animals, as well as in the cells of plants and microorganisms. The cells of humans, great apes, guinea pigs, and some types of bats have lost the ability to synthesize ascorbic acid. Therefore, it is a vitamin only for humans and listed animals. Vitamin PP (nicotinic acid) is not synthesized by animals, but it is synthesized by all plants and many bacteria.
Most of the known vitamins in the cell become components of enzymes and participate in biochemical reactions.
The daily human need for each vitamin is a few micrograms. Only vitamin C is needed in an amount of about 100 mg per day.
The lack of a number of vitamins in the human and animal body leads to disruption of the work of enzymes and is the cause of serious diseases - beriberi. For example, a lack of vitamin C is the cause of a serious illness - scurvy, with a lack of vitamin D, rickets develops in children.
- What is the importance of ATP in a cell?
- What are the end products of biosynthesis in a cell? What is their biological significance?
- What is the biological role of vitamins in the body?
Full name of the educational institution:Department of secondary vocational education of the Tomsk region OGBPOU "Kolpashevsky Social and Industrial College"
Course: Biology
Section: General biology
Age group: Grade 10
Subject: Biopolymers. Nucleic acids, ATP and other organic compounds.
Purpose of the lesson: to continue the study of biopolymers, to promote the formation of methods of logical activity, cognitive abilities.
Lesson objectives:
Educational:to acquaint students with the concepts of nucleic acids, to promote comprehension and assimilation of the material.
Developing: develop the cognitive qualities of students (the ability to see the problem, the ability to ask questions).
Educational: to form a positive motivation to study biology, the desire to get the final result, the ability to make decisions and draw conclusions.
Implementation time: 90 min.
Equipment:
- PC and video projector;
- author's presentation created in the Power Point environment;
- handout didactic material (amino acid coding list);
Plan:
1. Types of nucleic acids.
2. The structure of DNA.
3. Main types of RNA.
4. Transcription.
5. ATP and other organic compounds of the cell.
Lesson progress:
I. Organizational moment.
Checking readiness for the lesson.
II. Repetition.
Oral survey:
1. Describe the functions of fats in the cell.
2. What is the difference between protein biopolymers and carbohydrate biopolymers? What are their similarities?
Testing (3 options)
III. Learning new material.
1. Types of nucleic acids.The name nucleic acids comes from the Latin word "nucleos", i.e. nucleus: they were first found in cell nuclei. There are two types of nucleic acids in cells: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). These biopolymers are made up of monomers called nucleotides. Monomers-nucleotides of DNA and RNA are similar in basic structural features and play a central role in the storage and transmission of hereditary information. Each nucleotide consists of three components connected by strong chemical bonds. Each of the nucleotides that make up RNA contains a three-carbon sugar - ribose; one of the four organic compounds that are called nitrogenous bases - adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil (A, G, C, U); phosphoric acid residue.
2. Structure of DNA . Nucleotides that make up DNA contain a five-carbon sugar - deoxyribose; one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine (A, G, C, T); phosphoric acid residue.
As part of the nucleotides, a nitrogenous base is attached to a ribose (or deoxyribose) molecule on one side, and a phosphoric acid residue on the other. Nucleotides are interconnected in long chains. The backbone of such a chain is formed by regularly alternating sugar and phosphoric acid residues, and the side groups of this chain are type of irregularly alternating nitrogenous bases.
The DNA molecule is a structure consisting of two strands, which are connected to each other along the entire length by hydrogen bonds. Such a structure, characteristic only of DNA molecules, is called a double helix. A feature of the structure of DNA is that against the nitrogenous base A in one strand lies the nitrogenous base T in the other strand, and against the nitrogenous base D there is always the nitrogenous base C.
Schematically, this can be expressed as follows:
A (adenine) - T (thymine)
T (thymine) - A (adenine)
G (guanine) - C (cytosine)
C (cytosine) - G (guanine)
These pairs of bases are called complementary bases (complementing each other). Strands of DNA in which the bases are complementary to each other are called complementary strands.
The model of the structure of the DNA molecule was proposed by J. Watson and F. Crick in 1953. It was fully confirmed experimentally and played an extremely important role in the development of molecular biology and genetics.
The order of arrangement of nucleotides in DNA molecules determines the order of arrangement of amino acids in linear protein molecules, i.e., their primary structure. A set of proteins (enzymes, hormones, etc.) determines the properties of a cell and an organism. DNA molecules store information about these properties and pass them on to generations of descendants, that is, they are carriers of hereditary information. DNA molecules are mainly found in the nuclei of cells and in a small amount in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
3. Main types of RNA.Hereditary information stored in DNA molecules is realized through protein molecules. Information about the structure of the protein is transmitted to the cytoplasm by special RNA molecules, which are called informational (i-RNA). Messenger RNA is transferred to the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis takes place with the help of special organelles - ribosomes. It is informational RNA, which is built complementary to one of the DNA strands, that determines the order in which amino acids are arranged in protein molecules.
Another type of RNA also takes part in protein synthesis - transport RNA (t-RNA), which brings amino acids to the place where protein molecules are formed - ribosomes, a kind of factories for the production of proteins.
Ribosomes contain a third type of RNA, the so-called ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which determines the structure and function of ribosomes.
Each RNA molecule, unlike the DNA molecule, is represented by a single strand; it contains ribose instead of deoxyribose and uracil instead of thymine.
So, Nucleic acids perform the most important biological functions in the cell. DNA stores hereditary information about all the properties of the cell and the organism as a whole. Various types of RNA are involved in the implementation of hereditary information through protein synthesis.
4. Transcription.
The process of formation of i-RNA is called transcription (from the Latin "transcription" - rewriting). Transcription takes place in the cell nucleus. DNA → i-RNA with the participation of the polymerase enzyme.tRNA acts as a translator from the "language" of nucleotides to the "language" of amino acids,tRNA receives a command from mRNA - the anticodon recognizes the codon and carries the amino acid.
5. ATP and other organic compounds of the cell
In any cell, in addition to proteins, fats, polysaccharides and nucleic acids, there are several thousand other organic compounds. They can be conditionally divided into final and intermediate products of biosynthesis and decay.
end products of biosynthesiscalled organic compounds that play an independent role in the body or serve as monomers for the synthesis of biopolymers. Among the end products of biosynthesis are amino acids, from which proteins are synthesized in cells; nucleotides - monomers from which nucleic acids (RNA and DNA) are synthesized; glucose, which serves as a monomer for the synthesis of glycogen, starch, cellulose.
The path to the synthesis of each of the final products lies through a number of intermediate compounds. Many substances undergo enzymatic cleavage and breakdown in cells.
The end products of biosynthesis are substances that play an important role in the regulation of physiological processes and the development of the organism. These include many animal hormones. Hormones of anxiety or stress (for example, adrenaline) under conditions of stress increase the release of glucose into the blood, which ultimately leads to an increase in ATP synthesis and the active use of energy stored by the body.
adenosine phosphoric acids.The adenyl nucleotide, to which two more phosphoric acid residues are attached, plays a particularly important role in the bioenergetics of the cell. This substance is called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP molecule is a nucleotide formed by the nitrogenous base adenine, the five-carbon sugar ribose, and three phosphoric acid residues. Phosphate groups in the ATP molecule are interconnected by high-energy (macroergic) bonds.
ATP - universal biological energy accumulator. The light energy of the Sun and the energy contained in the food consumed are stored in ATP molecules.
The average lifespan of 1 ATP molecule in the human body is less than a minute, so it is broken down and restored 2400 times a day.
In the chemical bonds between the residues of phosphoric acid of the ATP molecule, energy (E) is stored, which is released when phosphate is eliminated:
ATP \u003d ADP + F + E
This reaction produces adenosine diphosphoric acid (ADP) and phosphoric acid (phosphate, F).
ATP + H2O → ADP + H3PO4 + energy (40 kJ/mol)
ATP + H2O → AMP + H4P2O7 + energy (40 kJ/mol)
ADP + H3PO4 + energy (60 kJ/mol) → ATP + H2O
All cells use the energy of ATP for the processes of biosynthesis, movement, heat production, transmission of nerve impulses, luminescence (for example, in luminescent bacteria), that is, for all life processes.
IV. Summary of the lesson.
1. Generalization of the studied material.
Questions for students:
1. What are the components of nucleotides?
2. Why is the constancy of the content of DNA in different cells of the body considered proof that DNA is the genetic material?
3. Give a comparative description of DNA and RNA.
4. Solve problems:
G-G-G-A-T-A-A-C-A-G-A-T complete the second chain.
Answer: DNA G-Y-Y- A-T-A-A-C-A-G-A-T
C-C-C-T-A-T-T-G-T-C-T-A
(according to the principle of complementarity)
2) Specify the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA molecule built on this segment of the DNA chain.
Answer: i-RNA G-G-G-A-U-A-A-C-A-G-C-U
3) A fragment of one strand of DNA has the following composition:
- -A-A-A-T-T-C-C-G-G-. complete the second chain.
- -Ts-T-A-T-A-G-Ts-T-G-.
5. Solve the test:
4) Which nucleotide is not part of DNA?
a) thymine;
b) uracil;
c) guanine;
d) cytosine;
e) adenine.
Answer: b
5) If the nucleotide composition of DNA
ATT-GCH-TAT - what should be the nucleotide composition of i-RNA?
A) TAA-CHTs-UTA;
B) TAA-GCG-UTU;
C) UAA-CHC-AUA;
D) UAA-CHTs-ATA.
Answer: in